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bu1410 · 10 months ago

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Good afternoon TUMBLR - March 9th - 2024

''Mr. Plant has owed me a shoe since July 5, 1971."

Ch. XI.3 - Morocco - 1989 - 1991

TAROUDANT - MARRAKECH

Like every year, at the end of the Holy month of Ramadan there were the festive days of Eid el Fitr. Officially lasting two days, but infact we could count in a week of rest.

The trains, the CTM (La setième in local language) and the collective Grand Taxis - generally old Mercedes or Pegeot 504s that connected the various cities of Morocco, increased ticket prices based on the proximity of the Eid date. The workers began to ''flee'' in the days preceding the festival, with the excuse of the long journeys they had to face to reach their places of origin (mon bled) and the scarcity of means of transport.

We decided to spend the holiday visiting Taroudant and than Marrakesh. Taroudant, a town about 80 km from Agadir, is known as the "Grandmother of Marrakech" because it looks like a smaller Marrakech with its surrounding ramparts. In the 16th century, the Saadi dynasty briefly used Taroudant as its capital before moving its royal seat to Marrakesh. Today, the town has the feel of a small walled market town on a caravan route.

We stayed overnight in a beautiful Arab-style hotel, with lush gardens and a beautiful swimming pool right next to the ocher walls that surround the city, 8 km long. I remember that Andrea had a lot of fun in that pool, and when it was time to leave it he stung his hands and feet because he didn't want to go.

The next day, after having studied the road map (GOOGLE MAP did not yet exist) we decided to leave for Marrakesh, even passing through the legendary Tizi n'Tichka (literally ''pasture pass''), a pass that rises to the considerable altitude of 2,260 meters and which, crossing the High Atlas, connects the Taroudant valley with Marrakech. At its peak you can admire the highest peak in North Africa, Mount Toubkal 4,167 meters high (from the Berber Tugg Akal the ''One who looks down on the Earth'').

It was a trip that I remember with particular pleasure for the wild beauty of the places we crossed. At a certain point, after long kilometers of descent full of hairpin bends, Marrakech appeared in the light of the sunset, further accentuating the red-ochre color of its walls and ancient buildings. We spent a couple of days in Old Capital in a nice hotel which I think today is called Ryad Mogador, and then we returned to Agadir.

TAFRAOUT

After some time had passed since the failed visit to the caves, Bozon tried to try to regain some credit. He therefore proposed a trip to us which first consisted of a stop in Tiznit - about a hundred kilometers south of Agadir, and then an overnight stay in Tafraout, an inland town.

Tiznit is a small Berber city, famous above all for its artisans who work with silver and steel to make jewellery, swords, inlaid knives, a whole variety of beautiful objects which are made in the traditional way in the kasbah's workshops.

In addition to the three of us, Bozon, my colleague Alfio and his wif, who recently arrived from Italy, were taking part in the 2-day excursion.

After the pleasant visit to Tiznit, we headed towards Tafraout, at a distance of about 100 kilometers, deep on Berber territory. A winding but well-maintained mountain road, with a pass at 1,230 meters above sea level, where a wealthy Berber trader who emigrated to France built a large hotel. The hotel was visible from far away, surrounded as it is by the ocher of the bare mountains. Stubborn date palms grow here and there.

Hotel Kerdous - Tafraout, Morocco

Tafroute is renowned for the cultivation of almonds, the basic fruit for many traditional Moroccan pastry desserts.

About 8 km from Tafroute there is the famous area of the painted rocks. Jean Verame, a Belgian artist, brought in 19 tons of paint of various colors in the late 1980s and than painted the rocks with the help of local people.

And that's where we spent the day, on a sort of plateau surrounded by large, colorful granite rocks, some used like a primary school notebook, with black rods on a white background or vice versa. At a certain point, however, here is the usual unexpected event of the day: this time it is offered to us by Alfio who, as sea man, thinks he can transforming himself into a boulder free climber. Without saying a word to anyone (what Sardinian would he be if he spoke to someone about his intentions?) having chosen a rock he began to climb it. Till to the point of no return, in the sense that at about 15 - 20 meters from the ground he no longer knew how to go up or come down. Mrs. Curreli, having noticed her husband's impasse, began at first to shout at her husband nasty insults (which we did not understand the meaning, given that they were pronounced in strict Sardinian) then with suggestion on how to get down from the uncomfortable position.

- Hang on there……put your foot lower……be careful not to fall…idiot '' Alfio, poor thing, was in a panic, and we all could see it from the tremor that shooked his legs and feet, resting on the precarious rock's niches. Bozon and I were amused at first, but we start to be worry when we saw that the situation was becoming critical. We therefore made sure to get up as close as possible to Alfio, to comfort him and suggest the best way to get off. In the meantime I asked Mrs. Curreli to stop shouting. In short, after a series of maneuvers while telling encouraging words - ''come on, you're doing well…. like this…. like that …slowly…no worry …'' we managed to bring Alfio back to the ground. The guy, once lying on the lawn, had a sort of fainting spell, which did not prevent his wife from hurling yet another series of insults at him.......

We returned to Agadir via the R105 national road, a good road passing through Ait Baha, with breathtaking views of the Anti-Atlas.

GULF WAR It was August 2, 1990 and na ews shocked the entire World: Iraq, with a surprising offensive launched during the night, had invaded neighboring Kuwait!! Morocco, a moderate Arab country, assumed an equidistance position on the conflict through a televised speech by His Majesty Hassan II. A moderation action through privileged diplomatic channels was matched by concern about the protection of the Holy Places of Mecca and Medina - currently not directly affected by the conflict. Morocco in any case sent a symbolic contingent of 1,500 soldiers, after the agreement with Saudi Arabia, to defend Mecca and Medina in the event of an attack. The tension was felt throughout Morocco, with demonstrations by the population in open support of Saddam. Even in the site offices, Moroccans showed open support for Saddam, in open contrast to the official positions of the Government. There were also a couple of curious episodes, due to the fact that my Range Rover still had the red license plate of Bahrain, a Gulf Emirate which for obvious reasons since the beginning of the conflict had sided with Kuwait and the nascent coalition led from the USA. One day I stopped at a petrol station to fill up with petrol, and the guy addressed me with phrases in Arabic and French, making me understand that ''there was no fuel for the traitors of the Iraqi brothers''!! I finally managed to make him understand that I was not Bahraini, but Italian, that I had bought the car years ago there– and so I got the petrol. Another unpleasant episode happened a few days later – after a breakfast at the restaurantJardin d'Eau. I was leaving the place, and fortunately M. David accompanied me. A crowd of youngster were kicking the my car for the same reason: they had seen the Bahrain license plate and believed that the ''traitors of the great leader Saddam needed to be taught a lesson''!! David managed to bring them to their senses, making them feel ashamed for what they were doing to a car belonging to a ''Respectable Italian engineer working at the New Aeroport d'Agadir''!! In any case, the Gulf War had already generated a phenomenon that, at the time, I couldn't understand: all the foreign tourists had suddenly disappeared from Agadir (and I presumed from all over Morocco), causing the closure of hotels, restaurants and travel agencies. And of all the consequences that the presence of foreigners set in motion. The reason behind this was that since Morocco is an Arab country, people believe it could somehow become involved in the conflict at any moment. Hence all foregneirs fled a country situated 5,000 km away from the war front! We therefore arrived in a state of high tension on January 15, 1991, when His Majesty King Hassan II spoke to the world and to the nation, in a heartfelt message to "brother Saddam", clearly saying that his was "the last appeal before the possible catastrophe''. We therefore understood that the time for the American attack was imminent, and in fact during the night the bombers of the Coalition of 39 countries attacked Kuwait and Iraq simultaneously. My Boss, Alfonzo, based on the instructions received from the Company headquarters, ordered us not to move from home. And for three long days it was like thas: a grave silence had descended over the city - only the police of Gendarmerie Nationale circulated the streets, even if officially the Authorities had not declared any restrictions on free movement. One of the statements that made us understand the Moroccans' state of mind towards us materialized following the shooting down and capture of an Italian Tornado fighter. Some people were waiting for us that day at the entrance to the site offices, and welcomed us saying:  ''Nous avons abattue un de vos jet'' (We shot down one of your jets) A somewhat grotesque statement, if we consider that Morocco did not participate in the war - and therefore that ''we'' meant total adherence to the Iraqi cause, seen as Pan-Arab and against the American Imperialists and their allies.

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dry-valleys · 1 year ago

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The Incomparable.

The fifth part in my Morocco series (please see here, here, here, here and here for more).

This is El Badi palace (today’s post is only about the time this was built and destroyed; please see here for earlier history and here for later history).

El Badi was built in 1578 by Ahmad al Mansour, sixth of the Saadian Dynasty, who ruled Morocco from 1549 to 1669, having taken over from the Wattasids, who were unpopular for losing the European empire that was ruled from this city from its founding in 1070 until the expulsion of the Wattasids in 1492 from what became the kingdom of Spain.

In the same year, the Spaniards expelled all Jews and Muslims, even though they had lived there for hundreds of years, and many fled to Morocco, thus bolstering the European influence (workers from around the world, Europeans as well as Moroccans, were employed in the building) which had been known here since the Almoravids (1056-1147) built an Andalusian empire from this city which is most clearly seen at Koutoubia Mosque.

The Saadians, whose nearby tomb is also well worth a visit, became wealthy and wanted to build a huge mansion to show their wealth and the power they gained from winning (most of) the wars they waged, and you can still here how imposing their statement was.

They fought off endless attacks from the Spanish, Portuguese (who ruled the nearby city of Tangiers from 1471 to 1661; is a a Portuguese camp in which El Badi is in the top right and you can see the rest of the city as was), the Ottoman Empire (who ruled every Arab country except Morocco, because the Saadians and their successors fought them off).

As well as defending their country from the Europeans and Ottomans, the Saadians could start wars; in 1591 Ahmed Al Mansour conquered the Songhai, an empire in sub-Saharan Africa; Morocco is linked not only to Europe and the Muslim world, but to its African neighbours, and the south was to become a source of slaves and money for Moroccan rulers from then on.

El Badi was already in decline when the last Saadi ruler, Ahmad Al Abbas, was murdered by his uncle in 1659, which led to a civil war that only ended when Al Rashid ibn Sharif seized power in 1666; he boasted descent from Mohammed, founder of Islam, and formed the Alaouite dynasty, which still rule Morocco in the person of present king Mohammed VI.

El Badi was knocked down knocked down by the fearsome ruler Ismail ibn Sharif, whose lengthly reign lasted from 1672 to 1727. He was an Alaouite, brother of Al Rashid ibn Sharif, who fought a series of wars but took no interest in the Saadian palace, which he gutted to use the material for a palace at Menes, which I sadly haven’t seen.

By this time, the English had taken over the old Portuguese colony at Tangiers, on the marriage of Charles II to Portuguese princess Catherine of Braganza, but Ismail booted us out in 1684.

It is rarely talked about in England because it went so badly for us-Charles, in angry humiliation, wanted to “demolish and utterly destroy the place” on the way out, but thankfully this didn’t happen.-

It was a great success for Ismail though, and he also subdued the Berber tribes of the Moroccan heartland (please see here for a glimpse into their way of life which I was allowed to share) who are still here and whose blood flows in the veins of many city dwellers.

Ismail, nicknamed “the bloodthirsty”, owned hordes of slaves whom he seized and then used to fight his endless wars against the Europeans, Africans, Ottomans, and other Moroccans; he is a forefather of current king Mohammed VI, and presumably lots of others as he enjoyed his shagging and has at least 868 known children with at least 500 known wives and mistresses.,

(This was long seen as normal for Moroccan rulers; 4 is an enormous harem where Saadian rulers would keep their wives and mistresses).

(His work is arguably unfinished; at the time of his death he was besieging the Spanish colony of Ceuta, which alongside nearby Melilla is still occupied by Spain, something to bear in mind when the Spanish government next pontificates about Gibraltar).

Leaving the palace I walked into (10) one of the many oases of palm trees that brighten and cool the city.

Here and elsewhere (please see enclosed the rest of my series) we see that Morocco, which has been linked to Europe since Almohad times, can take its place alongside the Greeks, Romans, Byzantines and Ottomans in the living museum with no frontiers that is the Mediterranean.

#morocco #africa #photos #marrakech #marrakesh

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cincinnatusvirtue · 4 years ago

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Battle of Alcacer Quibir (1578 AD) (Battle of the Three Kings). Portugal’s attempt at colonialism in Morocco backfires and a new Moroccan dynasty secures its independence from foreign intervention.

Overview:

-Morocco’s history is largely driven by its strategic location. The Northwest corner of Africa at the tip of the Sahara Desert region, just south of the Iberian Peninsula in Southern Europe and hugging the gateway to the Mediterranean Sea at the Atlantic Ocean. Its position was crucial to geostrategic considerations with access to so many sea & overland trade routes.

-Its native peoples were Berber or Amazigh who encountered the Greeks & Romans of antiquity, they were a varied people across North Africa united by some common language and customs. After the rise & spread of Islam by Arabs from the Middle East, North Africa including Morocco became a target of conquest and religious conversion. The Berbers in time took on the Islamic religion while somewhat retaining their own customs. Gradually, they took on a cultural Arabization that takes place today with most of Morocco’s population being ethnic Berbers with Arab acculturalization becoming Arab-Berbers. There were however some Arab colonists who migrated from the Arabian Peninsula, Syria and other parts of the Middle East who settled & setup their lives in Morocco mixing with the local Berbers. Arabs & Berbers went on to invade the Iberian Peninsula in 711 AD under the Visigoth Kingdom which they largely over threw aside from the north of modern day Spain. In time Muslim dynasties ruled in Iberia and the Arabs and Berbers set up a colonial presence there while some Visigoths and Iberian Romans converted to Islam making up the majority of Iberia’s population well into the Middle Ages and the combination of Arabs, Berbers & European converts to Islam became known as Moors which covered no single ethnic group but rather the cultural ties that bonded these various peoples, though was previously used to describe just Berbers.

-In time, civil war amongst the Muslim dynasties that came & went along with the Reconquista, a centuries long Christian Crusade to rid the Iberian Peninsula of a Muslim presence weakened the Moorish hold over southern Europe. Arab & Berber dynasties from Morocco would often intervene in Iberia to reverse the tide of misfortune befallen its Muslims but inevitably they too would be brushed aside or retreat to Morocco which had become so intertwined with Iberia at that point. By the end of the 15th century, the Emirate of Granada, the last Muslim power in Iberia had fallen. The Kingdoms of Portugal & Spain had arisen from earlier Iberian Christian kingdoms and become more powerful than their Muslim rivals.

-Complicating matters was the rise of the Turkish Islamic dynasty in the east, the Ottoman Empire. By the 15th & 16th centuries, The Ottomans found themselves masters of the eastern Mediterranean and in competition with the Spanish Hapsburgs for control of the Mediterranean Sea. By then Spain had established dynastic control over parts of Italy & small colonial possessions on the coasts of North Africa spreading from Morocco to Libya. This was contested by the local Arab-Berber presence and the Ottomans. Likewise the Ottomans were overtaking North Africa from both their European rivals & the Arab-Berber dynasties of North Africa. Though direct Ottoman power would be varied depending on location and sometimes they relied on governors of theirs to rule in their stead, which in turn became increasingly semi-autonomous. these dynasties engaged in piracy of European trade and in particular in the enslavement of European Christians giving rise to the Barbary Pirates of Barbary Corsairs, so named for the Barbary (Berber) Coast of North Africa from which they operated, ranging in port cities from Morocco to Libya.

-The Ottomans and Spanish eyed Morocco as an area of political control. The Ottomans hoping to make it a protectorate like the rest of North Africa and the Spanish a home to various ports to counteract the Ottoman attacks against their shipping lanes. Meanwhile, Spain had for the last century engaged in exploration and conquest of the so called New World, the Americas. Spain’s other Iberian counterpart, the Kingdom of Portugal, likewise has engaged in colonization and conquest with the Americas, namely Brazil. Both Spain & Portugal saw it in their interest to secure the shipping to their ports from the threat of Ottoman and other Muslim piracy which confiscated their gold and other raw materials from the Americas. To this end they were determined to and did indeed conquer Moroccan port cities. Likewise the previous overland Trans-Saharan trade routes of gold, ivory and enslaved Sub-Saharan Africans which had previously enriched the Arabs & Berbers were of less importance due to both European investment in the Americas and control of Moroccan ports. This had lead to impoverishment of the Moroccan economy & flight of its many intellectuals draining its infrastructure and governance as well.

The Power Players:

Morocco & domestic politics...

-16th century Morocco had seen the foreign encroachment of the Portuguese & Spanish hold strong. Portugal held many of its Atlantic ports while Spain its Mediterranean. Meanwhile, the Ottomans who had overtaken neighboring Algeria were threating invasion to oust the Europeans but likewise overrule the local Arab-Berber population.

-At the start of the century Morocco was nominally ruled by the Berber dynasty known as the Wattasids. They had come to power in 1472 AD overthrowing their fellow Berbers, the Marinids. However, Wattasid rule only held sway in the north of Morocco with their kingdom being centered around the city of Fez. The south of the country was much more divided into various principalities and the populace in general resented the Wattasids for their seeming political and military impotence to eject the Europeans from their port cities. They failed in their promise to recapture these cities time & again.

-In the south of Morocco, a new power was rising that promised to remove the weak Wattasids & eject all foreign influence on Morocco. This new promising power was the Saadi dynasty. The Saadis were of Arab origin with a known ancestor going back to 13th century Arabia from the port city of Yanbu on the Red Sea who migrated to Morocco. The family is generally considered to be of Sharifian origin, which is an Arab honorific word meaning “noble or highborn” and reserved by Arabs for descendants from the Prophet Muhammad. The Saadis claimed descent through Muhammad’s daughter Fatimah and her marriage to Ali ibn Abi Talib, the prophet’s cousin & companion. The descent to the Saadis then continued through Ali & Fatimah’s son Hassan and as descendants of Hassan, the Saadis became known as Hassanids and were given the title of Sharif. Whereas descendants of Muhammad’s other grandson through Ali & Fatimah, Husayn were given the honorific title of Sayyid.

-The descent from Muhammad of the Saadi dynasty is a matter of some political conjecture, with their rivals trying to down play it as mere propaganda. Others will concede they descended from a relative of Muhammad but not his daughter Fatimah herself. It will probably be next to impossible to establish its veracity but it was promoted by the dynasty along with numerous other Islamic dynasties throughout history even into the present.

-The Saadis derive their name from the word for “happiness or salvation” and were settled by the 14th century in Morocco from their Arab ancestors in the southern part of the country. Centered around the city of Tagmadert in the Draa River valley. It was a region that neared the Sahara Desert. It was here that the family intermixed with the Arab-Berber populace and gave rise to the popularity of Sufism in Morocco. Sufism is a form of Islamic mysticism akin to the Kabbalah in Judaism or Gnosticism in Christianity.

-The chief (Sharif) of the Saadi family circa 1510 was Abu Abdallah al-Qaim who ventured to Medina in modern day Saudi Arabia as part of his religious pilgrimage and evidently while there had a dream involving two lions leading a large crowd of people to a tower. Taking this mystical vision as a sign he visited with a Sufi mystic who confirmed it as God’s mission for his son’s who would play a crucial role in the family and indeed Moroccan history. Al-Qaim returned to Morocco and aligned with the Sufi orders in the south of Morocco around the Draa Valley and organized them into a military order to declare jihad on both the Wattasids & the Europeans with a now holy mission to save Morocco.

-The Saadis gradually overtook by force and diplomacy much of southern Morocco’s other principalities. They captured the city of Tidsi in 1510 and al-Qaim’s two sons ventured to Fez to beseech the Wattasid sultan to undertake a nationwide jihad against the Europeans. When this did not materialize the Saadis gradually felt it was their duty to save the nation.

-The Saadis began a campaign against the Portuguese ports in the south of Morocco and had gradual success in retaking these port cities. Making them increasingly popular with the locals at the expense of the Wattasids in Fez. 1524 saw the Saadis capture the city of Marrakesh. Al Qaim’s son Mohammed al-Shaykh became the leader of the dynasty in 1517 and Al-Shaykh’s campaign against the Portuguese now turned to the Wattasids. His brother Ahmad Al-Araj was placed in charge of Marrakesh while Al-Shaykh controlled the city of Taroudannt and in 1527 the Saadis defeated the Wattasids in the Battle of Wadi al-Abid after which they recoginzed a divided dominion in the south for the Saadis and north for the Wattasids.

-However, Al-Araj & Al-Shaykh soon turned on each other and the brothers engaged in a civil war with Al-Araj seeking Wattasid assistance. Additionally he fought the Portuguese and successfully took the port city of Agadir in 1541 which led to other port cities to be evacuated by the Portuguese. His brother was defeated and fled to eastern Morocco to live out his days in exile. Meanwhile, the Wattasid capital of Fez was captured in 1549 using a reformed army that was based on the Ottoman model, including modern artillery.

-The capture of Fez gave the Saadis a chance to now attack Portuguese ports in the north with more success. However, some cities like Tangier remained in Portuguese hands.

-The Saadis also expanded into Western Algeria and captured a portion of that territory.

-Meanwhile Saadian expansion, concerned the Ottomans who hoped for it to become a protectorate. The ousted Wattasids cut a deal with the Turks to invade Morocco, oust the Saadis and become Turkish vassals in their own right.

-Al-Shaykh and the Saadis were driven out of Fez in 1554 by a combined Wattasid-Ottoman-Algerian army. The recapture was short lived as in the September of 1554, the Saadian army once more met the Wattasids & Turks in the Battle of Tadla and defeated them, the Wattasid ruler, Ali Abu Hassun was killed by the Saadian troops in battle and ended the threat of their dynasty.

-Al-Shaykh having united the country against the Europeans with success, having defeated his brother, the Wattasids & Ottomans had unified his rule over Morocco as undisputed Sultan. The Saadi dynasty was now firmly established, but much work remained and in the process of the Saadian conquest they had made many enemies.

-1557 saw plans for Morocco to ally with the Spanish against the Turks who still sought a foothold in Morocco. As this came to fruition, the Ottoman governor of Algeria ordered Sultan Al-Shaykh’s assassination. A number of Ottoman assassins claiming to be deserters infiltrated the Saadian armed guard of the Sultan, earning his trust before killing him.

- Al-Shaykh had multiple sons but three sons: Al-Ghalib, Al-Malik & Al-Mansur who would all play important roles in the coming years.

-Al-Ghalib being the oldest became the new sultan of Morocco. He had to defend against an Ottoman Algerian invasion in 1558 which was successfully halted at the Battle of Wadi al-Laban. The battle was inconclusive itself but word had reached the Turco-Algerian forces of a Spanish counterinvasion of Algeria and they were forced to turn back, sparing Morocco a potential take over.

-As so often happens in history, the concern over dynastic struggle takes place. Worried about civil war with his younger brothers Al-Malik & Al-Mansur, the two younger siblings went into exile with the Ottoman Empire, visiting its capital of Constantinople and living in Turkey with lavish existence.

-The two exiled Saadi princes served in the Ottoman army, battling in the famous 1571 naval confrontation off the Greek coast known as the Battle of Lepanto against Spain and a Holy League. It was a Christian victory that cost the Turks their best naval commanders and while their navy did replenish its numbers it never again had the level of experienced commanders and subsequently its training and experience stagnated, beginning a slow withdrawal from direct Ottoman involvement in the Mediterranean. Likewise, Lepanto contributed to the rise in its North African governors taking de-facto power for themselves. Giving rise to the age of the Barbary Corsairs who operated out of the North African city-states of Tunis, Algiers, Tripoli and later various Moroccan ports with these pirates peaking their powers in the 17th century and lasting until well into the 19th century.

-Al-Ghalib fought the Spanish and Turks and for 17 years kept Morocco in virtual peace. He improved the economy and built new mosques and other architecture, raising the stature of Marrakesh, which became the primary center of Saadian power.

-Al-Ghalib died of asthma in 1574 and was succeeded by his son, Abdallah Mohammed. Abdallah Mohammed like his father suspected struggle with brothers, one of whom was killed on his orders while the other was imprisoned. The reign of Abdallah however was challenged by his uncles Al-Malik & Al-Mansur. Now in Ottoman Algeria, they invaded Morocco with Ottoman backing in 1576

-Fez was captured by the Ottoman backed Saadian prince Al-Malik. Whose now ousted nephew Abdallah Mohammed fled first to Spain and ironically then to Portugal, former enemy of his grandfather & great-grandfather.

-1576 saw Al-Malik take power but with the understanding that he was a de-facto vassal of the Ottomans. However, his nephew sought to regain the throne and was willing to work with Portugal to regain it...

Portugal & King Sebastian...

-Sebastian of Portugal was born in 1554 and a member of the Aviz dynasty which had ruled Portugal since 1385 and was responsible for Portugal’s global empire, sometimes in competition with neighboring Spain. They had established control of Brazil in the Americas and had colonies as far flung as Macau in China, parts of India where they fought against the Ottomans in the Indian Ocean and even in Africa with control of Angola, Mozambique and elsewhere. Though the Portuguese and Spanish had rival colonial ambitions they had a common enemy against the Ottomans and Portugal in particular conflicted with the Turks in the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Ethiopia and other parts of Africa.

-Sebastian’s mother was of the Hapsburg dynasty that had ruled Austria and Spain which with Spain’s global empire had become the most powerful dynasty in Europe if not the world. His grandfather was Charles V and uncle was Philip II of Spain.

-His father died when he was an infant and his mother later remarried in Spain. while his grandmother Catherine of Austria helped raise him. He grew to be tall and physically fit. He was also given a stern religious upbringing under Jesuits tasked with his education.

-He technically took the throne at age three with the death of his paternal grandfather and a regency was put in place for him. As he grew older he became more stubborn in his personality but was always devoutly religious. Sebastian also had several marriage proposals made but none had come to fruition.

-Under his personal rule he improved relations with Spain, France, England & the Holy Roman Empire wanting to secure the peace and trade of all for his global empire. He also rewarded natives in Brazil who aided the Portuguese against the French by giving them their own grants of land and freed them from slavery by decree. He also restructured the laws of administration and the judiciary in Portugal. Hoping to expand education for his people, he also created royal scholarships for students of medicine at university.

-Finally, he sough to patronize the arts with poems & operas being written during this time and dedicated to him. He also reformed the military which proved successful in fending off attacks in India against the Portuguese colony of Goa.

-However, one everlasting goal of his since 1568 at the age of 14 was to conquer Morocco by Crusade against the Saadi dynasty which had expelled the Portuguese from control over numerous ports. These ports were important as way stations for Portuguese ships traveling in India where its colonies were important in the spices, gems & other precious commodities trade. A combination of religious fervor and economic concerns over nearby Morocco guided Sebastian.

-The opportunity for his Crusade arose in 1576 with the ouster of former Saadian Sultan Abdallah Mohammed who had been overthrown by his uncle, the Ottoman backed Al-Malik.

-Abdallah Mohammed had fled first to Spain and then Portugal asking for aid in the restoration of his throne. After which he promised his support against the Turks, Portugal & Spain’s principal rival. Sebastian was intrigued by the offer and visited with his uncle, Philip II of Spain to discuss joint plans for a combined Portuguese-Spanish invasion of Morocco to restore Abdallah Mohammed as their friendly ally who would allow future use of Moroccan ports for trade and as launching points against Ottoman Algeria. Philip refused to participate whole heartedly since he sought a treaty with the Ottomans to give some much needed breathing space for other concerns, namely England. He did offer a smattering of Spanish volunteers though.

-Despite Spain’s lack of full commitment, Sebastian decided to go it alone. Absolutely convinced of the technological superiority and training of his army against the Moroccan army. Technically this was true with advances in gunpowder driven small arms, artillery and armor being superior along with overall discipline. Whereas Morocco relied on light cavalry, had less artillery and mostly ill trained and ill equipped irregular troops.

The invasion and Battle of Alcaber Quibir.

-Sebastian began preparations for summer campaign in 1578. He departed Lisbon with an army of 17,000 men made up of Portuguese regulars at foreign mercenaries from Germany, Spain, Italy & the Netherlands. He also asked the Portuguese nobility to accompany him. Convinced the campaign would be quick, he wanted to demonstrate his power before them while also establishing colonial holdings in a Portuguese controlled Morocco. Some nobles brought over their whole retinues & families as well as a fully stocked kitchens, portable chapels and even a whole church choir, giving the crusade an almost picnic or hunting expedition feel for some.

-The fleet stopped at Cadiz for the promised Spanish volunteers, they did not materialize and so on they sailed for Morocco. Arriving in June south of Tangier they joined Abdallah Mohammed with 6,000 loyal Moorish troops.

-Upon reaching the shores and in front of his still disembarking nobility Sebastian and a small contingent chased away an enemy contingent. This demonstrated to many assembled that Sebastian was a brave commander fully confident in his mission. To some of his commanders though there was concern it might mean he was also too headstrong to listen to reason.

-They suggested to the king that he first capture ports along the coast and avoid venturing into the interior of Morocco at this juncture. The ports would be important for reopening Portuguese trade and weakening the Moroccan economy. From there they could also resupply by sea for future operations, typically sound military advice.

-Sebastian did not heed the caution, he sought a decisive victory to end the campaign quick. He ordered a march into the Moroccan interior. Despite knowing he would face a numerically superior opponent. Confident Portuguese technology, training & God’s will were on their side.

-Al-Malik as Sultan of Morocco, took advantage of the Turkish backing, training his troops in advanced Ottoman techniques and acquiring some Turkish arquebusiers (early muskets) and artillery. Nevertheless, the majority of his forces were Berber and Arab irregulars from the Moroccan countryside or Moors expelled from Iberia, though some Ottoman Turks and Algerians had joined in the army. While his army was of poorer quality training & technology, it was made up for in raw numbers of men and morale for defense of their homeland.

-Al-Malik also suffered one more setback going into the battle, his own health was suffering by some undisclosed illness, possibly the plague. Only his brother (Al-Mansur) and physician knew of this illness as Al-Malik did not want to discourage his troops morale, to it was kept secret. He rode out from Marrakesh with at fast speed the drive of which gave Al-Malik barely any rest and only worsened his condition. Al-Mansur rode out from Fez and the two planned to meet and intercept the invaders & their nephew’s army.

-The two opposing armies would meet at the town of Ksar-el-Kebir rendered in Portuguese as Alcacer Quibir. Sebastian had 23,000 troops at his disposal against the Moroccan 50,000 strong under Al-Malik. Fearing being outflanked by a larger foe, he ordered his forces in a fortified square. Placing his artillery & arquebusiers in the front with cavalry & pikemen in the rear on the sides.

-Al-Malik was so ill he had to be strapped to his horse. He would choose to give a rousing speech to his troops before the battle’s start. His army formed in a crescent shape

-The battle began with volleys of artillery & arquebusiers from both sides while the Crusaders elite cavalry charged the Moroccan center. The Portuguese made headway until Al-Malik and his personal bodyguard and other cavalry rode out to blunt the charge and hold the center. Likewise he signaled Al-Mansur to command the tribal horsemen from the Berber tribes of the northern mountains of Morocco he had been hidden in reserve with the goal of enveloping the main Portuguese square which was now without the use of its best cavalry. Al-Malik has setup a surprise trap. now the task of enveloping the whole Portuguese army was to begin.

-Al Malik and his bodyguard joined his brother while the Moroccan center reorganized having surrounded the Portuguese cavalry. Seeing what was happening, Sebastian rode out personally leading his reserve heavy knights & nobles along with the horsemen of his ally, the deposed Abdallah Mohammed. The goal was to take down Al-Malik personally and break the Moroccan army’s morale.

-The retinues of all three kings met in the middle, with Al-Malik losing many men around him but the sultan and his bodyguard fought on while his brother Al-Mansur continued with the encirclement of the main square.

-Al-Mansur’s cavalry encircled the square and using dragoon tactics charged the square only to turn around just before being impaled by the Portuguese pikemen. Once the Moroccan horse pirouetted around the rider fired their musket at point blank range inflicting casualties on the European infantry. This tactic continued for hours in order to wear down the Crusaders.

-Meanwhile, Sebastian and his retinue fell back trying to rally the square. Soon the whole square was attacked on all sides. At some point while bravely fighting he lead another charge and was cut down, his body never recovered. He was only 24 years old and without wife or heir.

-Eventually the flanks of the Portuguese square were worn down and soon the Moroccans pushed onto the center which overwhelmed it.

-The battle ended after four hours of heavy fighting resulting in a decisive Moroccan victory. Sebastian had been killed in the fighting along with much of the nobility with 8,000 Crusader & Moorish troops in the Portuguese army dying. Another 15,000 troops including their camp followers were taken prisoner and enslaved. Roughly only 100 are believed to have escaped to the coast or Portuguese controlled ports. Abdallah Mohammed had escaped the battle on horseback but drowned crossing a river in hasty escape. However, for Al-Malik and the Moroccan army, it was costly too. Al-Malik, sick with a fever and plague died of natural cause due to over exertion due to riding on horseback and personally fighting, the exact point he died is uncertain but kept secret from his army so as not to break their morale until after the battle had been decided. The Moroccan army also suffered around 7,000 dead according to Portuguese sources as the bravery and determination of the Portuguese were acknowledged despite their defeat. With the deaths of Sebastian & the rival Saadian sultans Abdallah Mohammed & Al-Malik, the day be became known as the Battle of the Three Kings.

-Though it could be called the battle of four kings as Al-Malik’s younger brother and second in command, Al-Mansur would become his heir and successor as Sultan of Morocco. Al-Mansur also became the pinnacle of the Saadian dynasty reigning from 1578 until 1603 during which time he was the absolute ruler of a Morocco that was unified and expansive. He extended control to parts of Algeria and southward into Mauretania & Mali where he conquered the Songhai Empire and revived the important gold, ivory & African slave trade overland routes of the Trans-Sahara, vastly improving Morocco’s economy. He also went on to eject the Ottoman influence and army from his court. Asserting an independent Morocco free of European and Turkish influence. While there remained some European controlled ports, Al-Mansur was mostly successful in stabilizing his country. He also built up Marrakesh & Fez including vast palaces and the Saadian Tombs, considered the peak of Saadian architecture.

-After Al-Mansur’s death in 1603 Morocco fell into civil war and relative chaos once more. As had typified the Saadian dynasty from the start, the sons fought over control of the country. This time, the Moroccans had joint sultans who ruled divided portions of the country, creating a power vacuum that allowed for the rise of Barbary Corsairs and their pirates republics which would claim de-facto independence from the sultans, most notably the Republic of Sale headed by the Dutch privateer turned Barbary pirate, Jan Janszoon Van Haarlem also known by his Muslim name as Murad Reis the Younger.

-Eventually the Saadi dynasty was overthrown in the mid 17th century by the Alaouite dynasty which was another Arab Sharifian dynasty and which rules Morocco to this day. Though the Saadis are still regarded by the Moroccans for their architecture and role in securing an independent and stable Morocco, free from foreign influence.

-As for Portugal, it lost its king without an heir and much of its nobility. It was in this power vacuum that subsequently it was overtaken by the Kingdom of Spain being in a so called Iberian Union for the next 60 years before it became independent once again.

-Meanwhile, the Ottomans increasingly lost their ability to have a direct hold over North Africa altogether and despite nominal over lordship of Egypt to Algeria, Morocco remained relatively untouched by Turkish influence, given it a special place in the Muslim world. Additionally, the Turks with a stagnating navy turned their attention to expansion in the Middle East and Europe with the 17th century being the start of a long stagnation for them as well, their best days long behind them.

-The Battle of Alcacer Quibir fought on August 4th, 1578 was the culmination of domestic and foreign power struggles for Morocco, the product of colonial and imperial desires amid a succession crisis and civil war. Ironically, it triggered a succession crisis in the invading country and resolved one in the very country that triggered the foreign intervention. It was also a case in point of the arrogant illusion of the inevitability of European and Ottoman colonialism in North Africa and of course became a great symbolic victory in the psyche of an independent Morocco...

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rvexillology · 5 years ago

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Flag of Morocco between 1258–1659, used by the Marinid, Wattasid and Saadi dynasties

from /r/vexillology Top comment: Why did they change it?? The green on red is too conflicting and too dark.

#Flag #Morocco #1258–1659 #used #Marinid #Wattasid #Saadi #dynasties #flags #vexillology

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gwendolynlerman · 3 years ago

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Separatist and irredentist movements in the world

Rif

Proposed state: Republic of the Rif

Region: Rif, Morocco

Ethnic group: Rifians

Goal: independence

Date: 1921

Political parties: -

Militant organizations: Rif Independence Movement (RIM)

Current status: inactive

History

11th century BCE - Phoenician trading posts

814-146 - Carthaginian Empire

145 - the Rif becomes part of the Roman Empire

5th century CE - Vandal control

6th century - Byzantine Empire

661-750 - Umayyad Caliphate

710-1019 - Emirate of Nekor

1040-1147 - Almoravid Empire

1121-1269 - Almohad Caliphate

1244-1465 - Marinid Sultanate

1472-1554 - Wattasid dynasty

1510-1659 - Saadi Sultanate

1631-present - ‘Alawi dynasty

1912-1956 - French and Spanish protectorates in Morocco

1921-1926 - Rif Republic

1958-1959 - Rif revolt

2013 - reinvigoration of the RIM

The Rif has been inhabited by the Imazighen (Amazigh people) since prehistoric times. It has been a part of the Phoenician, Carthaginian, and Roman empires and was briefly under Vandal control.

The Emirate of Nekor was founded in 710 and Imazighen started converting to Islam. This was followed by a series of Amazigh dynasties between the 11th and 16th centuries and two Arab dynasties from the 16th century until the present day.

In 1912, France and Spain established two protectorates in Morocco. The majority of the Rif region was under Spanish rule until 1956, except between 1921 and 1926, when the Republic of the Rif was established as an independent state from Spanish occupation and the Alawite sultan. It was during this time that the RIM was founded.

After Morocco’s independence in 1956, Rifians rose to protest against the government’s marginalization and neglect of the Rif. After the Arab Spring, the RIM was revitalized, but no further steps have been taken toward independence.

Rifian people

There are around 7.5 million Rifians. They mainly live in Morocco, but can also be found in Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Spain.

They speak Tarifit, an Amazigh language of the Afro-Asiatic family, and practice Sunni Islam but retain some pre-Islamic traditions.

The Rifians are divided into several tribal groups and organize themselves patrilineally. They mostly live an agricultural lifestyle and some practice fishing.

Vocabulary

ⴰⵔⵔⵉⴼ (Arrif) - Rif

Irifiyen - Rifians

Iweṭṭasen - Wattasid dynasty

Izigzawen - Greens (PDA)

Tagduda en Arrif - Republic of the Rif

ⵜⴰⵔⵉⴼⵉⵢⵜ (Tmaziɣt‎) - Tarifit

#langblr #tarifit

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markpauldaphotography · 4 years ago

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A Visit to the Saadian Tombs in Marrakech

Tombs from the Saadi Dynasty that ruled Morocco for nearly 100 years beginning in 1549. The Saadian Tombs can be found at the southwestern part of the Old Medina and near Palais El Badii. The Saadian Tombs The enclosure consists of two main mausoleums, with 66 tombs laid out within them and over 100 more outside in the gardens. The first mausoleum, seen on the left as you enter, is the finest of the two. Built to house Mansour's tomb and completed during his lifetime, its vaulted roof, fine carvings and stunning zellij tiles recall the Alhambra in Granada (built 200 years earlier). The first hall is an oratory and probably not originally intended for burial, but nevertheless contains the thin marble stones of several Saadian princes. Here also is the tomb of the mad Moulay Yazid, which ironically conflicts with the black-and-white script in the hall that reads, "And the works of peace they have accomplished will make them enter the holy gardens." In the back of the mausoleum is a very fine mihrab, supported by a delicate group of columns. El Mansour's tomb is in the domed central chamber, flanked by the tombs of his sons and successors. The second mausoleum is older but less impressive. It was built by Ahmed el Mansour in place of an existing pavilion over the tombs of his mother and of the founder of the Saadian dynasty, Mohammed ech Sheikh. Read the full article

#Africa #Marrakech #Morocco #TravelDestinations

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lukeskywaker4ever · 5 years ago

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16th King of Portugal (7th of the Aviz Dynasty): King Sebastião of Portugal, “The Desired/ The Asleep”

Reign: 11 June 1557 – 4 August 1578 Acclamation: 16 June 1557; Lisbon Predecessor: João III

Sebastian (20 January 1554 in Lisbon – 4 August 1578 in Alcácer-Quibir) was King of Portugal from 11 June 1557 to 4 August 1578 and the penultimate Portuguese monarch of the House of Aviz.

He was the son of João Manuel, Prince of Portugal, and his wife, Joana of Austria. He was the grandson of King João III of Portugal and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. He disappeared (presumably killed in action) in the battle of Alcácer Quibir. Sebastião I is often referred to as The Desired (o Desejado) or The Asleep (o Adormecido), as the Portuguese people longed for his return to end the decline of Portugal that began after his death. He is considered to be the Portuguese example of the king in the mountain legend as Portuguese tradition states his return, in a foggy dawn, on Portugal's greatest hour of need.

Sebastião was born shortly after eight in the morning of 20 January 1554 (the feast of Saint Sebastian), and he was given the saint's name in commemoration. The name Sebastião was highly unusual for members of any European royal family at the time.

Shortly after his birth, a doctor, Fernando Abarca Maldonado, who had come to Portugal in the entourage of his mother and probably had helped deliver him, cast his horoscope. Among other things, Maldonado predicted that Sebastião would be very attracted to women, marry and have many children. None of these predictions ever came to pass. Actually Sebastião didn’t like women, but he liked men. According to some records he had many encounters with his male servants, and he thought the love between a man and woman was a disgusting thing.

Sebastião was born heir-apparent to the throne of Portugal, since his birth occurred two weeks after the death of his father. He succeeded to the throne at the age of three, on the death of King João III, his paternal grandfather. Soon after his birth, his mother Joana of Spain left her infant son to serve as regent of Spain for her father, Emperor Charles V. After his abdication in 1556, she served in the same capacity for her brother Philip II of Spain. Joana remained in Spain until her death in 1573, never to see her son again.

Since Sebastião was still a child, a regency was necessary. It was handled first by his paternal grandmother, Catarina of Austria, and then by his great-uncle, Cardinal Henrique of Évora. This period saw continued Portuguese colonial expansion in Angola, Mozambique, and Malacca, as well as the annexation of Macau in 1557.

Sebastião was a bright and lively boy. Reports say he was fearless due to his great physical strength. Tall, slim, and blond, he was brought up by his grandmother Catarina, a domineering woman who exercised firm control over her grandson. Obedient as a child, he became obstinate and impulsive in later life.

The young king grew up under the guidance and heavy influence of the Jesuits. Aleixo de Meneses, a military man of solid reputation and former tutor and guardian of Prince João, was appointed tutor to Sebastião by the boy's grandmother. Other teachers included the priest Luís Gonçalves da Câmara and his assistant, the priest Amador Rebelo.

His upbringing made Sebastião extremely devout. He carried a copy of Tomás Aquinas

on a belt at his waist and was constantly accompanied by two monks of the Theatine Order who were intent on preserving the king's innocence. As a child, Sebastião reportedly would react to visitors by running off into hiding with the monks until the visitors had gone.

Sebastião died young and did not marry. However, he was involved in several proposed marriage alliances. In particular, the Queen dowager of France, Catherine de' Medici,

nurtured a plan for a long time to marry her youngest daughter, Margaret of Valois,

to Sebastião, a plan which was supported by Sebastião's maternal uncle, King Philip II of Spain, on occasion. Later, Margaret married Henry Bourbon, King of Navarre.

Sebastião himself, however, put an end to that plan, declaring that he was unimpressed by the mild suppression of the Huguenot Protestants in France, and that he would not bind himself to the House of Valois until he had seen how the situation would develop. Later, he agreed — being persuaded by emissaries of the Pope — to marry Margaret in order to prevent her from marrying the Huguenot Henry of Navarre;

by that time, however, the French king and his mother were already intent on Margaret marrying Henry. Margaret married Henry in 1572. By then, Sebastião's proposal was rejected.

Sebastião was also offered his cousin Elisabeth of Habsburg,

the daughter of Emperor Maximilian II

(Maximilian was Charles V's nephew.). Sebastião himself made a proposal in 1577 to his first cousin Isabel Clara Eugenia,

daughter of Philip II of Spain (Philip was Charles' son.).

During Sebastião's short personal reign, he strengthened ties with the Holy Roman Empire, England and France through diplomatic efforts. He also restructured much of the administrative, judicial and military life in his kingdom. In 1568, Sebastião created scholarships to assist students who wished to study medicine or pharmacy at the University of Coimbra.

That same year he rewarded Indians in Brazil who helped in the fight against the French. The chief of the Temiminós Indians, Araribóia, was given lands near the Bay of Guanabara. In 1569, Sebastião ordered Duarte Nunes de Leão to compile all the laws and legal documents of the kingdom in a collection of Leis Extravagantes known as the Código Sebastiânico (Sebastião's code).

During the great plague of Lisbon in 1569, Sebastião sent for doctors from Seville to help the Portuguese doctors fight the plague. He created two hospitals in Lisbon to take care of those afflicted with the disease.

In his concern for the widows and orphans of those killed by the plague, he created several Recolhimentos (shelters) known as the Recolhimento de Santa Marta (shelter of Santa Marta) and the Recolhimento dos Meninos (shelter of the children) and provided wet nurses to take care of the babies.

Sebastião created laws for the military, the Lei das Armas, that would become a military organization model. In 1570, Goa was attacked by the Indian army, but the Portuguese were successful in repulsing the assault. Also in 1570, Sebastião ordered that the Brazilian Indians should not be used as slaves and ordered the release of those held in captivity.

In 1572, the poet Luís de Camões presented his masterpiece Os Lusíadas and dedicated a poem to Sebastião that won him a royal pension. In 1573, he commissioned the construction of the Royal Basilica in Castro Verde as a tribute to the Battle of Ourique. In 1575 with the Carta de Lei de Almeirim, the king established a system of measures for solid and liquid products and also defined the role of public servants.

The Celeiros Comuns (Communal Granaries) were inaugurated in 1576 on Sebastian's orders. These were lending institutions intended to help to poor farmers when farm production decreased, giving credit, lending seeds and commodities to the needy. They were allowed to pay back their debts with farm products when they recovered from losses.

The mathematician and cosmographer Pedro Nunes was appointed by Sebastião as a cosmography teacher for sea pilots. It was during Sebastian's reign that Nunes wrote his Petri Nonii Salaciensis Opera.

In 1577, Sebastião's ordinance Da nova ordem do juízo, sobre o abreviar das demandas, e execução dellas decreased the time for handling legal actions, regulated the action of lawyers, scribes and other court officials, and created fines for delays.

After attaining his majority in 1568, Sebastião dreamed of a great crusade against the kingdom of Morocco, where over the preceding generation several Portuguese way stations on the route to India had been lost.

A Moroccan succession struggle gave him the opportunity, when Abu Abdallah Mohammed II Saadi lost his throne in 1576 and fled to Portugal. After arriving, he asked for King Sebastião's assistance in defeating his Turkish-backed uncle and rival, Abu Marwan Abd al-Malik I Saadi.

During the Christmastide of 1577, Sebastião met with his uncle King Philip II of Spain at Guadalupe. Philip refused to be party to the crusade as he was negotiating a truce with the Ottoman Empire, though he promised a contingent of Spanish volunteers.

Despite his lack of a son and heir, King Sebastião embarked on his crusade in 1578. The Portuguese army of 17,000 men, including a significant number of foreign mercenaries hired from the Holy Roman Empire, the Netherlands, Spain, and the Italian States, and almost all of the country's nobility, sailed at the beginning of June from Lisbon. They visited Cádiz, where they expected to find Spanish volunteers who failed to appear, then crossed into Morocco.

At Arzila, Sebastião joined his ally Abu Abdullah Mohammed II, who had around 6,000 Moorish soldiers and, against the advice of his commanders, marched into the interior. At the Battle of Alcácer Quibir (Battle of the Three Kings),

the Portuguese army was routed by Abd Al-Malik at the head of more than 60,000 men.

Sebastião was almost certainly killed in battle. He was last seen riding headlong into the enemy lines. Whether his body was ever found is uncertain, but Philip II of Spain claimed to have received his remains from Morocco and buried them in the Jerónimos Monastery in Belém, Lisbon, after he ascended to the Portuguese throne in 1580.

The body could not be identified as Sebastião's, however, which left some people unconvinced of his death. Sebastião was succeeded as king by his great-uncle Henrique, brother of his grandfather, King João III.

After the defeat at Alcácer Quibir, many efforts were made to ransom imprisoned Portuguese soldiers. Several soldiers returned to Portugal, which led many Portuguese to believe Sebastião had survived the battle and would return to claim his throne. This led to Sebastianism, the belief that Sebastião could return at any moment.

Politically, there was a belief that Philip was not the rightful heir to the throne. Subsequently, Imposter pretenders appeared in Portugal who fraudulently claimed to be the king.

During the time of the Iberian Union, between 1580 and 1640, four different pretenders claimed to be the returned King Sebastião. The last of these pretenders, who was in fact an Italian, was hanged in 1619, while another was obtained by the Spanish from Venice, tried, found guilty and hanged in 1603.

In the long term, many myths and legends about Sebastião appeared, the principal one being that he was a great Portuguese patriot, the "sleeping king" who would return to help Portugal in its darkest hour (similar to the British King Arthur, the German Frederick Barbarossa or the Byzantine Constantine XI Palaeologus).

He came to be known by symbolic names: O Encoberto (The Hidden One) who would return on a foggy morning to save Portugal, or as O Desejado (The Desired One).

These legends were vigorously promoted through the massive circulation of popular rhymes (trovas) written by António Gonçalves de Bandarra.

Even as late as the 19th century, "Sebastianist" peasants in the town of Canudos in the Brazilian sertão believed that the king would return to help them in their rebellion against the "godless" Brazilian republic.

Sebastião's life was dramatized in 1843 in the opera Dom Sébastien by the Italian composer Gaetano Donizetti. Belgian playwright Paul Dresse also dramatized his life in the 1975 play Sébastien de Portugal ou le Capitaine de Dieu. The legend of Sebastião's disappearance and alleged return is the basis for the popular song "A Lenda d'El Rei D. Sebastião" ("The Legend of King Sebastian") by the Portuguese band Quarteto 1111 (1968).

#king sebastião of portugal #kings of portugal #aviz dynasty #portugal history

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historianatlarge · 8 years ago

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Today in History: March 13th

Sometimes, victory can hide the beginnings of defeat. Pearl Harbour contained the seeds of Japan’s ultimate destruction, for instance, or Napoleon’s capture of Moscow presaged the fall of the French Empire that was to come. The chief component of both of these examples – practically the same as today’s entry - is that the defeat was not known at the moment of seeming triumph; though there were those who looked ahead and saw very clearly indeed. Today, in 1591, another such moment occurred in West Africa, as a North African empire fought a West African empire to the death.

The Saadi Dynasty of Morocco was in a difficult position. Their armies had just fended off a Portuguese attempt to conquer the nation, demolishing Portugal’s invasion force at the Battle of Alcacer Quibir in 1578. This victory was important but problematic, and the Saadi Empire found itself in financial straits owing to the sheer cost of fending off the Portuguese. They knew well that the Portuguese and Spanish were circling like sharks, waiting for an opportunity. Something, clearly, had to be done.

The Sultan, Ahmad al Mansur, decided on a quick campaign to capture the wealth he needed to continue defending the country. His target was the Songhai Empire of West Africa. Ahmad al Mansur thought he could capture the mines that supposedly supplied the gold that was felt to be the basis of Songhai’s wealth. In truth, there were no gold mines – but the Moroccans didn’t know this.

The Songhai Empire had once been the dominant power in West Africa, occupying at its height parts of what are today ten separate African nations, stretching from the Senegal River and the Atlantic all the way to what is today Niger. They had dominated the region for a century. However, in 1583 the ruler Askia Daoud’s death had set off a power struggle that had weakened the empire. Morocco saw its chance.

The Saadi Empire was at the height of its power, while Songhai was in decline. It seemed an easy enough decision to make, from an imperial standpoint – but even a cursory glance at a map would reveal a key problem in the way: the Sahara desert. Undeterred by advisors who felt this was an insuperable barrier to an army, al Mansur dispatched a force of four thousand soldiers – many of his infantry armed with new arquebuses – a precursor to the musket, and high technology at the time. The support train was far larger, given the desert crossing, and included 9,000 camels and horses, nearly two thousand labourers, and eight cannon.

The journey took four months, but the Saadi commander got the army there, miraculously, with almost no losses. They first hit the salt mines at Taghaza, plundering and burning them, then marched on towards the Songhai capital of Gao. It was outside the capital, on the plains of Tondibi – a cattle pasture, one of the many seemingly insignificant little places that came to witness major events – that the Songhai army of over 20,000 waited. Crucially, the Songhai had not yet adopted gunpowder weapons, and their battle strategy to compensate for this was poorly thought through. The idea was to stampede a thousand cattle into the Moroccan force, providing a screen behind with the Songhai infantry could advance, negating the gunpowder advantage.

Much like armies before them that relied on animals for a key part of their strategy, the Songhai discovered that the maelstrom of battle may be a place for disciplined, trained human minds, but animals have other ideas. The gun and cannon fire panicked the cattle, who certainly did stampede – straight back at the Songhai forces. This could have been a survivable moment, but the infantry bravely advanced without any screen directly into heavy gunfire. Then the cavalry charged directly into the same withering fire. Soon, with the remnants of the cavalry fleeing and most of the infantry dispersed or dead, the only forces left were the Songhai rearguard, who fought until the bitter end.

Losses were unknown, but lopsided – and the Moroccan army marched into Gao. Finding little in the capital, the marched on to richer prizes: Timbuktu and Djenne. The looting of these three cities meant the Songhai Empire was essentially finished as a regional force, at least in its current form. It appeared to be a glorious military triumph for Morocco.

However, there were fatal complications. The Moroccans could not exert control over the area of the former Songhai Empire, which meant they could never properly extract its wealth in any stable or reliable way. Moreover, their resupply routes ran the long journey through the desert – making any form of communication or passage of materials difficult. The Moroccans were in for ten years of sporadic, distant fighting in many ways similar to the military ‘quagmires’ of today.

This was coupled to internal strife, and when the Sultan died in 1603 (either from plague or, according to some sources, quietly murdered by his own son), a war of succession immediately broke out. The Saadi Empire shattered under the strain, being reduced to just the city of Marrakesh and feuding local warlords, while the predatory Spanish and Portuguese taking over the territory that fell away.

In West Africa, the Songhai Empire reformed into the Dendi Kingdom, and lasted until it was conquered by the French in 1901. The regional power that had been Songhai recovered from the defeat, adapted its form, and lasted nearly three hundred more years, an impressive feat in any circumstances.

This history is instructive for two reasons. First, it is remarkably similar to many modern conflicts despite coming from centuries ago. Despite the major advances of technology, transport and communication, attempting to wage a war against determined locals from a far distance is as difficult now as it was then. There is a remarkable, if rough, parallel through the centuries in terms of strategic challenges.

Second, and more importantly, we must remember that the History of Africa is rich and varied. Far too often, we know about African history only as a thing that is acted upon by European outsiders. In truth, Africa had her own empires – and they acted in precisely the same way as European ones did. African states interacted, maneuvered for advantage, and fought each other with great vigour, and would continue to do so. This is not the simple picture of a continent invaded by technologically superior Europeans that textbooks and accounts have given us. History is rarely as simple as that.

At all levels, African history was a rich and vibrant tapestry before the influence of Europeans, and remained so afterwards. The old method of writing just from the vantage point of colonialism obscured - and in some ways continues to obscure - this fact. In the long run, this helps to further a narrative of ‘primitive’ Africa today, which also obscures a similar vibrancy today.

Africa’s history is rich and complicated, and to the casual student of history it may remain relatively unknown. There is much knowledge, and many stories, there for the discovering. Hopefully this is taken as an encouragement to engage with African history, not merely a one-sided telling.

(Photograph from Wikimedia Commons)

#Ahmad Al Mansur #Saadi Empire #Saadi Dynasty #Moroccan History #West African history #West Africa #Songhai #Songhai Empire #history writing

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