#Protein function examples in biology

[nourishandthrive501]

Protein: The Nutritional Powerhouse Shaping Your Health

Introduction Protein. The word conjures images of bulging biceps and gym rats, but its role in our lives extends far beyond sculpted physiques. This essential macronutrient is the building block of every cell in our body, the engine of countless biological processes, and the key to a healthy and vibrant life. But navigating the world of protein in the context of nutrition can be confusing. Fear…

[allinhalf-store-blog]

Protein: The Nutritional Powerhouse Shaping Your Health

Introduction Protein. The word conjures images of bulging biceps and gym rats, but its role in our lives extends far beyond sculpted physiques. This essential macronutrient is the building block of every cell in our body, the engine of countless biological processes, and the key to a healthy and vibrant life. But navigating the world of protein in the context of nutrition can be confusing. Fear…

[crimson--freak]

yayy finished the essay I’ve been putting off for ages :)

[pandemic-info]

What Is Long COVID? Understanding the Pandemic’s Mysterious Fallout > News > Yale Medicine

Originally published: April 15, 2024. Updated: June 4, 2024

Just weeks after the first cases of COVID-19 hit U.S. shores, an op-ed appeared in The New York Times titled “We Need to Talk About What Coronavirus Recoveries Look Like: They're a lot more complicated than most people realize.”

...

Unlike most diseases, Long COVID was first described not by doctors, but by the patients themselves. Even the term “Long COVID” was coined by a patient. Dr. Elisa Perego, an honorary research fellow at University College in London, came up with the hashtag #LongCOVID when tweeting about her own experience with the post-COVID syndrome. The term went viral and suddenly social media, and then the media itself, was full of these stories.

Complaints like "I can't seem to concentrate anymore" or "I'm constantly fatigued throughout the day" became increasingly common, seemingly appearing out of nowhere. With nothing abnormal turning up from their many thorough lab tests, patients and their physicians were left feeling helpless and frustrated.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has defined Long COVID as the "continuation or development of new symptoms three months after the initial SARS-CoV-2 infection, with these symptoms lasting for at least two months with no other explanation." This deliberately broad definition reflects the complex nature of this syndrome. We now understand that these symptoms are wide-ranging, including heart palpitations, cough, nausea, fatigue, cognitive impairment (commonly referred to as "brain fog"), and more. Also, many who experience Long COVID following an acute infection face an elevated risk of such medical complications as blood clots and (type 2) diabetes.

In April 2024, an estimated 5.3% of all adults in the United States reported having Long COVID, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Data from the CDC suggest that Long COVID disproportionately affects women, and individuals between the ages of 40 and 59 have the highest reported rates of developing this post-acute infection syndrome.

...

Inderjit Singh, MBChB, a YSM assistant professor specializing in pulmonary, critical care, and sleep medicine, and director of the Pulmonary Vascular Program, is actively engaged in clinical trials aimed at uncovering the fundamental underpinnings of Long COVID.

...

Through this work, a significant revelation emerged. They observed that patients grappling with Long COVID and facing exercise difficulties were unable to efficiently extract oxygen from their bloodstream during physical exertion. This discovery identifies a specific cause underlying the biological underpinnings of Long COVID.

... Dr. Singh, along with other researchers, is focused on the identification of blood-based markers to assess the severity of Long COVID. For example, a research group, led by Akiko Iwasaki, PhD, Sterling Professor of Immunobiology and Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, and director of the Center for Infection & Immunity at YSM, most recently created a new method to classify Long COVID severity with circulating immune markers.

Further investigations conducted by Dr. Singh's team identified distinctive protein signatures in the blood of Long COVID patients, which correlated with the degree of Long COVID severity. Researchers identified two major and distinct blood profiles among the patients. Some of them exhibited blood profiles indicating that excessive inflammation played a prominent role in their condition, while others displayed profiles indicative of impaired metabolism.

...

Researchers currently believe that the impairment of a spectrum of key bodily functions may contribute to these diverse symptoms. These potential mechanisms include compromised immune system function, damage to blood vessels, and direct harm to the brain and nervous system. Importantly, it's likely that most patients experience symptoms arising from multiple underlying causes, which complicates both the diagnosis and treatment of Long COVID.

...

The last word from Lisa Sanders, MD:

I’m the internist who sees patients at Yale New Haven Health’s Multidisciplinary Long COVID Care Center. In our clinic, patients are examined by a variety of specialists to determine the best next steps for these complex patients. Sometimes that entails more testing. Often patients have had extensive testing even before they arrive, and far too often—when all the tests are normal—both doctors and patients worry that their symptoms are “all in their head.”

One of our first tasks is to reassure patients that many parts of Long COVID don’t show up on tests. We don’t know enough about the cause of many of these symptoms to create a test for them. The problem is not with the patient with the symptoms, but of the science surrounding them. If any good can be said to come out of this pandemic, it will be a better understanding of Long COVID and many of the other post-acute infection syndromes that have existed as long as the infections themselves.

[skeletoninthemelonland]

hey starbs! I was wondering something, I know you are studying biolgy in uni and as someone who wants to be a biolgist but has been told im too "artistic and creative" to spend my life working with such precise things. I know you are also and artist, obviously, how has it been for you that you are a creative person, yet working with a course that is so strict to what it is (like not incudlign the different types of biolgist, like how you work there you rcant do what you want like you could with art or writing etc)

do you have any advice on how to reach for this goal or how youve felt just wanting to be a biolgist? im struggling alot with future stuff and it would be nice to hear from a fellow artist. (keep up the great work)

I'll be honest and say that studying Biology was a bit of a rushed decision (?)

I had no idea what I truly wanted to do while studying for the entrance exam. I knew I enjoyed different subjects and could work flexibly, but depending on the path I took, things would become either enjoyable or difficult for me. Biology has always been a subject I loved as a kid, but never something I was constantly interacting with growing up. With art that was different. I was definitely more passionate and skilled at art than at anything else.

I would have choosed to work with art, if only I had scored higher in the entrance exam and if only it was easy to make art for a living. Still, I don't regret choosing to study Biology.

It was a little discouraging in the beginning with how little I knew about the subject. Some students had far more knowledge than I ever had growing up. Some of them know exactly how a biology major will help them in the future. There were also people like me who had no idea what they wanted to do, but were willing to learn.

Turns out that Biology is one of the least precise things you could ever work with. Sciences in general is a subject that functions on uncertainty, and is what brings people forward to gather more information. My Plant Anatomy teacher often says "Mas é isso né gente, as plantas não lêem livros" (Which can be translated to "But yeah, plants don't read books"), because very often you'll find exceptions and unexplainable occurances everywhere (In this case, students are taught not to make assumptions about certain morphological characteristics that are present in plants... but not in all of them).

Artistic and creative are traits that are incredibly helpful and often necessary as skills. In a more literal approach, it might help you understand illustrated examples and "train your eye" for the tiniest details. Using your creativity as a tool to learn will immediately make things easier for you. I can't always draw and paint like I used to, but I can say that "motor proteins travelling along microtubules look like tiny people going for a walk :D" and never forget the information.

Being creative helps you make analogies with already existing information, so it's easier to retain it. I could also say "motor proteins travelling along microtubules remind me of Michael Afton walking down the sidewalk :D" and it's even easier to remember! Play with the information like it's a toy. If you can explain it to a 5 year old, that's because you learned.

But of course, there will always be classes that are more difficult than others. Mathematics will always be that one for me. You can't escape the challenging parts ^^'

Overall, it really depends on the person. It might work for me, and it might not work for you. The key is to explore and experiment on your own pace. Answers will come to you if you keep searching for them.

My best advice (in any major you're choosing), which will likely save your time, energy and sanity, is to find people like you. Not necessarily people who share similar interests as you, but people that you can count on and share your struggles — and they'll sometimes share their own. Befriending people often keeps you grounded and less anxious about how you'll perceive yourself and the future. It's a win-win interaction. Everyone is struggling, so we'll help each other out.

Remember it's okay to not know things right away. Remember it's okay that you're not as skilled as x person. Remember it's okay to be kind to yourself.

I could be saying all of this, but every day there's a huge effort to remind myself to take it slow. Reality oftens becomes skewed when we don't give ourselves a break.

I hope I helped you somehow, with the little to no experience I've had over the past few months. Wishing you and any other person reading this and who's in a similar situation good luck.

-----

One last advice.

Please, SLEEP!

SLEEP. SLEEP. SLEEP.

Don't even think about staying up late. SLEEP. Eat healthy whenever you can. Carry a banana with you, they have potassium — which is fucking great for your organism !!!

CARRY WATER. EVERYWHERE. TAKE 💧💧💧💦💦💦💦💧💧💦💦

How is anyone supposed to make good decisions while exhausted, grumpy, dehydrated, overwhelmed and hungry? THERE IS NO WAY. TREAT YOURSELF WITH CARE !!!! NOOOWWWW

[gallifreyinstituteforlearning]

how much should the average Gallifreyan be eating and drinking water? if they ate like the average human, would it have adverse effects? are there any nutrients Gallifreyans need that humans don't, or vice versa?

What does a Gallifreyan diet look like?

🌮Nutritional Requirements

Gallifreyans require a balanced diet much like humans, consisting of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals. However, their advanced biology allows them to extract nutrients more efficiently.

🍕Nutrition: An adult Gallifreyan needs roughly the same amount of calories as a human (around 2000ish), but they process food so efficiently that one good meal a day is normal, so they appear to eat less.

💧Hydration: Due to their highly efficient kidneys, they need less water. Around two litres of water every day will keep them nicely hydrated.

⚠️Limits: They can go without any food for up to two weeks and up to five days without water before showing symptoms of starvation and dehydration, though they will get increasingly, err, tetchy.

👽Gallifreyan vs. Human Diet

If a Gallifreyan ate like the average human, it wouldn't be catastrophic, but there may be noticeable effects:

🍔Over-nutrition: Given their efficiency in nutrient extraction, consuming the same amount as humans would likely lead to excessive intake, resulting in unwanted weight gain. Their bodies simply don't need as much food to get the same nutrients.

🥤Hydration Overload: Drinking the recommended 2-3 litres of water daily might lead to more frequent urination and unnecessary stress on their kidneys.

🧇Cholesterol and Fats: Gallifreyans can metabolise fats without the negative effects humans face. However, an abundance of unhealthy fats could still challenge their otherwise efficient system over time.

🍫Special Nutritional Requirements

Good news for all the intergalactic nutritionists out there-Gallifreyans and humans have very similar nutritional needs. There are no specific nutrients unique to either species' requirements. However, there are some considerations:

🥛Low Sodium: Their kidneys are excellent at filtering, but a low-sodium diet helps prevent any unnecessary strain.

🍌High Protein and Enzymes: Due to their active metabolism and physical demands, Gallifreyans benefit from higher protein intake and foods rich in enzymes to support their robust bodily functions.

🥬Nutrient Imbalances: Certain foods, especially those rich in Vitamin K (like kale and spinach) and gingerol (found in ginger), could cause issues. Vitamin K can affect their blood chemistry, while gingerol will enhance the effects of other substances, making alcohol, for instance, much more potent.

🌟Special Conditions: In cases of illness or certain medical conditions, Gallifreyans might need to consume specific substances to correct nutrient deficiencies. This might include particular proteins or compounds not commonly found in a regular human diet.

🏫 So ...

So while Gallifreyans can survive on a human diet, their advanced physiology allows them to thrive on less frequent, nutrient-dense meals. So, if you're planning a Gallifreyan dinner party, think high-protein, low-sodium, and for Rassilon's sake, hide that ginger beer.

Related:

Are there any foods that Gallifreyans can eat that humans can’t?: What foods Gallifreyans could eat that humans don’t, with some theoretical examples.

Do Gallifreyans control how quickly their body processes alcohol?: Gallifreyan alcohol processing, its limitations, and the dangers of ginger.

How much caffeine can a Gallifreyan handle?: Caffeine tolerance, with theoretical limits and symptoms of overconsumption.

Hope that helped! 😃

Any purple text is educated guesswork or theoretical. More content ... →📫Got a question? | 📚Complete list of Q+A and factoids →😆Jokes |🩻Biology |🗨️Language |🕰️Throwbacks |🤓Facts →🫀Gallifreyan Anatomy and Physiology Guide (pending) →⚕️Gallifreyan Emergency Medicine Guides →📝Source list (WIP) →📜Masterpost If you're finding your happy place in this part of the internet, feel free to buy a coffee to help keep our exhausted human conscious. She works full-time in medicine and is so very tired😴

[mixelation]

i don't consume a lot of sci-fi on my own, but my family likes to, and my sibling in particular likes to send me sci-fi biology to rate it. here's how i like sci-fi biology:

consulted an actual expert (and then listened) - very rare, but very fun. star trek on good days* does this. futurama often combines this one with the next one for very fun results

intentionally completely stupid - love it, don't take take yourself seriously <3

handwave-y - this is less common in "hard" sci-fi for some reason (i think because the assumption is a reader WANTS an explanation?), even though it's really the best narrative way to do it. it's not your job to come up with how someone evolves telepathy or how it works on a biochemical level

flubbed the landing - used a real biological concept and then proceeded to demonstrate a complete lack of understanding of it. an example would be some novel where the main character explained that squids can evolve faster than other species because they do a lot of RNA splicing.** it's true! they do do that! also: not how evolution works! this one annoys me less because the writer made a mistake and more when a lot of the reader chatter is swooning over how ~smart~ it is fdhsjkhdjsk

unintentionally completely stupid - says a lot of biology jargon to say absolutely nothing, but takes itself very seriously. (grips star wars by the shoulders) stop trying to use actual science. you are a fantasy story set in space. go back to the wizards

*"good days" = good science days. i don't consume enough star trek to evaluate if it also correlated with good STORY days

**RNA splicing = okay so you're probably aware dna -> rna -> protein. well, you can hack up the rna into different configurations so that one chunk of dna can then make multiple types of proteins. (rna can also have functions beyond just being a protein blue print because rna exists to make a biologist's life Hard)

[bpod-bpod]

Stretcher Bearer

A protein called zyxin is important for the function of kidneys – it translates the mechanical forces experienced by podocytes [specialised cells of the kidney ], for example stretched by hypertension, acting to stabilise them

Read the published research article here

Image from work by Felix Kliewe and colleagues

Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany

Image originally published with a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)

Published in Communications Biology, April 2024

You can also follow BPoD on Instagram, Twitter and Facebook

[theradicalscrivener]

I know your stories are written to be hot and not realistic and practical (I mean, you have so many characters with 13 inches of cock that are somehow having sex with a lot of people without issues, and in real life a 13 inches cock would be a terrifyingly hot thing to behold, yet probably impossible to take without hurting oneself). But I cannot stop thinking about something very mundane... How does Elroy (from Coupon: Littlest) pee now? Like his dick is smaller than his shaved pubes. Peeing must either take a long time... Or... I don't know.

It's such a hot story, but at the end I always wondered about that.

A similar concern I have with stories where the characters shrink to impossibly small levels, because... Like... How do they survive? Don't get me wrong, being shrunk to subatomic level is such a hot idea... But you would end up dying from being unable to breath.

Do you think about these things? I understand we are meant to just ignore them. And I normally do. But sometimes I just can't help it and contemplate how these characters live their lives after their respective transformations.

I do think about these things somewhat, but at a certain point, it's best to just suspend disbelief. Like, with the shrunken characters, I know that at a certain size they wouldn't even be able to breathe. Like, air molecules would be bigger than their airways. It's fun to bounce around ideas to explain these things, but if I spend too much time on something, or if I decide that the act of answering it would detract too much from the fun of the scenario it's best to just kind of do a "It's fine. Don't worry about it. *wink*" The whole point of these "what if scenarios" and such when I answer questions of this nature is to add more fun to the situation, not to pick it apart.

Like I had mentioned a few times in the past the the Trevor guys had some physical changes (other than just their actual size) when they shrunk. Not only are they more durable, but their actual organs would be inoperable if they literally were just the same as before but smaller. The answer I kinda gave was "It Just Works" because I would have to completely rewrite the laws of biology and physics to make it work, and to a certain degree that's what happens in each scenario. Like yeah, it's not physically possible for someone's dick to get that large/small, but if it was, we'd have to assume we're already in a world where it's possible, so what does that say about the laws of that reality?

So for example, in the Trevor stories. It shouldn't be possible for a dude to get shrunk down so small that he could use bacteria as a teddy bear, but it happened, so what do we make of it? Is he really breathing? Is there some sort of respiration that science is not totally aware of that functions in these smaller sizes? Maybe studying Mitch will help scientists understand microscopic life more. Do viruses breathe? Do they need oxygen? Or maybe some other gas. They're mostly carbon based, right? Currently, science sees viruses as clusters of protein with only the barest of computing powers. These things couldn't even run DOOM. They're not Alive in the traditional sense... at least not in a way that we can determine. Maybe there's matter between the gaps of what we currently understand. Maybe they breathe quarks as easily as we breathe air.

I do like to play with the rules of the real world and stick to the fringes of what is plausible, but at the end of the day, the answer to "how does it work" is always "what makes the scenario more fun". If it detracts from the story to think too hard on it, I just wave my hands and say "it just works."

As for El... I feel like I've joked in the past that with a dick that size, he'd need a catheter or he'd be in a constant state of dribbling. It's too small to get an actual stream going and the amount he squeezes out is too small to really make a stain. Just stick a pad down there and let it ride.

[mariacallous]

De-extinction startup Colossal Biosciences wants to bring back the woolly mammoth. Well, not the woolly mammoth exactly, but an Asian elephant gene-edited to give it the fuzzy hair and layer of blubber that allowed its close relative to thrive in sub-zero environments.

To get to these so-called “functional mammoths,” Colossal’s scientists need to solve a whole bunch of challenges: making the right genetic tweaks, growing edited cells into fully formed baby functional mammoths, and finding a space where these animals can thrive. It’s a long, uncertain road, but the startup has just announced a small breakthrough that should ease some of the way forward.

Scientists at Colossal have managed to reprogram Asian elephant cells into an embryonic-like state that can give rise to every other cell type. This opens up a path to creating elephant sperm and eggs in the lab and being able to test gene edits without having to frequently take tissue samples from living elephants. The research, which hasn’t yet been released in a peer-reviewed scientific journal, will be published on the preprint server Biorxiv.

There are only around 30,000 to 50,000 Asian elephants in the wild, so access to these animals—and particularly their sperm and eggs—is extremely limited. Yet Colossal needs these cells if they’re going to figure out how to bring their functional mammoths to life. “With so few fertile female elephants, we really don’t want to interfere with their reproduction at all. We want to do it independently,” says George Church, a Harvard geneticist and Colossal cofounder.

The cells that Colossal created are called induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), and they behave a lot like the stems cells found in an embryo. Embryonic stem cells have the ability to give rise to all kinds of different cell types that make up organisms—a quality that scientists call pluripotency. Most cells, however, lose this ability as the organism develops. Human skin, for instance, can’t spontaneously turn into muscle or cells that line the inside of the intestine.

In 2006, the Japanese scientist Shinya Yamanaka showed it was possible to take mature cells and turn them back into a pluripotent state. Yamanaka’s research was in mice cells, but later scientists followed up by deriving iPSCs for lots of different species, including humans, horses, pigs, cattle, monkeys, and the northern white rhino—a functionally extinct subspecies with only two individuals, both females, remaining in the wild.

Reprogramming Asian elephant cells into iPSCs proved trickier than with other species, says Eriona Hysolli, head of biological sciences at Colossal. As with other species, the scientists reprogrammed the elephant cells by exposing them to a series of different chemicals and then adding proteins called transcription factors that turn on particular genes to change how the cells functions. The whole process took two months, which is much longer than the 5 to 10 days it takes to create mouse iPSCs or the three weeks for human iPSCs.

This difficulty might have to do with the unique biology of elephants, says Vincent Lynch, a developmental biologist at the University at Buffalo in New York who wasn’t involved in the Colossal study. Elephants are the classic example of Peto’s paradox—the idea that very large animals have unusually low rates of cancer given their size. Since cancer can be caused by genetic mutations that accumulate as cells divide, you’d expect that animals with 100 times more cells than humans would have a much higher risk of cancer.

But elephants have cancer rates even lower than humans—a surprising fact given their vast size. One hypothesis for elephants’ cancer-defying biology is that they carry lots of copies of a tumor-suppressing gene called P53. Humans, on the other hand, only have one copy of this gene.

P53 is good for elephant health, but it could be the reason that up until now scientists have struggled to create iPSCs from elephant cells, Lynch says. One way the gene seems to work is by stopping cells from entering a state where they can duplicate indefinitely, which is one of the key features of iPSCs.

Hysolli says that she’d like to reduce the time it takes to create elephant iPSCs, and refine the process so the Colossal team can produce them at a greater scale. The iPSCs will be particularly useful if Colossal’s scientists can turn them into sperm and egg cells, something that Hysolli’s team is already working on. Since there is a relatively limited supply of elephant eggs and sperm, one problem facing the de-extinction project is getting enough genetic diversity to support a population of functional mammoths—develop them from too few individuals, and you risk the negative effects of inbreeding. Being able to create sperm and egg cells in the lab should help with that, Church says.

These cells could also be useful for conservation work, Hysolli says. Colossal has partnered with researchers working on elephant endotheliotropic herpes virus (EEHV), a leading cause of death for young Asian elephants. The iPSCs could be a good way to figure out how the virus infects different cell types. The cells will also be useful for testing whether Colossal’s edits to produce mammoth-like fur and fat layers are working as scientists hope.

“I have no doubt that given enough time and money they will overcome the technical challenges of making a woolly-mammoth-looking elephant,” says Lynch. But he’s less convinced of the ecological benefits of de-extinction. The startup intends to introduce the elephant-mammoth hybrids into the wild to re-create the role once played by the mammoth in the Arctic ecosystem, grazing the land and trampling snow cover, potentially decelerating the melting of permafrost.

“How many hairy Asian elephants do you need to make that work?” Lynch asks. Whether there really is a niche for edited elephants in the Arctic 4,000 years after mammoths last roamed the area is a question that conservationists are still grappling with. Sure, scientists might be able to create mammoth-like Asian elephants, but whether we should is open to much debate.

Colossal’s scientists will be glad if they get to that point. Although they have elephant iPSCs, much of the work of creating elephant-mammoth hybrids is ahead of them. They must figure out how to create elephant sperm and egg cells, master the right edits to tweak their elephants, and take their creation through the 22-month Asian elephant gestation period. And then they have to do it enough times to build a population that can actually deliver on some of their ecological aims.

“It feels very significant,” Church says of the iPSC breakthrough. “This is a very big deal.” If Colossal is going to deliver on its de-extinction mission, then there will be many other moments like this ahead.

[stroyent]

ive seen you mention your thesis a few times, can I know what you’re studying? 👀 i am simply very curious

Thanks for asking! I really appreciate the fact that you've noticed and got interested! <3 It's gonna be long oops

I'm getting a Bachelor's in biology. Most of my peers have already got their Master's, but I'm a bit slow, which is okay (even though I still feel slightly ashamed).

I've chosen the bioinformatics department because I don't like doing things with my hands lol. I'd rather write some code than spend all day in the lab (and possibly fuck something up). I also like neuroscience, it was the main reason I chose biology after dropping out of physics.

So my thesis is about using gene networks (basically graphs with genes/proteins as vertices and different kinds of connections between them as edges) to compare the molecular mechanisms of autism (ASD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Important note: I know that autism is not a disease that has to be cured, it's the society that needs to change. But we can't change it quickly enough, and some unpleasant brain things can be alleviated with medicine. We know that there are quite a lot of approved drugs for AD, but not that many for treating some symptoms or ASD. We also know ASD and AD share some common mechanisms: for example, they're noth tied to the mTOR signaling pathway.

A signaling pathway is a series of reactions in cells that starts with a signal (which can be a molecule (hormone, growth factor, etc.) or a physical stimulus (electrical signal, temperature, pressure) depending on the pathway) and ends with the cell performing some function. The mTOR pathway regulates protein synthesis in all cells. When it's hyperactivated, more protein is produced in general, but in brain cells, it's especially important to keep all the specific proteins at the optimal levels. So dysregulation of this pathway can lead to various disorders. But! There are drugs that can help with this dysregulation, and some of them are used for AD. That means it's possible to use them for ASD as well.

In my work, I've found several drugs that haven't been tested for ASD yet but have the potential because they've been approved for AD. That's good results I think :)

If you've read this far, thank you!! If you have any questions, I'll be glad to answer :)

[female-malice]

"But we can only get vitamin B12 from meat!!!"

Actually, we've been producing B12 through precision fermentation for 40 years.

Precision Fermentation (the marriage between precision biology and fermentation, as explained here) is simply the next step from the industrial fermentation that featured heavily throughout the 20th century, which itself was just the industrialization of a process we’ve been using to produce everyday foodstuffs for thousands of years. Producers used natural strains of microbes in large quantities and in the right conditions to produce complex organic molecules efficiently. Many familiar products were produced this way, including ethanol for alcoholic drinks or fuel, n-butanol for rubber production, penicillin, citric acid, amino acids (especially the ubiquitous flavoring agent MSG and animal feed ingredients lysine & methionine) and vitamins such as C, B2, B12 and D2.

The cost of PF has fallen dramatically, opening up possibilities for its use across a variety of different industries. For example, yields in vitamin production have skyrocketed thanks to PF, particularly B2 (riboflavin) and B12, as well as those in industrial enzyme production. These particular enzymes break down starches, proteins and fats and have been produced using fermentation in many industries, including food, detergents, textiles, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. The introduction of PF means they can now function in far more varied industrial conditions – for example hotter, colder, more acidic – and so can be used in a far wider range of applications.

[qrovidcore]

YES HI THANK YOU FOR ASKING. very sorry that my sources on all of this is that I covered it in anatomy/evolution in undergrad several years ago and cannot link class notes of a class I haven't been in in several years, but it's not terribly hard to go looking for further information on this subject!!

what this post and everyone on it is missing is that we're not talking about light refraction in the sense of how colors are made - yes light bounces off of everything and everything reflects back the wavelength you see it as - but the fact that bird feather structures are incredibly complex and varied, and that different bird colors are derived from very different sources!!! ultimately anatomy wasn't the area into which I concentrated, but as we broadly covered it, the distinctions between sources of feather color work something like this:

so one way that bird feathers can obtain color is via production of pigments by the bird itself. brown and black hues, for example, are derived from melanin in the feather, much the same way that they are in human skin! the key thing to note here is that melanins are pigments. they are molecules produced by the bird's body to color the feather, which, yes those molecules refract light, but that light refraction is the result of pigmentation. remember that.

the other way to acquire color via pigmentation is via absorption though the diet. for example, you've got your bright reds, yellows, and oranges: all of that is carotenoids! the key difference between these and melanins is that these hues are not being produced by the bird itself. pigment granules in these bird feather are designed to absorb pigmentation from plants that these birds eat, which is what gives these feathers their coloration. and as i said - these are also pigments!!! they may be made by plants and not by birds, but they are nonetheless pigments that result in feather coloration.

okay now onto the fun stuff: when we say that blue feathers are just light refraction, what is meant by that is that there is no blue pigmentation in feathers. it's not produced by melanins, or by carotenoids, or any other kind of pigment granule, but rather by the physical structure of the bird feather itself. it's the structures of the proteins within the feather that refracts the light resulting in the hue we see rather than pigmentation!! and the structures in question are different from that of feathers that don't feature those hues, and are in fact different for the different colors produced in this way!! while flat colors like blues are produced by a spongy cortex that refracts light in one direction, iridescent feathers are given their iridescence by their slatted, prismatic cortices!! if i recall correctly, the brilliant iridescence of hummingbird feathers is a result of a unique, particularly complex prismatic feather structure.

anyhow!!!!!! this is about the sum of my firsthand knowledge on this, and i went on to do cellular/molecular biology, and so didn't delve into any further complexities here, but it's stuck with me and i always thought it was super cool!!!!!!!! but yeah, the idea that something isn't ~really~ a color because there's no pigmentation is kind of a misnomer, and is very much caused by people completely missing the structure-function relationships in how color is produced!!!

my bonus fun fact here is that feathers are, evolutionarily speaking, highly specialized scales! they arose from the same place, in an evolutionary development sense of the phrase - the fancy bio term for this is homology!! to clarify though, bird feathers are homologous to the scales of reptiles - fish scales are a completely unrelated case of convergent evolution, and work differently altogether.

hope this was interesting!!!!!!! thank you for asking!!!!!!!!!

[harshwemarket]

Enzymes Market Revenue Expected to Hit USD 27.58 Billion by 2034

Enzymes serve as essential biocatalysts that significantly influence the rates of biochemical reactions in a variety of industrial applications. Their application in sectors such as chemical engineering, food technology, and agriculture highlights their adaptability and critical role. As enzyme technology continues to advance, these biocatalysts are increasingly acknowledged for their ability to reduce costs, improve substrate quality, and accelerate production processes.  

The enzymes market is anticipated to experience a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 4.9% from 2024 to 2034. By the year 2034, the market size is expected to reach USD 27.58 billion, reflecting a consistent growth trajectory. In 2024, the global revenue from the enzymes market is projected to be USD 11.73 billion. 

Know More: https://wemarketresearch.com/reports/enzymes-market/1592  

Enzymes have significant applications in the detergent industry, where they aid in the effective removal of stains from fabrics. Their enzymatic action breaks down complex stains into simpler components that can be easily washed away, providing an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional detergents. This approach not only enhances cleaning efficiency but also reduces water and energy consumption during laundry processes.  

In the food and beverage industry, enzymes are integral to various processes, including baking, brewing, and cheese making. For example, amylases are essential for converting starches into fermentable sugars in the brewing process. Likewise, proteases are employed to tenderize meat and improve the flavor of numerous food items, delivering functional advantages that meet consumer expectations for quality and taste.  

The pharmaceutical sector also utilizes enzymes in drug formulation. Enzyme-based medications are transforming the treatment landscape for chronic illnesses such as cancer and AIDS. The precision of enzyme action enables targeted therapies that can improve treatment effectiveness while minimizing side effects. Additionally, enzymes play a crucial role in biotechnology, particularly in molecular biology research. They are used in genetic engineering to cut, replicate, and join DNA strands, allowing researchers to manipulate genetic material for both research and therapeutic applications. 

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The expansion of the global enzymes market is influenced by multiple factors. There is an increasing demand for biofuels derived from cellulosic and amylase sources, highlighting a transition towards sustainable energy alternatives. Moreover, the growing requirement for pharmaceuticals and cosmetics that utilize enzymes is becoming more pronounced. Consumers are also showing a heightened interest in functional foods and beverages that provide health advantages, which further drives the need for enzyme applications. However, the market faces certain challenges. Regulatory limitations concerning the chemical characteristics of enzymes and safety issues related to contamination may hinder growth. Nevertheless, innovations in enzyme technology, particularly in protein engineering, offer a promising avenue for addressing these challenges. Additionally, emerging economies represent significant opportunities for enzyme applications, especially in the fields of agriculture and food production.  

The global enzymes market is categorized by type, with carbohydrases, proteases, lipases, polymerases, and nucleases playing crucial roles. In 2021, carbohydrases accounted for approximately 40% of the market share, largely due to their extensive application in the pharmaceutical and food sectors. Proteases, known for their ability to process proteins, are the second-largest contributors to market revenue. Conversely, polymerase and nuclease enzymes exhibit considerable growth potential, with an anticipated compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 9.6% during the forecast period.  

As the global focus on sustainability and health intensifies, the significance of enzymes in industrial applications is expected to grow even more. These biocatalysts not only enhance processes but also offer a more efficient and eco-friendly method of manufacturing and production across various industries. 

Market Segments: 

By Source: 

Plants 

Animals 

Microorganisms 

By Product 

Carbohydrases 

Proteases 

Lipases 

Polymerases & Nucleases 

Others 

By Form: 

Liquid Enzymes 

Powder Enzymes 

Granular Enzymes 

By Application: 

Food and Beverages 

Detergents 

Pharmaceuticals 

Biofuels 

Textiles 

Animal Feed 

Pulp & Paper 

Nutraceuticals 

Personal Care & Cosmetics 

Wastewater Treatment 

Key Market Players 

The enzymes market is primarily dominated by several major companies, including: 

Novozymes A/S 

Danisco (DuPont) 

BASF SE 

DSM 

Amano Enzyme Inc. 

Merck KGaA 

AB Enzymes GmbH 

Roche Holding AG 

Codexis, Inc. 

Genomatica, Inc. 

SABIC 

Reasons to Buying From us -  1. We cover more than 15 major industries, further segmented into more than 90 sectors.  2. More than 120 countries are for analysis.  3. Over 100+ paid data sources mined for investigation.  4. Our expert research analysts answer all your questions before and after purchasing your report. 

Key offerings: 

Market Share, Size, and Forecast by Revenue|2024-2030 

Market Dynamics- Growth drivers, Restraints, Investment Opportunities, and key trends 

Market Segmentation- A detailed analysis of each segment and their segments 

Competitive Landscape - Leading key players and other prominent key players. 

Explore More Reports:  

PCR Technologies Market https://wemarketresearch.com/reports/polymerase-chain-reaction-market/1590  

IoT in Smart Cities: Market https://wemarketresearch.com/reports/iot-in-smart-cities-market/1591  

Conclusion: 

Enzymes have firmly established themselves as indispensable biocatalysts, driving efficiency and innovation across diverse industries such as chemical engineering, food technology, and agriculture. Their versatility in enhancing reaction rates, reducing costs, and optimizing product quality has led to widespread adoption. As advancements in enzyme technology continue, their impact on industrial processes will only grow stronger. The future of the enzymes market looks promising, with a projected CAGR of 4.9% from 2024 to 2034. By 2034, the market is expected to reach a value of USD 27.58 billion, up from USD 11.73 billion in 2024, demonstrating consistent growth and the increasing reliance on these vital biocatalysts for sustainable production solutions. 

[asegbolu]

First Term Mid Term Test Food and Nutrition SS 1 First Term Lesson Notes

Mid-Term Assessment Assessment Components: Part A: Objective Questions (Fill-in-the-Blank with Options) ______ is the study of food and how it nourishes the body. a) Biology b) Chemistry c) Nutrition d) Physics Which of the following is an example of a carbohydrate? a) Butter b) Fish c) Rice d) Salt One function of proteins in the body is to ______. a) Provide energy b) Build and repair…

[education24x7]

Genetics and Evolution – Class 12 Notes

Genetics and evolution

Genetics and evolution are two core areas in biology that delve into the inheritance of traits and the gradual development of species over generations. This article provides a comprehensive overview of these topics for Class 12 students, covering key concepts such as heredity, genetic material, Mendelian laws, variations, and evolutionary theories.

Part 1: Genetics – The Science of Heredity

Genetics is the study of heredity and variations. It explains how traits are passed down from one generation to the next and why organisms exhibit differences despite having the same ancestors. Key topics in genetics include genes, inheritance patterns, and molecular mechanisms.

1. Genes and Chromosomes

Genes: Genes are segments of DNA that determine specific traits. They act as instructions for producing proteins, which are essential for cell functions.

Chromosomes: In organisms, DNA is packaged into chromosomes. Humans, for example, have 23 pairs of chromosomes, containing thousands of genes.

2. Mendelian Genetics

Gregor Mendel, known as the "Father of Genetics," conducted experiments with pea plants to uncover how traits are inherited. His work led to the formulation of the Laws of Inheritance.

Law of Dominance: In a heterozygous pair of alleles (gene variants), the dominant allele expresses itself, masking the effect of the recessive allele.

Law of Segregation: Each organism inherits two alleles for each trait (one from each parent), which separate during gamete formation. This results in each gamete carrying only one allele for each trait.

Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits segregate independently of each other, giving rise to varied combinations in offspring.

3. Genetic Crosses

Mendel’s experiments led to the monohybrid cross (one trait) and dihybrid cross (two traits). These crosses help predict the genotype and phenotype of offspring:

Monohybrid Cross: A cross examining one trait. For instance, crossing tall (TT) and dwarf (tt) pea plants results in tall plants in the F1 generation, but a 3:1 tall-to-dwarf ratio in F2.

Dihybrid Cross: A cross examining two traits. Crossing plants with two traits like round and yellow seeds (RRYY) and wrinkled green seeds (rryy) yields a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio.

4. Deviations from Mendelian Genetics

Not all traits follow Mendelian patterns. Some exhibit Incomplete Dominance (blended traits, e.g., pink flowers in snapdragons from red and white parents) and Codominance (both alleles express simultaneously, e.g., AB blood group).

5. Multiple Alleles and Polygenic Inheritance

Multiple Alleles: Some traits are determined by more than two alleles, such as blood type in humans (A, B, and O alleles).

Polygenic Inheritance: Traits like skin color and height are controlled by multiple genes. Each gene adds to the cumulative effect, resulting in a continuous range of phenotypes.

6. Genetic Disorders

Genetic mutations can lead to disorders, categorized as:

Mendelian Disorders: Caused by single-gene mutations, e.g., hemophilia and sickle cell anemia.

Chromosomal Disorders: Result from abnormalities in chromosome number or structure, e.g., Down syndrome (trisomy 21), Turner syndrome (missing X chromosome in females).

Part 2: Evolution – Change Over Time

Evolution is the gradual development of organisms from simple to complex forms over millions of years. It explains how new species arise and adapt to their environment.

1. Theories of Evolution

Several theories attempt to explain how evolution occurs.

Lamarck’s Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics: Proposed by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, it suggests that traits acquired during an organism's lifetime can be passed down to offspring. Though later discredited, this theory contributed to evolutionary thinking.

Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection: Charles Darwin proposed that organisms with favorable traits have higher survival and reproduction rates, allowing these traits to persist and accumulate in populations. Key principles of natural selection include variation, competition, and survival of the fittest.

Neo-Darwinism: Incorporates Darwin’s ideas with modern genetics, explaining evolution through natural selection acting on genetic variations and mutations.

2. Mechanisms of Evolution

Evolution occurs through several mechanisms:

Mutation: Random changes in DNA that create new alleles and contribute to genetic diversity.

Genetic Drift: Random changes in allele frequency, more pronounced in small populations, leading to evolution.

Gene Flow: Movement of genes between populations, contributing to genetic diversity.

Natural Selection: Favorable traits increase an organism’s chances of survival and reproduction, becoming more common in the population.

3. Speciation and Types of Evolution

Speciation: The process by which new species arise due to genetic changes that cause reproductive isolation.

Allopatric Speciation: Occurs when populations are geographically separated, leading to new species.

Sympatric Speciation: New species form in the same geographic area due to reproductive barriers.

Types of Evolution:

Divergent Evolution: When a species diverges into multiple forms, each adapting to a different environment, like Darwin's finches.

Convergent Evolution: Different species develop similar traits due to similar environmental pressures, e.g., wings in bats and birds.

4. Evidence of Evolution

Multiple lines of evidence support the theory of evolution:

Fossil Record: Fossils reveal gradual changes in organisms over time, providing a historical record of life on Earth.

Comparative Anatomy: Homologous structures (similar structures in different species) suggest a common ancestor, while analogous structures (similar functions but different structures) result from convergent evolution.

Embryology: Similarities in embryos of different species suggest a shared ancestry.

Molecular Evidence: DNA and protein similarities between species indicate evolutionary relationships. Molecular clocks estimate when species diverged by comparing genetic differences.

5. Human Evolution

Humans evolved through a series of stages from primate ancestors:

Early Ancestors: Hominins, a group including Homo species, showed gradual evolution in traits like bipedalism, brain size, and tool use.

Homo erectus and Neanderthals: These ancestors displayed advanced tool use and social behaviors.

Homo sapiens: Modern humans appeared about 200,000 years ago, showing sophisticated tool use, language, and culture.

Part 3: Genetics and Evolution in Modern Biology

Genetics and evolution form the foundation of modern biology and have significant applications:

Genomics and Biotechnology: Advances in genetics allow scientists to manipulate DNA, leading to developments in medicine, agriculture, and industry.

Conservation Biology: Understanding genetic diversity is essential for conserving endangered species and managing biodiversity.

Human Health: Genetic research helps in identifying genetic diseases, understanding inheritance patterns, and developing gene therapies.

Conclusion

Genetics and evolution are intertwined fields that reveal how life diversifies and adapts over time. Genetics provides the blueprint for inheritance, while evolution explains the transformation of species. Together, these disciplines have transformed our understanding of life, from the level of individual genes to the complexity of ecosystems. By exploring genetic mechanisms and evolutionary theories, we gain insights into the origins, adaptations, and future of life on Earth.