#Islamic lineage preservation

[infiniti-islam]

Lovestuck Narrative: The Controversy Of Rasulullah With His Adopted Son's Wife

Introduction Typical tactic for the missionaries, Christians in general, and all the critics is to use this argument to portray how Rasulullah SAW lusted over his adopted son Zayd bin Harithah’s wife. According to them, this is immoral and Rasulullah’s teaching are driven by sexual desire some sort. Other than the marriage of Rasulullah with Aisha, this is the most used argument to diminish…

[eretzyisrael]

Israeli and European archaeologists provide new insight into the mystery of ancient Gaza wine

By JUDY SIEGEL-ITZKOVICH

Published: APRIL 27, 2023 15:22

Grape pips (seeds) that were excavated from a Byzantine monastery in the Negev hint at the origins of the ‘mysterious’ Gaza wine and the history of grapevine cultivation in desert conditions. One of the seeds – probably from a white grape – has been dated to the 8th century and may be the earliest of its kind documented anywhere in the world. 

It is thought it could be linked to the sweet white wine - the Gaza wine - that archaeologists have seen references to in historical records, but a lack of evidence of white varieties from the period has until now left uncertainty over its true origins. The wine was produced in the Negev and shipped across the Byzantine Empire, as well as to Germany, France, and Britain, where it is thought to have been enjoyed by royal households. 

Researchers at Tel Aviv University (TAU) including Dr. Meirav Meiri of the Steinhardt Museum of Natural History and Israel National Center for Biodiversity Studies; the University of York (England); and the University of Copenhagen (Denmark) used genetic analyses to identify several different grape cultivars that were grown in Negev vineyards including both white and black grapes. Colleagues at the University of Haifa, Bar-Ilan University and the Israel Antiquities Authority collaborated in the study, which was published in the Proceedings of the [US] National Academy of Sciences under the title “New insight into the mystery of ancient Gaza wine.” 

Identifying characteristics of ancient grape seeds

Dr. Nathan Wales from the University of York’s archaeology department commented that “this is the first time that genetics has been used to identify the color of an ancient grape and gives us a glimpse into the internationally famous Gaza wine during the period.  It also gave us the opportunity to link ancient seeds with modern varieties that are still grown around the Mediterranean today.”

“The modern winemaking industry is heavily reliant on a limited number of European grape cultivars that are best suited for cultivation in temperate climates. Global warming emphasizes the need for diversity in this high-impact agricultural crop. Grapevine lineages bred in hot and arid regions, often preserved over centuries, may present an alternative to the classic winemaking grape cultivars,” the team wrote.

“Our study of a legacy grapevine variety from the Negev Highlands desert of southern Israel sheds light on its genetics, biological properties, and lasting impact.”

Since the domestication of the wild vine in Southwest Asia over 6,000 years ago, it is been primarily grown for wine. Viticulture (grape growing) and viniculture (winemaking) evolved along multiple historical pathways in diverse wine regions and produced a myriad of legacy cultivars, the team wrote. 

Wales added that identifying the grape varieties that grew in the Negev during the Byzantine period and the genetic characteristics that were nurtured in these dry, desert conditions, could provide valuable insights into how plant varieties could be developed to resist the extremes of climate conditions today.”

The grapevines made some of the largest profits of any crop in Byzantine times and trade from Negev with Lebanon and Crete, for example, have sprung modern varieties of red wine that are still produced in these areas today. “Despite the Early Islamic (seventh to tenth centuries) and the Mamluk (13th century) enforcement of Muslim law that forbids wine production and consumption, vines continued to be cultivated for the local consumption of table grapes, raisins and, in limited amounts, ceremonial wine among Jews and Christians,” the team wrote. “However, knowledge of the specific grapevine cultivated in the Negev was lost.”

[blackcandlesinwinter]

Huh... but it is essentially a "history is written by the victors" situation. It's not that Europe stole or conquered mathematics from India; it's that the narratives that were constructed around the development of math and science centuries later almost exclusively center European contributions rather than contributions from other places and people (at least in the US - can't speak for other places).

To be clear, my experience is the history that is taught to physicists of our field at the college level. There are probably academic historians out there doing great work, but the average expert in the field of Physics in the US is not going to know anything about any of that. In our physics textbooks and classes, we learn about a handful of Greek scientists of Aristotle's time, and then skip ahead to the 1500's or 1600's in Western Europe as if nothing happened in between. It's not even just that books leave things out - they also include outright misinformation. I've had to request revisions to multiple college textbooks for making egregiously incorrect claims like "Aristotle's view of scientific methodology was entirely unquestioned until Galileo." This is the education that college-level physics students are getting about the history of their field!

I spend a little time at the start of my college Physics lectures informing students a about some of the lineage behind our most fundamental principles, including contributions from communities of scholars in India, Alexandria, around the Islamic Empire, etc, and they are always flabbergasted. In my years of teaching college students, basically none of them have ever heard anything about any of this. Instead, they've heard things like "Newton invented Calculus" (AAAUUGHH! NO!!!!).

Now, I don't think there's some overt, sinister plot on the part of textbook authors to erase people of color. This is just a part of the fabric of colonialism: over the course of hundreds of years, certain narratives are assumed to be more worth telling and preserving, certain languages are more commonly translated and recorded in the standard literature, certain information is more accessible, certain names are considered easier to spell and pronounce and therefore more likely to be assigned to laws, etc etc. Most modern people are just working with what they know. But that doesn't change the fact that this is absolutely a product of colonialism and privileging European narratives and contributions over others for the past several hundred years. It's just bonkers that every US-educated physicist can name Newton, Galileo, Boltzmann, Kepler, Pascal, Archimedes, Kirchoff, Ampere, Bernoulli, Faraday, Maxwell, Gauss, Biot-Savart (though they generally pronounce it wrong), and a few dozen more European names by the laws and theorems named after them and yet most probably don't know the name of a single Islamic scholar. That is absolutely a by-product of colonialism - I'm kind of confused that you seem to be suggesting that it's not, unless I'm misunderstanding.

Here's the link to the video

👏 SAY 👏 IT 👏 LOUDER 👏

[celestialdnagenome]

Paternal Haplogroup J and Abraham’s Lineage

The Paternal Y Chromosome Haplogroup J is a genetic signature tracing back to the Near East including ancient Mesopotamia, with its origins often linked to the Fertile Crescent, a cradle of early civilization. 

Abraham, the patriarch of the Ishmaelites and the Israelites, was born in Ur, Mesopotamia, and later settled in Canaan. Ur, was a prominent Sumerian city-state, where the primary deity worshipped was Nanna, the Sumerian Moon god.

The Sumerian primary deity was An. The Sumerians believed An, was the creator of the cosmos, setting all creation into motion. An, was regarded as the father of the gods. An, is known as Anu by the Akkadians.

In contrast, The chief deity worshipped in Canaan was El, regarded as the father of the gods, creator of the world, and ruler of the divine council.

Here we illustrate two major branches descending from Abraham: Ishmael, representing the Arabian lineage, and Isaac, the ancestral line of the Israelites.

Through Ishmael’s lineage, we trace the Quraysh tribe of Arabia, which includes notable figures such as the Prophet Muhammad and the Hashemite lineage. J-L859 is recognized as the genetic signature of the Hashemites, a clan within the Quraysh tribe.

This clan, known as Banu Hashim, derives its name from the Prophet Muhammad's great-grandfather, Hashim ibn Abd Manaf. The Hashemites are direct descendants of the Prophet through his daughter Fatima and her husband Ali ibn Abi Talib, who was also the Prophet’s paternal first cousin and the fourth caliph of Islam. Ali and Fatima had two sons, Al-Hassan and Al-Hussein, further solidifying the Hashemite legacy.

On Isaac’s side, we find the priestly lineage of Aaron. J-Z18271 is identified as the genetic signature of the Jewish Priesthood, the Kohanim lineage. This ancient priestly class, traces its heritage to Aaron, the elder brother of Moses. The Jewish priesthood began when Moses anointed Aaron as the first high priest, establishing a sacred lineage that has been preserved through generations.

The story of Paternal Haplogroup J, traced through Abraham’s lineage, serves as a profound reminder of our shared origins and interconnected histories. From Mesopotamia to Canaan and beyond, these lineages have left an indelible mark on humanity, shaping cultures, religions, and civilizations.

Whether through the Arabian Hashemite lineage or the Israelite Kohanim priesthood, these genetic threads weave a rich tapestry of faith, heritage, and resilience. They remind us that, despite our differences, we are bound by a common ancestry that continues to influence and inspire the world today.

[irunevenus]

Matriarchal Societies

1. Matriarchal, Matrifocal, and Matrilineal Societies

The Debate on Matriarchies

While the existence of entirely matriarchal societies—where women dominate all spheres of power—remains debated, anthropologists agree on the presence of matrifocal and matrilineal societies. These structures often centered women in key roles, particularly during prehistory and within some indigenous cultures.

Neolithic Cultures

During the Neolithic period (circa 10,000 BCE), certain cultures appeared to emphasize fertility worship, with women revered as life-givers. Archaeological finds like the Venus of Willendorf suggest the symbolic centrality of women.

Ancient Crete: Before Indo-European invasions, societies on Crete displayed traces of goddess worship and possibly shared or female-led power structures.

Matrilineal Societies

Matrilineal cultures pass lineage and inheritance through the maternal line, often granting women prominent roles:

Iroquois (North America): Women controlled property and held the power to remove male leaders. They influenced decisions on war and alliances.

Tuareg (North Africa): Women hold influential roles, including land ownership and oral tradition preservation.

2. The Decline of Female Leadership

The Rise of Patriarchy

The shift toward patriarchal societies is often linked to:

The Agricultural Revolution: With agriculture's rise, land ownership and physical strength became central, displacing the focus on female fertility.

Wars and Invasions: Nomadic and warrior cultures, such as Indo-Europeans and Semitic groups, introduced patriarchal structures that supplanted earlier systems.

Historical Reinterpretation and Suppression

As patriarchal societies solidified, narratives of female leadership were erased or distorted:

Subordination of Goddesses: In Mesopotamia, goddesses like Inanna (later Ishtar) were initially powerful but became subordinated to male deities.

Religious Narratives: Monotheistic religions like Judaism, Christianity, and Islam emphasized male figures in power, relegating women to subordinate roles.

3. Women Leaders in Ancient History

Despite historical erasure, some women left lasting marks as leaders:

Hatshepsut (Egypt): A successful pharaoh who adopted male titles. After her death, many of her records were deliberately destroyed.

Cleopatra (Egypt): An iconic leader whose intelligence and political skills were overshadowed by Roman portrayals of her as manipulative.

Queen Zenobia (Palmyra): She led a revolt against the Roman Empire and ruled until her capture.

4. Persistence and Resistance

Even in patriarchal societies, women led in spaces they were allowed:

African Kingdoms: Queens like Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba (Angola) defied colonial powers with astute governance and military strategies.

China and Japan: Empresses such as Wu Zetian, the only female emperor of China, ruled with remarkable effectiveness.

5. Rewriting History

The dominance of patriarchal narratives suppressed stories of female leadership:

Control of Written Records: Education and writing were historically monopolized by men, allowing women’s achievements to be marginalized.

Patriarchal Symbolism: Feminine symbols, like goddesses, were often redefined as secondary or dangerous.

6. Contemporary Reflection

Efforts to recover historical female leadership aim to rewrite erased narratives. Feminist movements and academic research strive to reconstruct women's roles in pivotal moments and recognize their transformative impact.

This ongoing effort raises critical questions: If women once led and were suppressed, what does this reveal about the structures that shaped our modern world? Recognizing these histories can help dismantle myths that perpetuate inequality and honor the contributions of women as agents of change.

[riwaq]

Understanding Ijazah in Quran Recitation

Ijazah in Quran Recitation holds a special significance in the world of Islamic scholarship and practice. This certification is a formal acknowledgment of a person's proficiency in reciting the Quran according to the rules of Tajweed, which governs the pronunciation, intonation, and rhythm of the sacred text. Earning an Ijazah is not just about mastering the Quran; it signifies a deep commitment to its study and a connection to a long lineage of reciters.

The process of obtaining an Ijazah involves rigorous training under the guidance of a qualified teacher or scholar. This mentorship helps students grasp the nuances of Quranic recitation, ensuring they adhere to the traditional methods passed down through generations. Each Ijazah is unique, often tied to a specific teacher, and comes with a chain of transmission that traces back to the Prophet Muhammad. This aspect highlights the importance of authenticity and preservation in Quranic studies.

To earn an Ijazah, students typically undergo extensive practice and memorization of the Quran. They learn various recitation styles, known as Qira’at, each with its own set of rules. For example, the two most recognized styles are Hafs and Warsh, both of which have their unique characteristics. This diversity in recitation styles enriches the Quranic experience and allows for a deeper appreciation of its beauty and complexity.

The Ijazah serves multiple purposes. It instills confidence in the reciter, as they know they have met the necessary standards. It also enables them to teach others, perpetuating the cycle of learning and preservation of the Quran. Many students aspire to obtain an Ijazah, not just for personal achievement but to contribute to their communities by sharing the Quran’s teachings.

In today’s digital age, resources for learning Quranic recitation are more accessible than ever. Websites like Riwaq Al-Quran offer a variety of courses and materials that cater to different learning styles. These platforms often provide opportunities for students to connect with qualified teachers, making it easier to pursue an Ijazah from the comfort of their homes.

Obtaining an Ijazah in Quran Recitation is more than just a goal; it represents a journey of spiritual growth and connection to the Islamic tradition. As individuals strive to perfect their recitation, they engage in a practice that nurtures their faith and understanding of the Quran. Whether you’re a beginner or looking to deepen your skills, pursuing an Ijazah can be a rewarding experience that enhances your relationship with the Quran.

[smqazi]

CORRUPTION AND BRIBERY IN    THE ISLAMIC LAW (SHAR’AH)

Are Islamic Ideals Being Met in Practice                      in so-called Islamic Republic of Pakistan, 

which by definition is neither Islamic nor Republic,

UNFORTUNTELY!

The Islamic Approach to Combating Crime

The ultimate objective of every Islamic legal injunction is to secure the welfare of humanity in this world and the next by establishing a righteous society.  This is a society that worships God Almighty and flourishes on the Earth, one that wields the forces of nature to build a civilization wherein every human being can live in a climate of peace, justice and security.  This is a civilization that allows a person to fulfill his every spiritual, intellectual, and material need and cultivate every aspect of his being.  This supreme objective is articulated by the Holy Qur’an in many places. God Almighty says:

"We have sent our Messengers with clear signs and have sent down with them the book and the criterion so that man can establish justice.  And we sent down iron of great strength and many benefits for man..." (Holy Quran 57:25)

And He says:

"…God wants ease for you, not hardship..." (Holy Qur’an 2:185)

And He says:

"God wants to make things clear for you and to guide you to the ways of those before you and to forgive you.  God is the All knowing, the Wise.  God wants to forgive you and wants those who follow their desires to turn wholeheartedly towards (what is right).  God wants to lighten your burdens, and He has created man weak." (Holy Qur’an 4:26-28)

And He says:

"God commands justice, righteousness, and spending on ones relatives, and prohibits licentiousness, wrongdoing, and injustice…" (Holy Qur’an 16:90)

Since the Islamic legal injunctions are aimed at achieving human welfare, they can all be referred back to universal principles which are necessary for human welfare to be secured.  These universal principles are:

1.    The preservation of life.

2.    The preservation of religion.

3.    The preservation of reason.

4.    The preservation of lineage.

5.    The preservation of property.

The Islamic penal system is aimed at preserving these five universal necessities.  To preserve life, it prescribes the law of retribution.  To preserve religion, it prescribes the punishment for apostasy.  To preserve reason, it prescribes the punishment for drinking.  To preserve lineage, it prescribes the punishment for fornication.  To preserve wealth, it prescribes the punishment for theft.  To protect all of them, it prescribes the punishment for highway robbery.

It should therefore become clear to us why the crimes for which Islam for which the Law has prescribed fixed punishments are as follows:

1.    Transgression against life (murder or assault).

2.    Transgression against property (theft).

3.    Transgression against lineage (fornication and false accusations of adultery).

4.    Transgression against reason (using intoxicants).

5.    Transgression against religion (apostasy).

6.    Transgression against all of these universal needs (highway robbery).

Forms of Punishment in Islam

Islamic Law, in confronting the problems of life and setting down solutions for them, is established on two complimentary principles.  These are: the stability and permanence of its basic tenets on the one hand and the dynamism of its subsidiary injunctions on the other.

For the unchanging aspects of life, Islamic Law brings fixed statutes.  For the dynamic aspects of life that are affected by social development, broadening horizons, and advances in knowledge, Islamic Law comes with general principles and universal rules capable of being applied in a number of different ways and in a variety of circumstances.

When we apply these principles to the penal system, we find that Islamic Law has come with clear texts prescribing fixed punishments for those crimes that no society is free of, crimes that do not vary in their forms because they are connected with the constant and unchanging factors of human nature.

Islamic Law confronts other crimes by stating the general principle that decisively indicates their prohibition, leaving the punishment to be decided by the proper political authority in society.  The political authority can then take the particular circumstances of the criminal into consideration and determine the most effective way to protect society from harm.  In accordance with this principle, punishments in Islamic Law are of three types:

1. Prescribed punishments

2. Retribution

3. Discretionary punishments

2.      Retribution

This is the second type of punishment in Islamic Law.  This is where the perpetrator of the crime is punished with the same injury that he caused to the victim.  If the criminal killed the victim, then he is killed.  If he cut off or injured a limb of the victim, then his own limb will be cut off or injured if it is possible without killing the criminal.  Specialists are used to make this determination.

Important Rules Regarding Retribution

1.    Retribution is not lawful except where the killing or injury was done deliberately.  There is no retribution for accidentally killing or injuring someone.  God Almighty says:

“O you who believe, retribution is prescribed for you in the case of murder...” (Holy Qur’an 2:178)

And He says:

“…There is retribution in wounds...” (Holy Qur’an 5:45)

2.    In the crimes where the criminal directly transgresses against another, Islam has given the wish of the victim or his family an important role in deciding whether or not the punishment should be carried out.  Islam permits the victim to pardon the perpetrator, because the punishment in these crimes is considered the right of the victim.  Islam even encourages pardon, promising a reward in the hereafter for the one who does. God Almighty says:

“If anyone waives the right to retaliation out of charity, it shall be an expiation for him.” (Holy Qur’an 5:45)

The pardon can either be to the payment of blood money, a fixed, monetary compensation, or can be total, where no worldly compensation is demanded. God Almighty says:

“To forgive it is closer to piety...” (Holy Qur’an 2:237)

3.    The punishment must be carried out by the government.  The family of the victim cannot carry it out.

The Wisdom behind Retribution:

With regard to Islamic punishments in general, and retribution in specific, we find that they have two complementary characteristics.  The first of these is the severity of the punishment.  This is in order to discourage the crime and limit its occurrence.

The second characteristic is the difficulty of establishing guilt, reducing the opportunities for carrying out the punishment, and protecting the accused.  In this vein, we see the principle that punishments are waived in the presence of doubt, and that the benefit of the doubt is always given to the accused.  Some prescribed punishments are even waived on the grounds of repentance, as we can see in the case of highway robbery.  This is also seen in the permissibility of pardon in the case of retribution and the fact that pardon is encouraged and preferred.

These two elements complement each other in that crime is effectively discouraged, protecting society, and the rights of the accused are safeguarded by the fact that speculation and accusations cannot be grounds for punishment, and that the accused enjoys the greatest guarantee of justice and being spared the punishment whenever possible.  Most people will abstain from committing crime, because of the severity of the punishment, and the punishments for these crimes will rarely be carried out.  In this way, the general security of society and the rights of the individual are equally realized.

3.      Discretionary Punishments

These are punishments that are not fixed by Islamic Law, for crimes that either infringe on the rights of God Almighty or the rights of an individual, but do not have a fixed punishment or a set expiation.

Discretionary punishments are the broadest category of punishments, because the crimes that have fixed punishments are few in number and all other crimes fall under the scope of this last category.

They are the most flexible type of punishment, because they take into consideration the needs of society and changing social conditions.  Consequently, they are flexible enough to realize the maximum general benefit to society, effectively reform the criminal, and reduce the harm that he causes.

Islamic Law has defined different types of discretionary punishments starting from exhortations and reprimands to flogging, to fines, and to imprisonment.  These discretionary measures are left to the decision of the legal authorities within the general framework of Islamic Law and the universal purposes of Islam that balance between the right of society to be protected from crime and the right of the individual to have his freedoms protected.

The Objectives of the Islamic Penal System

The Islamic penal system has many objectives, the most important of which are as follows:

The First Objective: Islam seeks to protect society from the dangers of crime.  It is common knowledge that if crimes are not countered with serious punishments, then society will be in grave danger.  Islam seeks to make social stability and security widespread, making life in society secure and peaceful.  It has made this consideration a platform for action, legislating punishments that will discourage crime.  This purpose has been articulated by the following verse that discusses retribution and its effects on society:

“There is (preservation of) life for you in retribution, O people of understanding, that you may become pious.” (Holy Qur’an 2:179)

If the murderer, or any other criminal for that matter, knows the extent of the negative consequences for himself that his crime will cause, he will think a thousand times before committing it.  Awareness of the punishment will cause the criminal to abstain from committing the crime in two ways.  The criminal who has already been subject to the punishment will most likely not return to the crime again.  As for the rest of society, their awareness of the effects of this punishment will keep them from falling into the crime.  To realize a general effect from the punishment, Islam has established the principle of publicly announcing when it will be carried out.  God Almighty says:

“…A group of the believers should witness the punishment.” (Holy Qur’an 24:2)

The Second Objective: Islam seeks to reform the criminal.  The Holy Qur’an often makes mention of repentance in association with the crimes that it deals with, making it clear that the door to repentance is open whenever the criminal abandons his crime and behaves properly.  It has made repentance a means of waiving a fixed punishment in some instances, like the punishment for highway robbery. God Almighty says:

“…except for those who repent before you take hold of them.  Then know that God is the Forgiving, the Merciful.” (Holy Qur’an 5:34)

God Almighty says regarding the punishment for fornication:

“If they both repent and mend their ways, then leave them alone.  Verily, God is the Accepter of repentance, the Merciful.” (Holy Qur’an 4:16)

God Almighty Almighty says after mentioning the punishment for false accusation:

“… except for those who repent afterwards and makes amends, then verily God is the Forgiving, the Merciful.”

God Almighty says after mentioning the prescribed punishment for theft:

“Whoever repents after his wrongdoing and makes amends, then verily God will accept his repentance and verily God is the Forgiving, the Merciful.” (Holy Qur’an 5:39)

This objective is seen more frequently with regard to discretionary punishments, whereby it is incumbent upon the judge to take into consideration the circumstances of the criminal and what will insure his betterment.

The Third Objective: The punishment is a recompense for the crime.  It is undesirable to treat a criminal lightly who threatens the security of society with danger.  The criminal should receive his just recompense as long as he is pleased with taking the path of evil instead of the path of righteousness.  It is the right of society to be secure in its safety and the safety of its individual members.  The Holy Qur’an has asserted this objective when mentioning a number of punishments. God Almighty says:

“The thieves, male and female, cut off their hands as a recompense for what they have earned...” (Holy Qu”ran 5:38)

“The recompense for those who wage violent transgression against God and His Messenger and who go forth spreading corruption in the Earth is that they should be killed or crucified or that their hands and feet should be cut off on alternate sides or that they should be sent into exile…” (Holy Qur’an 5:33

1.      Prescribed Punishments

Crimes that fall under this category can be defined as legally prohibited acts that God Almighty forcibly prevents by way of fixed, predetermined punishments, the execution of which is considered the right of God Almighty.

These punishments have certain peculiarities that set them apart from others.  Among these are the following:

1.    These punishments can neither be increased nor decreased.

2.    These punishments cannot be waived by the judge, the political authority, or the victim after their associated crimes have been brought to the attention of the governing body.  Before these crimes are brought before the state, it may be possible for the victim to pardon the criminal if the damage done was only personal.

3.    These punishments are the ‘right of God Almighty’, meaning that the legal right involved is of a general nature where the greater welfare of society is considered.

The following crimes fall under the jurisdiction of the fixed punishments:

1.Theft including but botlimited to Bribery

Theft is defined as covertly taking the wealth of others by hook or by crook.

EFERENCES:

https://digitalcommons.law.ggu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1161&context=annlsurvey

https://digitalcommons.law.ggu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1161&context=annlsurvey

[doyeongkim]

WEEK 4 + 5 Field Trip + Analyse Artistic Traditions and Lineages

Iskandar Jalil is a renowned Singaporean ceramicist who was awarded the Cultural Medallion for Visual Arts in 1988. His Jawi script vessel developed during the Hindu-Buddhist era, and Jawi script, which emerged in the 14th century, is based on Arabic script and incorporates a mixture of Malay and Arabic vocabularies. The use of Jawi, a type of Arabic script for writing the Malay language, has declined in practical use in Malaysia and Singapore. In Malaysia, it is still taught in some schools, particularly in Islamic and traditional institutions. However, in Singapore, while it remains part of some cultural heritage, it is rarely seen in everyday use. The inclusion of the Jawi script on this vessel seems to be a way to preserve and remember the script.

Chua Mia Tee's National Language Class was painted in 1959 and reflects the social realist style for which Chua, a Chinese-born Singaporean artist, is known. His works capture the social and political conditions of Singapore and Malay in the 1950s and 60s. This particular painting, created during his time as a member of the Equator Art Society, is filled with nationalist sentiments, commemorating Singapore’s long-awaited attainment of self-governance in 1959. The phrases on the chalkboard, “What is your name?” and “Where do you live?” reflect the growing consciousness of national identity among the people of Singapore at the time.

The painting employs a textured, impressionistic technique, with bold brushstrokes that convey movement and depth. While the overall color palette is subdued, the artist highlights certain features like the figures' clothing and faces with brighter colors. The brushwork is dynamic and loose, allowing the figures and background to blend slightly, creating a natural flow.

(277 words)

“Is the Jawi (Malay Arabic) Script Practically Extinct in Malaysia and Singapore?” Quora, www.quora.com/Is-the-Jawi-Malay-Arabic-script-practically-extinct-in-Malaysia-and-Singapore. Accessed 24 Sept. 2024. 

“Jawi Script.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 3 Sept. 2024, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawi_script. 

“Chua Mia Tee.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 31 July 2024, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chua_Mia_Tee. 

[anasraza25]

Moral Lessons in Martyrdom and Sacrifice: Insights from Imam Hussain (RA) and Surah Al-Mulk

Martyrdom and sacrifice are integral themes in Islam, deeply intertwined with the notion of steadfastness in faith and standing against oppression. Among the most poignant examples of these virtues is the tragic event of Karbala, where Imam Hussain (RA), the grandson of Prophet Muhammad (SAW), and his loyal companions exemplified unparalleled courage and unwavering commitment to truth, justice, and the principles of Islam. This article explores the moral lessons derived from their martyrdom, drawing parallels to the teachings found in Surah Al-Mulk.

The Context of Karbala In the year 680 CE, Imam Hussain (RA) confronted the tyrannical rule of Yazid ibn Muawiya in the Battle of Karbala. Despite knowing the odds were overwhelmingly against him, Imam Hussain (RA) chose to stand firm against injustice, refusing to pledge allegiance to a ruler whose actions contradicted Islamic principles. With a small band of loyal supporters, including family members and close companions, Imam Hussain (RA) journeyed to Karbala in modern-day Iraq, where they were besieged by Yazid's forces.

Lessons in Steadfastness and Faith The events of Karbala underscore the importance of steadfastness (istiqamah) in the face of adversity. Imam Hussain (RA) and his companions displayed unwavering faith in Allah and an unyielding commitment to truth, despite the dire circumstances they faced. Their refusal to compromise their principles for worldly gain serves as a timeless example of moral integrity and courage.

Surah Al-Mulk emphasizes the sovereignty of Allah and the consequences of disbelief. It invites reflection on the signs of Allah in the universe, encouraging believers to ponder over the purpose of life and their responsibilities towards upholding justice and righteousness. Imam Hussain (RA)'s stance at Karbala aligns with these teachings, as he exemplified complete submission to the will of Allah, seeking divine pleasure above all else.

Sacrifice for the Sake of Humanity The martyrdom of Imam Hussain (RA) and his companions also highlights the concept of sacrifice (qurbani) in Islam. Their willingness to endure hardship and ultimately sacrifice their lives for the greater good serves as a profound lesson in selflessness and altruism. It reminds Muslims of their duty to stand up against oppression and to strive for a just society, even if it means making personal sacrifices.

Surah Al-Mulk warns about the consequences of arrogance and wrongdoing, emphasizing the importance of humility and piety. Imam Hussain (RA)'s humility and devotion to Allah, despite his noble lineage and revered status, exemplify these qualities. His willingness to sacrifice everything, including his own life, for the sake of preserving Islam's principles underscores the moral imperative of prioritizing spiritual values over worldly comfort and security.

Upholding Truth and Justice Another crucial lesson from Karbala is the imperative of upholding truth and justice (haqq). Imam Hussain (RA) refused to accept the legitimacy of Yazid's rule due to its deviation from Islamic principles of justice and fairness. His stand was not merely a personal grievance but a principled opposition to tyranny and oppression, echoing the Quranic injunctions to "enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong" (Quran 3:104).

Surah Al-Mulk encourages believers to reflect on the signs of Allah in creation and to recognize His sovereignty over all things. It reinforces the idea that ultimate justice rests with Allah, who will reward the righteous and punish the unjust. Imam Hussain (RA)'s martyrdom at Karbala serves as a stark reminder of the consequences of betraying these principles and the eternal reward for those who uphold them, as articulated in Surah Al-Mulk.

Conclusion In conclusion, the events of Karbala and the teachings found in Surah Al-Mulk offer profound insights into the moral principles of martyrdom and sacrifice in Islam. Imam Hussain (RA) and his companions exemplified unwavering faith, steadfastness in the face of adversity, and a resolute commitment to truth and justice. Their sacrifice serves as a timeless reminder of the importance of upholding moral integrity and standing against oppression, regardless of the consequences. By reflecting on these lessons, Muslims can deepen their understanding of their faith and strive to emulate the noble example set by Imam Hussain (RA) in their own lives, seeking Allah's pleasure and eternal reward.

[lovesurahs]

Aisha

Aisha bint Abu Bakr (RA), was the wife of Muhammad (PBUH), the founder of Islam. She came to be called, “Mother of the Believers.”

Muhammad built Aisha’s (RA) home so that her door opened directly into the mosque. She was the only woman with whom Muhammad (PBUH) received revelations.

She could easily have lived a life of privileged leisure. Instead, she became a highly respected scholar.

She is credited with producing 2,210 Hadith, widely recognized and accepted by Islam, not just on matters related to Muhammad’s (PBUH) private life, but also on topics such as inheritance, pilgrimage, and eschatology.

25% of all Shariah Law is based on her Hadith.

Her intellect and knowledge in a wide range of subjects, were highly praised by early Muslim scholars.

She was known to possess an eidetic memory and piercing intellect.

Far from illiterate, she herself transcribed “The Love Surahs.”

“The Love Surahs” text is the verbatim content of pronouncements made by Muhammad (PBUH) in his last days, as he was confined to his deathbed.

His last breath was taken as he lay in her arms, his most beloved wife.

She lived during the age of Jahiliyya (ignorance) when women were thought less valuable than men.

The traditions regarding Aisha (SA) tell us that she forcefully opposed ideas unfavorable to women in efforts to elicit social change.

There exists substantial evidence that Muhammad (PBUH) did not view himself as superior to Aisha and encouraged her to speak to him candidly, even at the risk of his anger.

Furthermore, Muhammad (PBUH) and Aisha (SA) had a strong intellectual relationship. He valued her keen memory and intelligence, instructing his companions to draw much of their religious practices from her.

Aisha (SA) contributed her scholarly intellect to the fullest development of Islam.

Aisha (SA) was known for her expertise in the Quran, shares of inheritance, matters of law, poetry, Arabic literature, Arab history, genealogy, and medicine.

Her intellectual contributions regarding the verbal texts were transcribed into the official history of Islam.

After the death of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), there were concerns about the accuracy of the Quran’s preservation. Aisha (SA) played a key role in ensuring that knowledge was preserved.

During Aisha’s (SA) entire life she was a strong advocate for the education of Islamic women, especially in law and the wisdom teachings of Islam.

She was known for establishing the first Madrasa (Muslim school) for women in her home. Attending Aisha’s (SA) classes were various family relatives and orphaned children. Men also attended Aisha’s (SA) classes, with a simple curtain separating the male and female students.

Aisha (SA) was also considered to be the embodiment of proper rituals while partaking in the pilgrimage to Mecca, a journey she made with several groups of women. For her last two years of life, Aisha spent much time telling the stories of Muhammad (PBUH), hoping to correct false passages that had influenced formulation of Islamic law.

Aisha (SA) died at her home in Medina on 17 Ramadan 58 AH (16 July 678). She was 67 years old.

The name Aisha (SA) is Arabic in origin and means “she lives.”

“Aisha was the bridge between the time of the prophet and the future of Islam.” —- Resit Haylamaz

“I have never seen anyone who could have knowledge of an ayah, an obligatory act, a Sunnah act, poetry, history, lineage, judgement, or medicine better than Aisha.” –Hisham lbn Urwa

[hayyathadi951]

5 Reasons to Join Shia Quran Academy

In the quest for spiritual fulfillment and a deeper understanding of the divine, finding the right educational platform is paramount. For those inclined towards the Shia tradition, the Shia Quran Academy stands out as a beacon of knowledge and enlightenment. Rooted in the rich legacy of Shia scholarship, this academy offers a unique opportunity to delve into the intricacies of the Quran and Islamic teachings. If you're contemplating embarking on a journey of spiritual growth, here are five compelling reasons why joining the Shia Quran Academy could be your next transformative step.

Authentic Shia Perspective

At the heart of the Shia Quran Academy lies a commitment to preserving and propagating the authentic teachings of Shia Islam. With a lineage of scholarly excellence spanning centuries, the academy offers a unique insight into the Quran from a Shia perspective. Here, students have the privilege of learning from esteemed scholars who possess a profound understanding of Shia theology, jurisprudence, and tradition. By immersing oneself in this environment, students gain access to a wealth of knowledge that is deeply rooted in Shia heritage, fostering a holistic understanding of Islam.

Comprehensive Quranic Studies

The Quran serves as the cornerstone of Islamic faith, offering guidance and wisdom to believers across the globe. At the Shia Quran Academy, the study of the Quran transcends mere recitation, delving into its profound meanings, nuances, and interpretations. Through meticulously crafted curriculum and engaging pedagogical methods, students embark on a comprehensive journey through the Quran, unraveling its layers of wisdom and relevance to contemporary life. Whether you're a novice seeking to establish a foundational understanding or a seasoned scholar aspiring to delve deeper, the academy offers a structured approach to Quranic studies tailored to individual learning needs.

Emphasis on Spiritual Development

Beyond academic pursuits, the Shia Quran Academy places a strong emphasis on spiritual development and personal growth. Recognizing that true enlightenment stems from a harmonious integration of knowledge and spirituality, the academy offers a nurturing environment conducive to spiritual reflection and contemplation. Through spiritual mentorship, guided meditation, and communal worship, students are encouraged to cultivate a deeper connection with the Divine and nurture their inner selves. This holistic approach to education fosters not only intellectual enrichment but also spiritual fulfillment, empowering students to lead lives imbued with purpose and piety.

Inclusive Learning Community

In today's increasingly interconnected world, fostering a sense of unity and inclusivity is paramount. The Shia Quran Academy prides itself on being an inclusive learning community that welcomes students from diverse backgrounds and cultures. Whether you're a Shia Muslim eager to deepen your understanding of your faith or a non-Shia seeking to explore different perspectives, you'll find a warm and supportive community at the academy. Through collaborative learning initiatives, interfaith dialogue, and cultural exchange programs, students have the opportunity to broaden their horizons, challenge preconceptions, and forge meaningful connections with fellow seekers of knowledge.

Practical Application of Learning

Knowledge gained in isolation holds limited value unless it is applied to real-life situations. The Shia Quran Academy recognizes the importance of bridging the gap between theory and practice, equipping students with the tools they need to translate their learning into tangible actions. Whether through community outreach programs, humanitarian initiatives, or advocacy efforts, students are encouraged to leverage their knowledge and skills for the betterment of society. By instilling a sense of social responsibility and civic engagement, the academy empowers students to become agents of positive change in their communities and beyond.

In conclusion, the Shia Quran Academy offers a transformative educational experience rooted in the timeless wisdom of the Quran and the rich traditions of Shia Islam. Through rigorous academic inquiry, spiritual nourishment, and inclusive community engagement, the academy equips students with the knowledge, skills, and values needed to navigate the complexities of the modern world with faith, integrity, and compassion. Whether you're seeking intellectual stimulation, spiritual enlightenment, or meaningful connections, joining the Shia Quran Academy could be the first step towards a journey of profound personal and collective growth.

[drmaqazi]

CRIME & PUNISHMENT IN ISLAM

PART 1

Security and stability are basic human needs, no less important than food and clothing.  Without security and stability, a human being is not able to properly conduct his daily life, let alone come up with new ideas or contribute to the development of a high level of civilization.

Man has been conscious of the need for security since the beginning of his life on Earth, and he has continuously expressed his awareness of this need in many ways.  With the formation and evolution of human society, he has expressed this and other needs through the establishment of a state and the formation of laws

This was accomplished in order to ensure general security, settle disputes and conflicts that threaten society, and oppose external threats to its security posed by other nations.  The development of these man-made laws did not come to completion except in the last few centuries as the result of a long process of trial and error.

By contrast, the Law of Islam was sent down to Muhammad, may the mercy and blessings of God be upon him, in its complete form as part of His final message to humanity.  Islamic Law pays the most careful attention to this matter and provides a complete legal system. 

It takes into consideration the changing circumstances of society as well as the constancy and permanence of human nature.  Consequently, it contains comprehensive principles and general rules suitable for dealing with all the problems and circumstances that life may bring in any time or place. 

Likewise, it has set down immutable punishments for certain crimes that are not affected by changing conditions and circumstances.  In this way, Islamic Law combines between stability, flexibility, and firmness.

From what angle does Islam approach combating crime?  What are the principles that the Islamic penal code is based upon?  What are the distinguishing features of this code?  What are the measures that it employs to combat crime?  What types of punishments exist in Islam?  What are the objectives behind their being legislated?  These are the questions that will be dealt with in the following pages.

The Islamic Approach to Combating Crime The ultimate objective of every Islamic legal injunction is to secure the welfare of humanity in this world and the next by establishing a righteous society.  This is a society that worships God and flourishes on the Earth, one that wields the forces of nature to build a civilization wherein every human being can live in a climate of peace, justice and security. 

This is a civilization that allows a person to fulfill his every spiritual, intellectual, and material need and cultivate every aspect of his being.  This supreme objective is articulated by the Quran in many places. 

Almighty God says: "We have sent our Messengers with clear signs and have sent down with them the book and the criterion so that man can establish justice.  And we sent down iron of great strength and many benefits for man..." (Quran 57:25)

And He says: "…God wants ease for you, not hardship..." (Quran 2:185) And He says:

"God wants to make things clear for you and to guide you to the ways of those before you and to forgive you.  God is the All knowing, the Wise.  God wants to forgive you and wants those who follow their desires to turn wholeheartedly towards (what is right).  God wants to lighten your burdens, and He has created man weak." (Quran 4:26-28)

And He says:

"God commands justice, righteousness, and spending on ones relatives, and prohibits licentiousness, wrongdoing, and injustice…" (Quran 16:90)

Since the Islamic legal injunctions are aimed at achieving human welfare, they can all be referred back to universal principles which are necessary for human welfare to be secured.  These universal principles are:

1.    The preservation of life. 2.    The preservation of religion. 3.    The preservation of reason. 4.    The preservation of lineage. 5.    The preservation of property.

The Islamic penal system is aimed at preserving these five universal necessities.  To preserve life, it prescribes the law of retribution.  To preserve religion, it prescribes the punishment for apostasy.  To preserve reason, it prescribes the punishment for drinking.  To preserve lineage, it prescribes the punishment for fornication.  To preserve wealth, it prescribes the punishment for theft.  To protect all of them, it prescribes the punishment for highway robbery.

It should therefore become clear to us why the crimes for which Islam for which the Law has prescribed fixed punishments are as follows:

1.    Transgression against life (murder or assault). 2.    Transgression against property (theft). 3.    Transgression against lineage (fornication and false accusations of adultery). 4.    Transgression against reason (using intoxicants). 5.    Transgression against religion (apostasy).

[shooonzy0]

Islam has mercy on the woman, so she forfeits the alimony, so she does not spend on her son, her parents, or her husband, and she is not obligated to spend on herself, and her husband is obliged to spend on her.

Islam has mercy on the woman and obligates her to give her a full dowry that the husband pays simply by being alone with her, or half of it by simply contracting with her.

Islam has mercy on the woman, so he said your mother, then your mother, then your mother, then your father, in honor and recognition of her right.

Islam has mercy on the woman and has dropped the obligation of Hajj if she does not have a mahram with her to guard and serve her until she returns.

Islam has mercy on the woman and has given her an inheritance from her husband, her brothers, her children and her parents, even though she cannot bear any of the alimony.

Islam has mercy on a woman and has forbidden her marriage without a guardian or witnesses, so that she will not be accused of her honor and the lineage of her children.

Islam has mercy on a woman, and it obligates the one who slanders her to be lashed with eighty lashes.

Islam has mercy on women, so whoever is killed for her sake in order to preserve his honor and defend her, it has made him a martyr.

Islam has mercy on a woman even after her death, and only her husband or women like her can wash her.

Islam has mercy on the woman, making her shroud more than that of a man, so she is shrouded in five garments to take care of her sanctity.

- Omar Abdul Kafi

Peace be upon the one who passed by chance and asked forgiveness, so he increased me in goodness, and his good deeds increased, and my sin was lessened, and his sin was lessened.🤍♥️

[tamamita]

In Islam is it possible for a new prophet to arrive or was Muhammad the last prophet?

Not possible, he is the Khatam al Nabiyyin (Seal of the Prophets). With no more Prophet’s to be sent down, the Imams (a) are his successors and are tasked with preserving The Prophet’s (sawas) message. 

(I am not referring to imams that you find at a mosque. Imams (a) are holy individuals from the lineage of the Prophet (Sawas) that are the leaders and guides of the Muslims. They have a strong reverence in Shi’a Islam.)

[riwaq]

A Guide to Ijazah Programs: Achieving Mastery in Quranic Knowledge

If you've ever wanted to deepen your connection to the Quran and ensure your understanding and recitation are accurate, Ijazah programs can be an excellent path to explore. An Ijazah is a certification given by a qualified teacher, authorizing a student to recite or teach the Quran with precise pronunciation, correct recitation techniques, and the appropriate level of understanding. These programs are particularly valuable for those who wish to not only read the Quran but to read it well, staying true to the traditions of transmission that have kept the Quran preserved for centuries.

Understanding the Essence of Ijazah Programs

The Ijazah certification has roots that trace back to the early generations of Islam, designed to ensure the Quran is passed down accurately and without alteration. Students work closely with their teacher until they have demonstrated mastery, whether it be in recitation (Qirat), memorization (Hifz), or understanding (Tafsir) of the Quran. Each of these areas requires detailed knowledge of tajweed, the set of rules that govern pronunciation in Quranic recitation, making it a highly individualized learning journey.

For many, Ijazah programs are not just about acquiring a certificate; they represent a commitment to understanding the Quran on a deeper level. These programs build a foundation that can guide students through a lifelong journey with the Quran, enriching both their personal and spiritual lives.

Choosing the Right Ijazah Program: What to Look For

When considering an Ijazah program, the key is to look for experienced teachers who hold an Ijazah themselves and have a strong lineage of Quranic transmission. This ensures the authenticity of the teachings, aligning with traditional practices and knowledge. Additionally, Ijazah programs should focus on guiding students through gradual mastery, offering feedback at each stage, and addressing each student’s unique needs.

At Riwaq Al Quran, you’ll find qualified instructors who are deeply committed to this process, helping students learn the Quran in a structured and supportive environment. Whether you’re a beginner or have years of experience, Riwaq Al Quran’s programs are tailored to meet you at your level and help you progress at a comfortable pace.

The Benefits of Online Ijazah Programs

In today’s digital age, online Ijazah programs have made Quranic learning accessible from virtually anywhere. For those who may have limited access to qualified Quran teachers locally, online platforms like Riwaq Al Quran bring well-established learning programs right into your home. Online Ijazah programs provide flexibility, allowing students to arrange sessions that work within their schedules while ensuring they still receive personalized guidance.

Riwaq Al Quran has taken this a step further by designing an online experience that mirrors the personal connection of in-person learning. Their teachers offer one-on-one sessions where students can get individualized attention, detailed instruction, and consistent support. This makes it easier to balance Quranic study with other life commitments, which is particularly helpful for busy students or professionals.

The Journey of Gaining an Ijazah

Enrolling in an Ijazah program can be a journey of personal growth and reflection. While it requires dedication, the outcome is deeply rewarding. The beauty of the Quran becomes more apparent as students grow in both technical proficiency and spiritual insight. Many students find that as they perfect their recitation and understanding, they feel a stronger connection to the words they’re reciting.

Riwaq Al Quran offers specialized Ijazah programs, making this journey accessible to people from diverse backgrounds and levels. Their experienced teachers work closely with each student to make sure they are meeting the required standards of recitation or memorization. This individual focus enables students to reach a level of excellence in their Quranic knowledge that can be passed on to others, if they wish to teach in the future.

Taking the First Step

If you’re considering an Ijazah program, take a moment to reflect on what you hope to achieve. Whether it’s the precision of recitation, the beauty of memorization, or a comprehensive understanding of the Quran, an Ijazah can guide you towards those goals. At Riwaq Al Quran, experienced teachers are ready to support and guide you, making the learning process fulfilling and insightful.

With the convenience of online learning and the personal touch of dedicated teachers, Riwaq Al Quran’s Ijazah programs offer a unique opportunity to deepen your relationship with the Quran. This path not only enhances your recitation skills but also builds a lasting bond with the Quran and its teachings

[smqazi]

Corruption and Bribery in Islamic Law: Are Islamic Ideals Being Met in Practice?

Bribery means giving money to someone through whom a person takes something which he / she has no right to. For example: bribing a judge to get verdict in favour (wrongfully), or bribing an official to give him preference over others or to get other favours like allotment of a contract etc. Bribery is a major sin in Islam.

The Islamic Approach to Combating Crime

The ultimate objective of every Islamic legal injunction is to secure the welfare of humanity in this world and the next by establishing a righteous society.  This is a society that worships God and flourishes on the Earth, one that wields the forces of nature to build a civilization wherein every human being can live in a climate of peace, justice and security.  This is a civilization that allows a person to fulfill his every spiritual, intellectual, and material need and cultivate every aspect of his being.  This supreme objective is articulated by the Quran in many places.  God says:

"We have sent our Messengers with clear signs and have sent down with them the book and the criterion so that man can establish justice.  And we sent down iron of great strength and many benefits for man..." (HolyQuran 57:25)

And He says:

"…God wants ease for you, not hardship..." (Holy Quran 2:185)

And He says:

"God wants to make things clear for you and to guide you to the ways of those before you and to forgive you.  God is the All knowing, the Wise.  God wants to forgive you and wants those who follow their desires to turn wholeheartedly towards (what is right).  God wants to lighten your burdens, and He has created man weak." (Holy Quran 4:26-28)

And He says:

"God commands justice, righteousness, and spending on ones relatives, and prohibits licentiousness, wrongdoing, and injustice…" (Holy Quran 16:90)

Since the Islamic legal injunctions are aimed at achieving human welfare, they can all be referred back to universal principles which are necessary for human welfare to be secured.  These universal principles are:

1.    The preservation of life.

2.    The preservation of religion.

3.    The preservation of reason.

4.    The preservation of lineage.

5.    The preservation of property.

The Islamic penal system is aimed at preserving these five universal necessities.  To preserve life, it prescribes the law of retribution.  To preserve religion, it prescribes the punishment for apostasy.  To preserve reason, it prescribes the punishment for drinking.  To preserve lineage, it prescribes the punishment for fornication.  To preserve wealth, it prescribes the punishment for theft.  To protect all of them, it prescribes the punishment for highway robbery.

It should therefore become clear to us why the crimes for which Islam for which the Law has prescribed fixed punishments are as follows:

1.    Transgression against life (murder or assault).

2.    Transgression against property (theft).

3.    Transgression against lineage (fornication and false accusations of adultery).

4.    Transgression against reason (using intoxicants).

5.    Transgression against religion (apostasy).

6.    Transgression against all of these universal needs (highway robbery).

Forms of Punishment in Islam

Islamic Law, in confronting the problems of life and setting down solutions for them, is established on two complimentary principles.  These are: the stability and permanence of its basic tenets on the one hand and the dynamism of its subsidiary injunctions on the other.

For the unchanging aspects of life, Islamic Law brings fixed statutes.  For the dynamic aspects of life that are affected by social development, broadening horizons, and advances in knowledge, Islamic Law comes with general principles and universal rules capable of being applied in a number of different ways and in a variety of circumstances.

When we apply these principles to the penal system, we find that Islamic Law has come with clear texts prescribing fixed punishments for those crimes that no society is free of, crimes that do not vary in their forms because they are connected with the constant and unchanging factors of human nature.

Islamic Law confronts other crimes by stating the general principle that decisively indicates their prohibition, leaving the punishment to be decided by the proper political authority in society.  The political authority can then take the particular circumstances of the criminal into consideration and determine the most effective way to protect society from harm.  In accordance with this principle, punishments in Islamic Law are of three types:

1. Prescribed punishments

2. Retribution

3. Discretionary punishments

2.      Retribution

This is the second type of punishment in Islamic Law.  This is where the perpetrator of the crime is punished with the same injury that he caused to the victim.  If the criminal killed the victim, then he is killed.  If he cut off or injured a limb of the victim, then his own limb will be cut off or injured if it is possible without killing the criminal.  Specialists are used to make this determination.

Important Rules Regarding Retribution

1.    Retribution is not lawful except where the killing or injury was done deliberately.  There is no retribution for accidentally killing or injuring someone.  God says:

“O you who believe, retribution is prescribed for you in the case of murder...” (Holy Quran 2:178)

And He says:

“…There is retribution in wounds...” (Holy Quran 5:45)

2.    In the crimes where the criminal directly transgresses against another, Islam has given the wish of the victim or his family an important role in deciding whether or not the punishment should be carried out.  Islam permits the victim to pardon the perpetrator, because the punishment in these crimes is considered the right of the victim.  Islam even encourages pardon, promising a reward in the hereafter for the one who does.  God says:

“If anyone waives the right to retaliation out of charity, it shall be an expiation for him.” (Holy Quran 5:45)

The pardon can either be to the payment of blood money, a fixed, monetary compensation, or can be total, where no worldly compensation is demanded.  God says:

“To forgive it is closer to piety...” (Holy Quran 2:237)

3.    The punishment must be carried out by the government.  The family of the victim cannot carry it out.

The Wisdom behind Retribution:

With regard to Islamic punishments in general, and retribution in specific, we find that they have two complementary characteristics.  The first of these is the severity of the punishment.  This is in order to discourage the crime and limit its occurrence.

The second characteristic is the difficulty of establishing guilt, reducing the opportunities for carrying out the punishment, and protecting the accused.  In this vein, we see the principle that punishments are waived in the presence of doubt, and that the benefit of the doubt is always given to the accused.  Some prescribed punishments are even waived on the grounds of repentance, as we can see in the case of highway robbery.  This is also seen in the permissibility of pardon in the case of retribution and the fact that pardon is encouraged and preferred.

These two elements complement each other in that crime is effectively discouraged, protecting society, and the rights of the accused are safeguarded by the fact that speculation and accusations cannot be grounds for punishment, and that the accused enjoys the greatest guarantee of justice and being spared the punishment whenever possible.  Most people will abstain from committing crime, because of the severity of the punishment, and the punishments for these crimes will rarely be carried out.  In this way, the general security of society and the rights of the individual are equally realized.

3.      Discretionary Punishments

These are punishments that are not fixed by Islamic Law, for crimes that either infringe on the rights of God or the rights of an individual, but do not have a fixed punishment or a set expiation.

Discretionary punishments are the broadest category of punishments, because the crimes that have fixed punishments are few in number and all other crimes fall under the scope of this last category.

They are the most flexible type of punishment, because they take into consideration the needs of society and changing social conditions.  Consequently, they are flexible enough to realize the maximum general benefit to society, effectively reform the criminal, and reduce the harm that he causes.

Islamic Law has defined different types of discretionary punishments starting from exhortations and reprimands to flogging, to fines, and to imprisonment.  These discretionary measures are left to the decision of the legal authorities within the general framework of Islamic Law and the universal purposes of Islam that balance between the right of society to be protected from crime and the right of the individual to have his freedoms protected.

The Objectives of the Islamic Penal System

The Islamic penal system has many objectives, the most important of which are as follows:

The First Objective: Islam seeks to protect society from the dangers of crime.  It is common knowledge that if crimes are not countered with serious punishments, then society will be in grave danger.  Islam seeks to make social stability and security widespread, making life in society secure and peaceful.  It has made this consideration a platform for action, legislating punishments that will discourage crime.  This purpose has been articulated by the following verse that discusses retribution and its effects on society:

“There is (preservation of) life for you in retribution, O people of understanding, that you may become pious.” (Holy Quran 2:179)

If the murderer, or any other criminal for that matter, knows the extent of the negative consequences for himself that his crime will cause, he will think a thousand times before committing it.  Awareness of the punishment will cause the criminal to abstain from committing the crime in two ways.  The criminal who has already been subject to the punishment will most likely not return to the crime again.  As for the rest of society, their awareness of the effects of this punishment will keep them from falling into the crime.  To realize a general effect from the punishment, Islam has established the principle of publicly announcing when it will be carried out.  God says:

“…A group of the believers should witness the punishment.” (Holy Quran 24:2)

The Second Objective: Islam seeks to reform the criminal.  The Quran often makes mention of repentance in association with the crimes that it deals with, making it clear that the door to repentance is open whenever the criminal abandons his crime and behaves properly.  It has made repentance a means of waiving a fixed punishment in some instances, like the punishment for highway robbery.  God says:

“…except for those who repent before you take hold of them.  Then know that God is the Forgiving, the Merciful.” (Holy Quran 5:34)

God Almighty says regarding the punishment for fornication:

“If they both repent and mend their ways, then leave them alone.  Verily, God is the Accepter of repentance, the Merciful.” (Holy Quran 4:16)

God Almighty says after mentioning the punishment for false accusation:

“… except for those who repent afterwards and makes amends, then verily God is the Forgiving, the Merciful.”

God Almighty says after mentioning the prescribed punishment for theft:

“Whoever repents after his wrongdoing and makes amends, then verily God will accept his repentance and verily God is the Forgiving, the Merciful.” (Holy Quran 5:39)

This objective is seen more frequently with regard to discretionary punishments, whereby it is incumbent upon the judge to take into consideration the circumstances of the criminal and what will insure his betterment.

The Third Objective:The punishment is a recompense for the crime.  It is undesirable to treat a criminal lightly who threatens the security of society with danger.  The criminal should receive his just recompense as long as he is pleased with taking the path of evil instead of the path of righteousness.  It is the right of society to be secure in its safety and the safety of its individual members.  The Quran has asserted this objective when mentioning a number of punishments.  God Almighty says:

“The thieves, male and female, cut off their hands as a recompense for what they have earned...” (Holy Quran 5:38)

“The recompense for those who wage violent transgression against God and His Messenger and who go forth spreading corruption in the Earth is that they should be killed or crucified or that their hands and feet should be cut off on alternate sides or that they should be sent into exile…” (Quran 5:33)

1.      Prescribed Punishments

Crimes that fall under this s category can be defined as legally prohibited acts that God Almighty forcibly prevents by way of fixed, predetermined punishments, the execution of which is considered the right of God Almighty.

These punishments have certain peculiarities that set them apart from others.  Among these are the following:

1.    These punishments can neither be increased nor decreased.

2.    These punishments cannot be waived by the judge, the political authority, or the victim after their associated crimes have been brought to the attention of the governing body.  Before these crimes are brought before the state, it may be possible for the victim to pardon the criminal if the damage done was only personal.

3.    These punishments are the ‘right of God Almighty’, meaning that the legal right involved is of a general nature where the greater welfare of society is considered.

The following crimes fall under the jurisdiction of the fixed punishments:

1.Theft including but botlimited to Bribery

Theft is defined as covertly taking the wealth of others by hook or by crook.

REFERENCE:

https://digitalcommons.law.ggu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1161&context=annlsurvey