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yamayuandadu · 4 years ago

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400 followers special: the Kumarbi cycle

Tiamat might be the most famous villain from broadly understood cuneiform literature, but she's hardly the most elaborately characterized, the most religiously relevant in antiquity, or the most fun to read about. She's not even the oldest one, contrary to claims of various charlatans and online self help gurus. Long before there was the Enuma Elish, an entire cycle of myths documented a similar struggle between the head god of a local pantheon and not just one, but many monstrous entities embodying chaotic forces and other dangers. These texts, despite their antiquity, are still pretty entertaining today – they feature memorable characters, unexpected plot twists, overarching subplots, clever foreshadowing, some still reasonably funny humorous situations, and even genuine character development. And at their core, antagonizing the hero and his allies with constant new schemes, there is one of the arguably most entertaining characters described in cuneiform texts. Without further ado, to quote the ancient scribe Ashapa (and Gary Beckman, whose translation I'm using) who preserved much of the discussed material for us: I sing of Kumarbi, Father of the Gods. The Primeval Deities, who are in the Dark Earth – let those important deities listen!

Dramatis personae

A possible depiction of Kumarbi from Tell Halaf (wikimedia commons) Kumarbi was a prominent god in Hurrian (and as a result also Hittite) religion, regarded – as indicated even by the short formula quoted above - as a “father of gods” figure, like Enlil in Mesopotamia, Dagan in Syria and El in Ugarit. God lists compare all of them to each other due to their senior position in the respective pantheons though their character wasn't necessarily identical. He was believed to reside underground, but he wasn't really an underworld god or king of the dead. While some scholarly sources associate him almost exclusively with grain and agriculture, not all researchers accept this conclusion. It's possible that not only Kumarbi but also Dagan weren't only gods of grain and thus agriculture, but generally of prosperity, with the harvest as only one tangible aspect of it.

Two possible depictions of Dagan (Iconography of Deities and Demons in the Ancient Near East) Identification of Dagan with Kumarbi was particularly common – one inscription calls Kumarbi “the Dagan of the Hurrians” and in some god lists Dagan's wife Shalash is instead the wife of Kumarbi. However, Shalash doesn't appear in any of Kumarbi's myths, and there is no evidence that Dagan was ever viewed as antagonistic towards the corresponding storm god (Addu of Aleppo, analogous to the Ugaritic Baal) the way Kumarbi antagonizes Teshub in most myths he appears in – this conflation relied more on role in cult than character in myths.

A weather god, likely Teshub (wikimedia commons) Teshub, whose nemesis Kumarbi was in myths, was the average Middle Eastern bronze age weather god, similar to the Ugaritic Baal, the closely related Addu/Hadad, and Hittite Tarhunna, who was partially conflated with him (Hittites even used the name of Tarhunna in their translations of Teshub's myths). As a master of atmospheric phenomena, he was the beloved head deity of the Hurrian pantheon, and his name was a common element of theophoric human names. Despite being a powerful protector of humanity and rightful king of the gods, Teshub wasn't depicted as unbeatable in myths, and displayed a wide range of character traits. As you'll see in the later part of the article, he was even described as breaking down in tears regularly. Among the cities where his cult was the most prominent were many of these associate with other storm gods, but the one which particularly often appears as his home in myths is Kummiya or Kummani, which was located somewhere in present day Turkey, near the coast of the Gulf of İskenderun - in the bronze age the capital of Kizzuwatna, a region particularly closely associated with the Hurrians.

Hurrian culture

Before I'll discuss the myths of Kumarbi and Teshub, a little has to be said about the Hurrians themselves. While they are at best a footnote in the bronze age section of history textbooks today, they were quite the significant force in the history of ancient Middle East. Areas associated particularly closely with Hurrian culture include most of present day northern Syria (the site of Tell Mozan – known back then as Urkesh - was particularly important); the aforementioned Kizzuwatna; and at least a part of the Zagros mountain range. However, Hurrian settlements and “diasporic” groups of Hurrians were likely spread over an even larger area. Rulers with Hurrian names are known from as far as south as Jerusalem, many Syrian cities like Ugarit, Mari, Tuttual or Emar had large Hurrian populations, the predominantly Hurrian empire of Mitanni was an important partner of Egypt in the Amarna period, Hittites enthusiastically embraced Hurrian art and religion, there were at least some Hurrians in cities of Mesopotamia as early as in the Ur III period, and a few names of Hurrian origin are recorded as far east as in the still little known country of Marhasi, located somewhere in present day southeastern Iran. One of the most famous cities of the ancient Middle East – Nineveh – was Hurrian through much of its ancient history as well.

An offering pit excavated in Tell Mozan, identified as ancient Urkesh; archaeologists show the scale of the structure (urkesh.org) While in many ways Hurrians were similar to their neighbors – Sumerians, Akkadians and Armorites – there are a few cultural peculiarities unique to them (many became a part of Hittite culture as well). These include:

the usage of offering pits (abi) in cult – they were the means to reach underworld deities. While many such figures serve as antagonists in myths, there were also cthtonic gods lacking such adversarial character, and the pits were a normal part of Hurrian religious life, not some dark secret hidden from sight. Sacrifices didn't really differ much from the standard selection of animals, oils and various precious commodities.

the fascination with so-called šarrena - “heroes from far away and long ago” (as explained by Mary R. Bachvarova) or simply deified legendary kings - who received offerings as if they were gods themselves at times. Examples of šarrena include famous historical and/or legendary Akkadian kings like Sargon and Naram-Sin, mythical figures and otherwise virtually unknown individuals - Autalumma of Elam, Immashku of Lullue or Kiklip-atal of Tukrish.

referring to myths as “songs,” with the narrator often introduced as a singer in written compositions.

The former gods, as depicted in Yazilikaya (Reallexikon der Assyriologie) Some myths start with a formula in which the person reciting (singing?) the text invites various gods to listen – often so-called “former gods” or “primordial deities” who according to Hurrian belief ruled the earth long ago, but ended up sent to the underworld (in reality they were invented for the purpose of serving as an older generation in myths – similar to, say, Greek Titans; they aren't a relic of some even more ancient religion) There are, depending on the source, 5, 9, 12 or 15 of them. They are commonly presented as allies of Kumarbi, and he is sometimes counted among them himself. Curiously, Mesopotamian Enlil and Ninil show up among them every now and then, too; so does Anu. While the popularity of Hurrian literature among the Hittites and Hurrian influence on their religion (“Hurrian singers” appear to be a distinct priestly class in Hittite documents for example) secured the survival of the language even after many Hurrian states ceased to exist as independent entities, it is nonetheless extinct today. It has no living relatives and its only known historical one is likewise long gone (Uratrian, spoken around lake Van c. 8th - 6th century BC; bear in mind saying Hurrian and Uratrian are related tells you about as much about them as saying Vedic Sanskrit and English or Akkadian and modern Arabic are does for said languages, it's not a straightforward “Uratrian descends from Hurrian” situation). This made it somewhat difficult to translate – luckily a number of texts had Hittite translations or even bilingual versions. This made modern translations possible – while Hittite is also extinct (and so are its closest relatives – Luwian and Palaic – as well as other related languages which survived long enough for the ancient Greeks to come into contact with them; one such example is Lydian) it belongs to a large, well known and still very much extant language family, Indo-European. Deciphering of Hittite meant that Hurrian myths were within the reach of researchers – and right as the tablets containing inscriptions in these two languages metaphorically started speaking to them, so did Kumarbi, whose myths were among these found in the Hittite capital Hattusa (in present day Turkey). The elaborate multi part cycle dealing with his exploits is probably among the most important myths of the ancient Middle East, but remains obscure among the general audiences. The next section will present its sections in the generally agreed upon order.

Myths forming the cycle of Kumarbi

Song of Emergence (or Song of Kumarbi): after a reign of 9 years Alalu, a poorly defined primordial deity, was deposed by his former cupbearer Anu, a sky god, and had to hide in the Dark Earth, the underworld. This presumably is okay with most gods but not with Alalu's son Kumarbi. Some older translations assume that Alalu was Anu's father and Anu Kumarbi's but as evident in newer translations and interpretations there are two families involved, not one. Kumarbi enters Anu's court as a servant and plots against him for 9 years. His plan ultimately lacks finesse – he attacks the king of the gods and, to put it colloquially, bites off his dick while the latter tries to flee to the sky, his domain. This esoteric battle accomplishes its goal, though – Anu leaves to live in heaven and it's Kumarbi who now rules as the king of gods... But soon a problem arises: devouring pieces of a god has side effects and Anu's son, the weather god Teshub, is now growing inside Kumarbi (alongside at least two more gods – a personification of the river Tigris, who vanishes from the narrative, and Teshub's sidekick/brother Tashmishu). The creation of Teshub is metaphorically compared to production of bronze, presumably because he is in a way a combination of two rival dynasties. Simply put, we are witnessing the world's first mpreg fanfic. A crossover fanfic, even – while Kumarbi is unquestionably Hurrian, Anu is a Mesopotamian god borrowed by the Hurrians for the sake of this myth.

Ea/Enki on a cylinder seal (wikimedia commons) Kumarbi manages to spit out at least one of the gods growing inside him (Tashmishu), but not Teshub. The future storm god taunts him from inside, pondering how is he even supposed to leave, which prompts Kumarbi to seek help. Teshub is, presumably, surgically removed with the help of a celebrity guest, Ea (Enki), the Mesopotamian god of wisdom – most likely in a similar way as Athena was born in Greek mythology, as references are made to Kumarbi's skull being stitched back “like a garment.” A few goddesses associated with Kumarbi in other myths of the cycle, such as the fate goddesses (who reside underground) appear to participate too. Curiously the site of this scene is Nippur in Mesopotamia, the center of Enlil's cult, rather than any city associated with Kumarbi himself. Kumarbi, outraged by the whole ordeal, demands to have the child handed over to him so that he can devour (or perhaps simply crush) him, but he gets tricked by Ea into eating a rock (a chunk of basalt according to Gary Beckman's translation) instead and breaks some teeth as a result, while Teshub escapes and probably meets his older relatives, including Anu (there is a reference to Anu rejoicing in the surviving passages). The narrative also states that the “sun god of heaven” - the Hittite term for the Hurrian sun god Shimige - is observing Kumarbi's culinary ventures, but his role isn't described further. As later on he's one of Teshub's most loyal allies, perhaps a lost fragment (over a half of the lines are missing!) described their first meeting? The rest of the myth is extremely poorly preserved but seemingly the reign of Kumarbi is over. However, Teshub (as I already said Hittites at times applied the name of their weather god Tarhunna to him even on tablets documenting the discussed cycle but as the myth is Hurrian in origin I will stick to the name Teshub much like most researchers seem to do), who was the main god in everyday religion, doesn't achieve his position yet, even though he does battle a few other gods (including an unidentified war god). He's apparently sad, and actually curses the older gods, though his allies warn him it's unwise to curse Ea (this advice will eventually pay off – the authors of this cycle had a very modern penchant for foreshadowing various plot points). The introductory part of the cycle bears some similarity to Hesiod's most famous work, and as such it's sometimes called the Hittite Theogony (shouldn't it be the other way around, though, given the antiquity of adventures of Kumarbi and Teshub? How does “the Greek Song of Emergence” sound?). However, there are notable differences – the line of succession might seem similar at first glance (the sky → a malevolent god who castrates the sky god → a storm god), Greeks didn't have an Alalu equivalent and additionally as I pointed out the warring factions are two separate “dynasties,” not generations of one family (Alalu is Kumarbi's ancestor but Anu isn't related to either of them in this narrative); Teshub in a way represents the fusion of both, though. All around there is also notably less incest. Song of LAMMA: under unclear circumstances Kumarbi and Ea agree to make a god known under the “sumerogram” (eg. a Sumerian writing of a divine name used in other languages relying on the same script due to its meaning rather than its phonetic value) LAMMA, which among the Hittites indicated a type of tutelary deity (ex. of a specific area; the Mesopotamian Lamma were minor goddesses who were said to intercede on behalf of mortals), the new king. Some researchers assume that he's specifically meant to be Kurunta, a Hittite god of the hunt, associated with deer.

Kurunta (cambridge.org, via From Hittite to Homer. The Anatolian Background of Ancient Greek Epic by Mary R. Bachvarova) Teshub is driving a chariot assisted by his older sister Shaushka when LAMMA decides to attack them, forcing them to flee the heaven with a volley of arrows. Shaushka's birth isn't described in the cycle. She is often called by the “akkadogram” ISHTAR and in many ways resembles her Mesopotamian equivalent, being associated with love and war. She also appears to be, in modern terms, genderfluid and appears twice, among both gods and goddesses in the Yazilikaya reliefs depicting a procession of deities. I wrote about her more extensively here (as a side note I need to once again stress that if you'll decide to investigate her further it's a necessity to avoid World History Encyclopedia and Encyclopedia of Goddesses and Heroines both of which deliberately hide her dual nature and try to force nonexistent connections instead; see my criticism here and here). Teshub later complains to LAMMA about this perceived injustice but the outcome is unknown. Shortly afterwards, Ea and Kumarbi officially declare LAMMA the new king of the gods.

A reconstructed relief of Kubaba (wikimedia commons) LAMMA has fun being king but spends most of the time on foolish pursuits. As a result people stop paying proper respect to the gods and the order of nature as a whole breaks down. LAMMA's ally Kubaba (the tutelary goddess of Carchemish in present day Turkey and goddess of lawsuits) urges him to do something and to pay tribute to Kumarbi's allies, the “primordial gods,” but he presumably ignores her advice and instead boasts about his greatness. He also refuses to hold meetings of the assembly of the gods to discuss the problems he's causing. His words eventually reach Ea, who pressures Kumarbi to help him with a plan to depose LAMMA. Ea goes to “Abzuwa,” here described as a town but evidently based on accounts of Ea/Enki's subterranean dwelling, Apsu (located in myths under Eridu, close to the coast of Persian Gulf in modern Iraq), while Kumarbi goes to the city of Tuttul, associated with the worship of Dagan in other texts. It seems that their journeys are meant to help them with securing the help of a god called Nara, known to be one of the primordial deities via other sources. Nara is told to gather various animals for unknown purposes. However, the rest of the text instead describes a rematch between Teshub and LAMMA, which ends with the latter beaten badly and begging for mercy. Whether this was part of Ea's plan or if Teshub just felt like he had enough of LAMMA's antics is not addressed in any commentaries I read. Perhaps Teshub only showed up after Nara did whatever he was ordered to do? This is hard to tell for sure. Regardless, LAMMA is no longer a threat. Song of Silver: this one might actually not be a part of the same cycle but due to shared motifs it's usually regarded as a part of it nonetheless. Kumarbi, being the highly responsible fatherly figure he is, apparently had a half human son – something that was the norm for Greek gods but what was basically unheard of in this part of the world. His son, only known as Silver (all translations known to me use an English name for him so I will do so too) decides that even though Kumarbi ditched his mom, he needs to talk to receive his birthright (and to make his peers stop making fun of him because of his mother raising him alone, apparently). His mother reassures him that due to Kumarbi's power he doesn't need to fear any other gods, even Teshub, described here as his (half) brother. What unfolds next is unclear but Silver evidently reaches Kumarbi's holy city, Urkesh (identified with the Tell Mozan archaeological site in Syria; it was the capital of a Hurrian kingdom in Sargon's and Naram-Sin's times) and probably manages to meet him in the nearby mountains. After a long missing section, we learn that Teshub is despairing, seemingly due to Silver's ongoing reign of terror. The latter is described as a “violent god.” He also managed to strike Shimige (the sun god) and Kusuh (the moon god) down from heaven and they're begging him for mercy. These two are established as close allies of Teshub elsewhere so perhaps this is part of Kumarbi's scheme? That's sadly impossible to tell.

Shimige and Kusuh in Yazilikaya (wikimedia commons)

Kusuh (wikimedia commons) As there's little else to discuss about Silver, I'll instead use the mention of the sun and moon gods as an opportunity to point out that for the most part this cycle of myths purposely contrasts the domains of the two factions – Teshub and his family and allies are gods of heaven and earth (Anu, Teshub, Shimige and Kusuh are self explanatory; Teshub's wife is Hebat, the goddess of Halab – known today as Aleppo – an she was sometimes equated with the Hittite sun goddess; Shaushka was the goddess of Nineveh), Kumarbi and his lackeys are cthtonic and sea gods (and monsters dwelling in these locations). The very beginning sets this clever theme up – while Kumarbi's father hides underground, Teshub's chooses the sky. There are some exceptions from this rule (LAMMA and Kubaba are obviously earthly deities, while in an unrelated myth Teshub appears to be on great terms with the goddess of the dead), but generally speaking it's a key feature of the cycle. Silver is presumably defeated in the end, as the sun and moon gods are perfectly fine in other myths of the cycle while he isn't enumerated among Kumarbi's allies, but we don't know the circumstances of that event. Song of Hedammu: Kumarbi is back at it again and he struck a deal with a well established antagonistic figure, the sea god (usually known under the Hittite name Aruna). After an exchange of messages (conducted with the help of Kumarbi's messenger Mukisanu – named after Mukish, a kingdom located roughly where the border between Turkey and Syria is today - and the sea god's vizier Impaluri), Kumarbi and Aruna's daughter Sertapsuruhi – described both as enormous and sweet – have a child, a sea monster named Hedammu (a less common interpretation assumes that Kumarbi merely found the baby Hedammu and Aruna's daughter nursed him).

Shaushka in the procession of male deities in Yazilikaya (wikimedia commons) Hedammu appears to have a total of 2 character traits – being voracious and, as we learn later, lecherous. Shaushka is the first to notice his rampages and instantly informs Teshub about it. She refuses to take a seat, eat or drink. She calls Hedammu a “substitute” (this will be relevant in the next part of the cycle too) and points out that the sea god is actively acting against the rest of the pantheon. Both siblings despair about it, but possibly a failed first confrontation with the creature nonetheless occurs. Ea, who's known as a friend of humanity, makes yet another celebrity cameo appearance because he's tired of the conflict between Teshub and Kumarbi and berates both groups for it, making it clear that they're putting their human followers in harm's way. This appears to be the first section of the cycle where we learn that Teshub is married, as his wife Hebat is among the deities whose followers could end up decimated according to Ea. While myths and hymns about divine marriages are common, to my knowledge one about the marriage of Teshub is sadly unknown. While Ea speaks equally favorably both about Teshub's allies and about Kumarbi in this fragment, the latter is displeased by the critical evaluation of his schemes. The words of praise describe him as a deity beloved by humans who “joyfully” make offerings to him – but Kumarbi asks why does Ea feel the need to defend humanity. Later, calling himself “the son of Alalu,” Kumarbi announces that Hedammu is ineed a “substitute” raised against Teshub (like Shaushka assumed) to various assembled gods. Teshub, meanwhile, discusses a possible confrontation with Hedammu with Shaushka and notes that a potential consequence of it would be entirely his fault, before leaving. While I haven't seen such an interpretation of this scene, I wonder if perhaps the dreaded consequence could be harm to humans, to create a contrast between him and Kumarbi? Shaushka however doesn't give up, and devises a new plan herself. She takes a bath, anoints herself with perfume, and puts on elaborate garments. As a result, “[qualities which arose love] ran after her like puppies” (translation by Harry A Hoffner jr.). Whether this is a common Hurro-Hittite figure of speech or ancient purple prose is a mystery to me.

A naked goddess (not necessarily Shaushka though some of the attributes do match) from Carchemish (hittitemonuments.com) As it turns out, she decided that if force isn't doing the trick, deception will come in handy instead – her plan is to seduce Hedammu and incapacitate him with a potion. A similar scheme is seemingly present in the “Astarte papyrus,” an Egyptian adaptation of a myth about Baal (a weather god; Egyptians viewed Seth, reimagined in this context as a “foreign hero” god, as his analog), Ashtart (an Ishtar analog) and Yam (a sea god).

Ninatta and Kulitta in Yazilikaya (wikimedia commons) In this endeavor she's assisted by her handmaidens, musician goddesses Ninatta and Kulitta, who always appear as a pair. Pairs of deities invoked as if they were one are another common feature of Hurrian religion – another prominent example are Allani (an underworld goddess, equated with Ereshkigal in Mesopotamia) and Ishara (a goddess of oaths viewed as daughter of Enlil, also associated with diseases and the underworld; these two are basically as close as you can get to a lesbian version of Nergal and Ereshkigal). The song and dance performance, meant to lure Hedammu out of the sea, seemingly soon turns into striptease as subsequent fragments seemingly refer to Shaushka being at least partially naked. It accomplishes it's goal: the sea entity leaves his hidden dwelling and declares that Shaushka is “unlike any other woman.” Due to being both flattered by praise and aroused (which the scribe describes in rather graphic terms) he accepts various potions prepared to incapacitate him, and follows the performers to dry land. The ending is not preserved in any known copies, but it's safe to assume that Hedammu lost. Some experts assume he wasn't killed, though – perhaps much like LAMMA before him he accepted own defeat? Note also the similarity to the status of another similar creature, Yam, in Ugaritic Baal cycle – after being defeated by Baal and Ashtart, Yam is seemingly still alive and in one fragment Baal even worries about him entering his palace. Song of Ullikummi: even though Hedammu failed, Kumarbi is convinced this whole scheme is worth repeating and opts to create a new monster. His new paramour is a rock – not a goddess of rocks or a personified rock or anything. Just a really huge chunk of stone. Sertapsuruhi's opinion about possibly getting cucked by a rock isn't known. The result of this union is a monstrous diorite (or basalt – note the mention of basalt in the very beginning of the story!) man christened Ullikummi (“destroyer of Kummiya,” Kummiya being the city of Teshub). Much like Hedammu, and implicitly the earlier antagonists too, he is a “substitute” created to vanquish Teshub and replace him as a ruler. Considering Kumarbi's comment about humans in the Song of Hedammu, I think it's safe to assume at this point the destruction is more important than reclaiming the throne. I bet you didn't expect character development from the antagonist of a series of 3500 years old poems. Kumarbi's entire supporting cast – Aruna, their messengers, Irsirra (the fate goddesses) and so on - cheer on him and his new son. In a strange celebrity cameo Enlil from Mesopotamian mythology also shows up to affirm that Kumarbi's rock kid is bad news. His role is ambivalent: while he does call this an “evil scheme,” he does nothing to stop it. It's worth noting that in the very beginning of the cycle he's listed among the deities invited to listen so perhaps he's just commenting sarcastically what's happening as if he were an ancient prototype of he old men from the Muppets. Since Kumarbi is aware that Teshub and Shaushka would easily defeat Ullikummi at this point in time, he has the fate goddesses hide him deep in the Dark Earth, where he grows to a gigantic size on the back on an even more enormous giant named Ubelluris, who keeps the world on his back (while Ubelluris is often compared to Atlas, there is no indication his fate is a punishment). Ubelluris is sleepy and inert (he is, after all, seemingly the single oldest character in this cycle) so he doesn't notice. Teshub's well established ally, the sun god Shimige, eventually notices Ullikummi's constantly growing form after he pierces through the underworld and the sea. In a scene which parallels Shaushka's message in the Hedammu myth, he tells his friend about this. Teshub is shocked, and alongside his siblings rushes to Mount Hazzi to see the new potential danger firsthand.

The mountain in mention today (wikimedia commons) Mount Hazzi, also known through history as Saphon, Kasion, Hermon and Jabal al Sheikh is located in present day Syria and served as an important location in many myths. In Ugarit it was the residence of the gods and the battle between Baal and Yam took place nearby; in some versions of the Epic of Gilgamesh it's where Humbaba guards the cedar forest; Greeks sometimes assumed it was where the Typhon myth took place; in much later apocrypha the Grigori descended here after their rebellion; and so on. In Hurro-Hittite mythology Hazzi was both a holy place related to the cult of various storm gods and the name of a mountain god – here it's obviously the former meaning. Shaushka opts to try out the same strategy which brought down Hedammu. A cute passage describes her singing and making ornaments for herself out of sea shells, but there is no mention of undressing, possibly because her act ends up interrupted before reaching that stage. A “great wave” tells her it's pointless, because Ullikummi is blind, deaf and incapable of compassion. This bizarre aquatic phenomenon (even more weird when you take into account the sea itself, personified as Aruna, helps Kumarbi) is not explained, and before disappearing urges her to tell Teshub what she learned. It certainly would be fun to speculate that the “great wave” is connected in some way to Hedammu or to his mother, but I haven't seen any such speculation in literature – that would be my interpretation if I were to write an adaptation though. After a brief missing fragment, we learn that Teshub is preparing his war chariot. Two bulls named Seri and Hurri are pulling it – the association between storm gods and cattle is well attested everywhere between Anatolia and Zagros mountains. He confronts Ullikummi, with various atmospheric phenomena serving as his weapons, but seemingly fails. Afterwards many other gods (at one point the text speaks of seventy of them!) try the same, lead by Ashtabi, a war god with no prior role in the cycle (equated in god lists with the Ugaritic Attar, Baal's minor rival in the Baal cycle). Here he seemingly serves as a Teshub replacement, getting to use thunder as a weapon himself. Much like Shaushka's and Teshub's efforts this is in vain, though. Ullikummi continues to advance, and eventually reaches the gates of Kummiya, blocking the entrance to the temple of Teshub's wife Hebat. His presence makes it impossible for these hiding inside to hear what's happening elsewhere, leading Hebat to worry that this turn of event indicates Teshub is defeated or even dead. She sends her servant Takiti on a secret mission to gather information outside. Eventually, Teshub and his allies decide that the only option left is to seek help in the faraway Apsu – this is basically a journey through about 2/3 of the world known to the authors, from the Mediterranean coast to Persian Gulf. Ea, who is, among his other functions also the king of the Apsu, agrees to help - presumably having chosen to officially side with Teshub in the wake of the carnage wrought by Kumarbi and Hedammu. He correctly figures out that Ullikummi is attached to Ubelluris and meets with the latter in the Dark Earth to learn more. He also meets with Enlil for uncertain reasons. After Ubelluris says he's starting to feel Ullikummi's weight and that he didn't move even when earth and heaven were separated by a special weapon in the distant past, Ea realizes this is the key to victory. He commands the primordial gods to bring it to him; while they are usually allies of Kumarbi, they obey him in this case. This weapon, or tool (called kuruzza), is then presumably used to cut Ullikummi off from Ubelluris, but who does it is unknown. Severing Ullikummi's link with the primordial entity makes his power level manageable for the protagonists to defeat even without a lengthy training montage and Kummiya is saved, though the battle was nonetheless so brutal part of the underworld was uncovered in the process, as remarked by Ea in a surviving fragment. Researchers agree that at this point Teshub becomes the unquestioned king of the gods, thus obtaining the role he was actually worshiped in, though the exact circumstances of that and the fate of his enemies are not stated in the surviving copies of this myth. Presumably this is where the saga ends... or does it?

Other related myths

While the texts summarized above are the only ones which form the version of the cycle generally accepted as more or less complete, which you can find in books like Hoffner's Hittite Myths, there are multiple other myths, some of them fragmentary, which may belong to the cycle of Kumarbi. It's possible that there were multiple versions of it, or perhaps even multiple independent cycles with somewhat similar themes, united by the presence of Teshub, Kumarbi and his allies. The myths forming this – pardon the joke - Kumarbi expanded cinematic universe include: Ea and the beast: a text which appears to serve as an explanation for Ea switching sides in the aforementioned myths. It's unknown at which point in the cycle does this conversation take place – perhaps before the birth of Teshub (explaining why Ea saved his life), perhaps around the same time as the myth of Hedammu, explaining the speech which is a part of it. In what little of it survives, Ea meets an animal called suppalanza (what sort of animal this is remains a mystery. For all I know perhaps it's simply a mythical beast called Suppalanza; I saw a German article translate it as “Vieh,” ) who reveals a complex prophecy to him. According to the beast, Teshub will drive his enemies to the underworld and bind them here, and defeat a serpent (possibly Hedammu?). Some of Kumarbi's allies – like the fate goddesses - are mentioned, too; so is the concept of “substitutes” - the collective name of enemies Kumarbi hurls at Teshub in his wacky schemes. Ea, who is a god of knowledge is also taunted with the phrase “Don't you know, Ea?” Song of the Sea and other texts alluding to a battle between Teshub and Aruna: in the Kumarbi cycle, the sea god, usually known under the Hittite name Aruna, is a staunch ally of Kumarbi, but we don't learn why he opposes Teshub. It seems that this fragmentary myth describes the origin of their animosity – Kumarbi and his various subterranean backers make an appearance too. It's possible it took place right before the myth of Hedammu or even was a prologue to it. It seems that Aruna threatens to flood the earth, Kumarbi orders gods to pay tribute to him (a similar situation occurs in the Egyptian “Astarte papyrus” myth), and finally Teshub (who's presumably tired of these villain of the week antics) smites Aruna with some sort of special weapon (much like the Ugaritic Baal does with Yam – the sea – in his own cycle).

A mountain god (Iconography of Deities and Demons in the Ancient Near East)

Another mountain god (phoenixancientart.com) Another fragmentary myth apparently states that during this conflict mountain gods (including Mount Hazzi mentioned before) rebelled against Teshub and fought against him after Aruna was defeated himself, possibly even stealing the same weapon used to smite the sea; I think it's safe to assume they were nonetheless defeated as in this fragment a mountain god who mentions this story fears being declared an enemy of Teshub himself. Mountain gods played an important role in Hurrian and Hittite religion and were portrayed in art in a rather distinct manner but are nowhere to be found in the other Kumarbi myths (to be fair a few other prominent Hurro-Hittite gods like Allani, Ishara and Nupatik are missing too). The myth of Eltara (proper title unknown): a very poorly preserved text notable for describing the reign of an almost unknown figure in the same terms as the reigns of Alalu, Anu and Kumarbi in the Song of Emergence. Eltara appears to be one of the “former gods” but his relation to Kumarbi is unknown. The rebellion of the mountains known from sea-related myths is mentioned. Also, what survives of the text makes it clear that Teshub regains his position in heaven regardless of whatever events unfolded in the meanwhile.

El stele from Ugarit (emp.byui.edu, via Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament by James Pritchard) Some researchers assume that Eltara is simply an adaptation of the Ugaritic El. Another firmly villainous equivalent of El, Elkunirsa, appears as an enemy of the storm god (either Teshub or Baal) in what seems to be a Hittite translation of an otherwise unknown myth where he's part of a scheme to kill the latter. Song of Oil: the connection to the cycle is dubious, but nonetheless proposed sometimes. This myth tells a story about Shaushka taking care of the eponymous Oil, seemingly a sentient, talking olive tree which constantly needs to be protected from various adversaries. Kumarbi appears in a surprisingly benign role, suggesting that Shaushka should ask Ea for (gardening?) advice in the beginning of the story. Additionally, Song of Release, which is essentially a separate cycle, provides a bit more context regarding the fate of the “former gods.” One of the scenes has Teshub visit the goddess of the underworld, Allani (I wrote about her here), who welcomes him as a friend and prepares a grand banquet for him. Her name means “the lady” (implicitly: of the underworld and she's described as “bolt of the earth” (and also as a “young woman”). The “former gods” seemingly obey her, and are seated next to Teshub on her banquet, despite normally being his enemies. While some researchers look for parallels with Inanna's descent and assume the banquet doesn't end well for Teshub, Allani doesn't appear to be hostile. In cultic texts, she is described as capable of commanding the primordial gods to the benefit of humans. It’s therefore possible the banquet represents a reconciliation between the former enemies.

Closing remarks

Kumarbi undergoes a complex journey in his cycle. At first he simply wants to reclaim a throne which was presumably rightfully his; the means to accomplish that goal end up being rather brutal, though, and start a gradual descent to villainy, culminating in the exchange about safety of humans between him and Ea. Simultaneously he actually does appear to be capable of learning from his mistakes – Ullikummi lacked the issues Hedammu had, after all. As near the end of the cycle we see Ea working side by side with the former gods against Kumarbi's creation, could it be that he himself gave up on his pland and had a last minute change of heart? While myths do not necessarily correspond to cult directly, it's worth pointing out that many of the antagonists of this cycle were a normal object of everyday worship. Kumarbi was one of the most important Hurrian gods and had his own holy city – and he appears in the list of offerings to Teshub himself and his closest associates. Aruna received offerings every now and then; the mountain gods carry Teshub in Yazilikaya reliefs; LAMMA gods were among the most important members of the local pantheons of many cities in the Hurro-Hittite sphere of influence; the fate goddesses watched over the birth of each child. Even the “former gods” - invented only to function as deposed former rulers - were invoked as agents of purification, as interpreters of reams, as guardians of treaties and – obviously – as “audience” for myths. Could it be that in the lost ending of the story the two sides simply decided to set aside their differences? We may never now, but in my opinion it certainly wouldn't be unimaginable, given the complexity of the narrative, serving up to this day as a testament to the imagination of ancient authors.

Bibliography

Reallexikon der Assyriologie, especially the Kumarbi and Unterwetgottheiten entries

The Anatolian Fate-goddesses and their different traditions by A. Archi

The West Hurian Pantheon and its Background by A. Archi

Translation of Gods: Kumarpi, Enlil, Dagan/NISABA, Ḫalki by A. Archi

Adapting Mesopotamian Myth in Hurro-Hittite Rituals at Hattuša: IŠTAR, the Underworld, and the Legendary Kings by M. R. Bachvarova

Kumarbi Cycle (translation) by M. R. Bachvarova

Song of Release (translation) by M. R. Bachvarova

Ištar of Nineveh Reconsidered by G. Beckman

Primordial Obstetrics. "The Song of Emergence" (CTH 344) by G. Beckman

The Hurritic Myth about Šaušga of Nineveh and Ḫašarri(CTH 776.2) by M. Dijkstra

Ishtar seduces the Sea-serpent. A new join in the epic of Ḫedammu (KUB 36, 56 + 95) and its meaning for the battle between Baal and Yam in Ugaritic tradition by M. Dijkstra

Hittite myths by H. A. Hoffner

A systematic approach to the Hurrian pantheon: the onomastic evidence by L. Monti

The god Eltara and the Theogony by A. M. Polvani

Ea and the Beast. The Hittite Text and its Relation to the Greek Poetry by I. Rutherford

The Song of the Sea (SA A-AB-BA SIR3). Thoughts on KUB 45.63 by I. Rutherford

Shaushka, the Traveling Goddess by G. G. Singer

Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia by P. Taracha

The Dispute on Manumission at Ebla: Why does the Stormgod descend to the Netherworld? by G. Wilhelm

#mythology #hurrian mythology #hittite mythology #mesopotamian mythology #kumarbi

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