#High Purity Germanium

[timeclonemike]

Mad Science PSA

Cold Fusion DOES work, but not with platinum or palladium electrodes. They used those because they are expensive enough to make it hard for most backyard and basement experiments to compare notes.

For better results, use lithium niobate crystals. And don't look directly into the miniature sun.

[sparkofthetelling]

Intro?

Hi, I'm Hyperion, I'm a Masters physics student. I'm autistic, and physics is my primary special interest, but I also just love science in general, scicomm, books/movies/tv/storytelling/narratives, penguins, and honestly too many other things to attempt to list. I self-describe as an infovore for a reason :) I've been doing rare event neutrino physics research for ~3? years at this point, but it's also taken me into a bunch of different cross-sectional areas, and I find all of them fascinating! If anyone knows how to make a 1x1 germanium square into a necklace pls hmu PLEASE talk to me I'm desperate but I don't often initiate interactions with people unless I've got a very specific question or statement because if any word had to be used to describe me, it's vociferous. But I do really care about listening to what other people have to say, I just sort of have no filter? (Not in a 'I'll be mean to you' way but in a I struggle to be succinct and feel like I've given enough information and context sort of way) Academia needs to be so much better than it is, and it's so sad to see the pursuit of knowledge in the state it's in If you've got any questions about physics or anything I've said or posted, asks or DMs will probably always be open? One of the ways I help expel the effects of my motor condition is by just typing out a storm, please ask I try and tag some of my stuff with some consistency but I simply don't really have enough brain power to really manage, nor do I really have enough to manage a sideblog unfortunately, otherwise I totally would Anyways have a picture of a high purity germanium crystal being grown! She is very precious to me

[chemanalystdata]

Germanium Prices Trend, Database, Chart, Index, Forecast

 Germanium Prices, a critical semiconductor material, has seen significant fluctuations in its market price due to various factors influencing supply and demand dynamics. In recent years, the germanium market has been impacted by changes in global economic conditions, technological advancements, and geopolitical events. The demand for germanium primarily stems from its applications in electronics, fiber optics, infrared optics, and solar cells. As technology continues to evolve, the need for high-purity germanium in these sectors remains robust, driving the market trends for this versatile metalloid.

The production of germanium is relatively limited, with only a few countries, including China, Russia, and Canada, being the primary producers. China's dominance in the germanium market has a significant influence on global prices. As the world's largest producer, any policy changes or production adjustments in China can lead to substantial price volatility. In recent years, China's environmental regulations and efforts to consolidate its rare metal industries have impacted the supply of germanium, contributing to price increases. Additionally, trade tensions and tariffs have further complicated the supply chain, influencing global market prices.

Get Real Time Prices of Germanium: https://www.chemanalyst.com/Pricing-data/germanium-1189

Technological advancements play a crucial role in the demand for germanium. The increasing adoption of fiber optic technologies, driven by the need for faster and more reliable internet connections, has significantly boosted the demand for germanium-doped optical fibers. These fibers are essential for high-speed data transmission, making germanium an indispensable material in the telecommunications industry. Similarly, the expanding use of infrared optics in military, surveillance, and medical applications has spurred the demand for germanium lenses and windows. As these technologies advance and become more widespread, the demand for germanium is expected to grow, potentially driving up prices further.

The renewable energy sector, particularly the solar industry, also contributes to the demand for germanium. Germanium is used as a substrate in high-efficiency multi-junction solar cells, which are employed in space applications and terrestrial concentrated photovoltaic systems. As the push for clean energy continues to gain momentum worldwide, the demand for advanced solar technologies is likely to increase, supporting the demand for germanium. This trend towards renewable energy solutions is another factor that can influence germanium prices, as higher demand can lead to price increases, especially if supply remains constrained.

Geopolitical factors and economic conditions also play a significant role in shaping germanium prices. Economic slowdowns or downturns can lead to reduced industrial activity and lower demand for germanium-based products. Conversely, periods of economic growth and industrial expansion can boost demand, driving up prices. Geopolitical tensions, trade policies, and international relations can disrupt the supply chain and create uncertainties in the market. For instance, tariffs or export restrictions imposed by major producing countries can lead to supply shortages and subsequent price hikes.

In addition to these factors, the exploration of new germanium sources and advancements in extraction technologies can influence market prices. Innovations that make the extraction and refinement of germanium more efficient and cost-effective could potentially increase supply and stabilize prices. Conversely, if new sources are not developed and existing reserves are depleted, the scarcity of germanium could lead to significant price increases over time.

Market speculation and investor behavior also contribute to the price volatility of germanium. As with many commodities, the prices can be influenced by market sentiment and speculative trading. Investors anticipating future demand growth or potential supply disruptions may drive prices up by investing in germanium stocks or futures. This speculative activity can sometimes lead to exaggerated price movements, independent of actual supply and demand conditions.

Overall, the price of germanium is influenced by a complex interplay of factors, including supply dynamics, technological advancements, demand from various industries, geopolitical events, and economic conditions. As the world continues to advance technologically and move towards renewable energy solutions, the demand for germanium is likely to remain strong. However, given the limited production and potential supply chain disruptions, the market may continue to experience significant price volatility. Stakeholders in the germanium market, including producers, consumers, and investors, must closely monitor these factors to navigate the challenges and opportunities presented by this critical material.

Get Real Time Prices of Germanium: https://www.chemanalyst.com/Pricing-data/germanium-1189

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[suvsystemltd]

How are rectifier diodes manufactured?

Understanding how these diodes are manufactured provides insight into their functionality and quality.

1. Semiconductor Material Selection

Rectifier diodes are typically made from silicon or germanium, chosen for their semiconductor properties. Silicon is the most common due to its higher temperature tolerance and lower leakage current. Germanium, while less common, has a lower forward voltage drop, making it suitable for certain applications.

2. Crystal Growth

The first step in manufacturing rectifier diodes involves growing a silicon crystal through the Czochralski process. This process involves melting high-purity silicon in a crucible and slowly pulling a seed crystal from the melt. As the seed crystal is pulled, it forms a single crystal ingot.

3. Ingot Processing

The silicon ingot is then processed into wafers. This involves slicing the ingot into thin discs using a diamond saw. These wafers undergo several treatments to remove impurities and create a uniform surface for the next steps.

4. Wafer Doping

Doping is the process of introducing impurities into the silicon wafer to create regions with different conductivity. For rectifier diodes, the wafer is doped with a material that introduces extra electrons (n-type doping) or holes (p-type doping) into the silicon lattice.

5. Photolithography

Photolithography is used to define the patterns on the wafer that will form the diode's structure. A layer of photoresist is applied to the wafer, exposed to ultraviolet light through a mask, and then developed to create a pattern on the wafer.

6. Etching

Etching is used to remove the exposed parts of the silicon wafer not protected by the photoresist. This process creates the structure of the diode, including the anode and cathode regions.

7. Metallization

Metallization involves depositing a metal layer, usually aluminum or copper, onto the wafer's surface. This metal layer forms the diode's contacts, allowing for electrical connections to be made.

8. Passivation

Passivation is the final step in manufacturing rectifier diodes. It involves applying a thin layer of material, such as silicon dioxide, to protect the diode from environmental factors and improve its performance.

[divyankverma]

The Global High Purity Germanium Market to Witness a Pronounce Growth during 2023 to 2032: AMR

[waferprous]

What properties make sapphire wafers unique and desirable for specific applications?

Sapphire is a single crystal of Al2O3 with a hexagonal crystalline structure. Sapphire crystal has desirable optical properties as it can transmit wavelengths from 150 to 6000 nm. When the crystal is appropriately thinned, it becomes useful at wavelengths close to its transmission limits. Being a rhombohedral crystal, some properties of sapphire would depend upon the crystallographic direction which is specified relative to the optical C-axis of the crystal. It is highly resistant to thermal shocks while the crystal’s thermal conductivity is very good at low temperatures.

 

Sapphire wafers are used for dissipating heat in electronic devices due to their light transmitting properties and corrosion resistance. The wafers' extremely high thermal conductivity at low temperatures make them excellent material for heat dissipation in cryogenic environments.

 

Sapphire is extremely hard, and is second in hardness only to the natural mineral diamond. It has a Mohs hardness of 9, and it is also extremely scratch-resistant - the properties that make it suitable for use in many industries. In SOS integrated circuits, layers of silicon oxide are formed over a sapphire substrate that provides it with a dielectric layer on top for efficient conduction of electricity across the circuit.

 

High-performance Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge)-based devices can be manufactured with the help of a sapphire substrate that speeds up the performance of chipsets. The presence of silicon and germanium ensures high electron mobility and low twin defect density in the chipsets. Radiofrequency devices that are manufactured using SiGe perform better than those that make use of Silicon-on-Sapphire (SOS) wafers.

 

Some of the common uses of sapphire wafers are provided below:

 

Microelectronic IC applications

Hybrid microelectronics

Infrared detectors

Silicon-on-Sapphire (SOS)

High temperatures

Radiation resistance

Growth substrate

Polishing carriers

Hostile environment

 

Sapphire wafers are made by cutting the crystal bar which is followed by grinding and polishing. The semiconductor wafer is cut into a wafer by a wire-cutting machine. Grinding is done to improve the flatness, curvature, and parallelism deviation of the sapphire wafer before polishing, and to reduce the thickness of the damaged layer caused due to cutting.

 

Following a standardized process of manufacturing sapphire wafers

WaferPro follows a standardized process of manufacturing sapphire wafers. The sapphire crystal rod position is accurately located on the slicing machine to ensure precise slicing. The process of slicing cuts the sapphire crystal rod into thin wafers while grinding is done to remove the chip cutting damage layer caused due to the process of slicing. Chamfering is done to trim the wafer edge into a circular arc to improve the mechanical strength of the sapphire wafer edge. Polishing improves the roughness of the wafer and its precision, while cleaning removes contaminants on the wafer surface. Finally, quality inspection is done on the wafers using high-precision testing instruments for surface dust particles, flatness, etc., to meet the customer’s expectations.

 

Best quality sapphire wafers in different planes 

At WaferPro, sapphire substrates are available in a variety of sizes for use as semiconductor in different industries. The company offers sapphire wafers of the best quality and high purity (99.99%) in A plane, R plane, C plane and M plane that you can order as per your needs as each plane has different properties. Besides sapphire wafers, you can also shop for other wafer products from WaferPro – the world’s leading provider of wafers including silicon wafers, float zone (FZ) wafers, fused silica wafers, borofloat glass wafers, and many more.

[ray-photonics]

Precision high power semiconductor ceramic device supplier ------ focus on optoelectronic packaging materials research and development production

We specialize in the development and manufacture of micron-level ceramic thin film circuit metallization technology. The core technology is: photolithography development (graphic lithography precision 10um level) + PVD coating technology (Revolution and Rotation sputtering deposition + multi-arc ion plating 360 degrees around sputtering) + gold and tin deposition technology.Products cover alumina, aluminum nitride, silicon nitride copper-clad plates, diamond copper, single crystal diamond heat sink, sapphire, optical fiber, infrared germanium silicon materials, various optical glass, various laser crystals, etc. We have titanium, tungsten, nickel, chromium, tantalum, copper, platinum, gold, tin a variety of target materials, sputtering target purity of 99.99% or more. The products are used in semiconductor lasers, optical communication, RF and other high-power semiconductor chips, new energy vehicles, medical imaging, fiber optic sensing, biotechnology, military aerospace and other types of passive media devices.

Email:tian1831038288@gmail.com

[seinternational]

About Radiation Detectors - Advantages & Disadvantages

About Radiation Detectors - Advantages & Disadvantages

Introduction

Each type of radiation detectors has its advantages and disadvantages. A wide range of detectors exist for measuring and quantifying ionizing radiation.  The selection of a radiation detector is guided by measurement requirements. Some detectors can quantify radiation energy, where others only count ionizing events. The design and shielding of a radiation detector also affect its sensitivity to different ionizing sources, including alpha, beta, and gamma radiation.  

Those incorporating GM tubes, are more commonly used due to ease of handling, low cost, and accuracy, and reliable. For applications where high efficiency for gamma radiation is needed, scintillation devices are best. Scintillation detectors are commonly used in medical applications such as digital radiography, fluoroscopy or CT scans. Most scintillation detectors will not detect alpha or beta radiation.

Geiger-Müller Detectors

Geiger tubes are rugged and relatively inexpensive to manufacture. The design of a GM detector strongly affects its sensitivity to alpha, beta, and gamma radiation sources each having different penetrating characteristics. Geiger-Müller detectors for alpha and beta radiation commonly use tube geometries with an ultrathin window to increase the likelihood that less penetrating radiation will reach the inside of the detector. The detection of gamma radiation results primarily from the interaction of gamma rays with the sidewall of the detector. The chamber geometry, gas, wall material, and thickness are all design factors in the sensitivity limits of GM detectors.

Scintillation Detectors

Scintillation detectors are used when quantification of ionizing energy is of interest. They utilize the interaction of ionizing radiation to produce UV and/or visible light. A calibration transfer function allows the intensity of captured light to be related to the energy of the incident radiation. The majority of light conversion in scintillation materials occurs via fluorescence. Fluorescence allows for fast detector response times and quantification of moderate- to high-level radiation. Scintillation materials are chosen based on the type of radiation to be measured.

Solid-State Detectors

Solid-state detectors based on semiconductor diodes are used when improved energy resolution and radionuclide identification capabilities are required. These detectors rely on the production of electron-hole pairs within a diode depletion region resulting from incident ionizing radiation. In a solid-state device under a reverse bias, these charge carriers can be directly swept to electrodes producing a current signal before recombining. Solid-state detectors can offer greater energy resolution than scintillation detectors.

There are several limitations associated with the use of solid-state detectors. To increase the diode depletion region which forms the interaction volume of the detector, production of high-purity semiconductor materials, like silicon or germanium, is required. Leakage current in the diode due to room-temperature excitation of charge carriers can significantly degrade the noise performance of solid- state detectors. Cooling to cryogenic temperatures is generally required for optimal resolution and operation. Solid-state detectors and spectrometers are typically more expensive than alternative technologies.

Conclusions

Additional classes of detectors exist. Each detector type possesses unique advantages and disadvantages depending on survey requirements. Understanding of the differences between detector designs and capabilities can help facilitate interpretation and discussion of radiation measurements.

[thekwandae-blog]

As per new study on High Purity Germanium Market 2019 Growth of CAGR with Focusing Key players like  Yunnan Germanium, Umicore, Yunnan Chihong Zn & Ge, etc.

The Global High Purity Germanium Market Study that gives a meticulous investigation of the current scenario of the market size, share, demand, growth, trends, and forecast in the coming years. The report firstly introduced the High Purity Germanium Market basics: definitions, classifications, applications and market overview; product specifications; manufacturing processes; cost structures, raw materials and so on. Then it analyzed the world main region market conditions, including the product price, profit, capacity, production, supply, demand and market growth rate and forecast etc. Companies Profiled in this report includes :  Yunnan Germanium, Umicore, Yunnan Chihong Zn & Ge, Teck, Zhonghao Technology, AXT Inc, JSC Germanium, Shenzhen Zhongjin Lingnan, PPM Pure Metals, Sihuan Zinc & Germanium, Indium Corporation, GEAPP, Photonic Sense. GET THE INSIDE SCOPE OF THE SAMPLE REPORT @[click here] The research study gives a complete list of all the leading players working in the Global High Purity Germanium Market. Moreover, the financial status, company profiles, business strategies and policies, along with the latest expansions in the worldwide market have been mentioned in the research study. Research objectives: • To study and analyze the Global High Purity Germanium market size by key regions/countries, product type and application, history data from 2013 to 2019, and forecast to 2023. • To understand the structure of High Purity Germanium Market by identifying its various sub-segments. • Focuses on the key Global High Purity Germanium Market players, to define, describe and analyze the value, market share, market competition landscape, SWOT analysis and development plans in next few years. • To analyze the High Purity Germanium Market with respect to individual growth trends, future prospects, and their contribution to the total market. • To share detailed information about the key factors influencing the growth of the market (growth potential, opportunities, drivers, industry-specific challenges and risks). • To project the size of High Purity Germanium Market, with respect to key regions, type [Germanium Tetrachloride, High-purity GeO2, Germanium Ingot] and applications [IR Optics, Fiber Optics, Polyethylene Terephthalate PETElectronic and Solar]. • To analyze competitive developments such as expansions, agreements, new product launches and acquisitions in the market. READ DETAILED INDEX OF FULL RESEARCH STUDY AT @ [click here]

In this report you will also find additional deals into key geographical segments of Global High Purity Germanium Market and deliver details about their current and former share. Ongoing trends, upcoming Challenges, future better regional investments and many other influencing factors have been considered and presented. The regions United States, Europe, China, Japan, Southeast Asia, India & Central & South America have been studied in depth to gain better market penetration and assure exact analysis. Top manufacturers have been given prime importance to make sure their strategies are understood and their position in this particular market can be elucidated. In the end, the report includes Global High Purity Germanium Market new project SWOT analysis, investment feasibility analysis, investment return analysis, and development analysis. The report also presents a round-up of vulnerabilities which companies operating in the market must avoid in order to enjoy sustainable growth through the course of the forecast period. Thanks for reading this article; you can also get individual chapter wise section or region wise report version like North America, Europe or Asia (China, India, Japan etc) or Oceania [Australia and New Zealand]. Fundamentals of Table of Content: 1 Report Overview 1.1 Study Scope 1.2 Key Market Segments 1.3 Players Covered 1.4 Market Analysis by Type 1.5 Market by Application 1.6 Study Objectives 1.7 Years Considered. 2 Global Growth Trends 2.1 Global High Purity Germanium Market Size 2.2 High Purity Germanium Growth Trends by Regions 2.3 Industry Trends. 3 Market Share by Key_Players 3.1 Global High Purity Germanium Market Size by Manufacturers 3.2 Global High Purity Germanium Key_Players Head office and Area Served 3.3 Key_Players Product/Solution/Service 3.4 Enter barriers in High Purity Germanium Market 3.5 Mergers, Acquisitions, Expansion Plans. Get Discount on this report @ [click here]

[crimsonpublishersminingscience]

Effective Purification of Germanium Obtained from Mineral Raw Materials-Crimson Publishers

Effective Purification of Germanium Obtained from Mineral Raw Materials by  Pekar GS in  Aspects in Mining & Mineral Science

 Abstract

By studying the heat treatment of metallic germanium obtained from mineral raw materials, in is experimentally established that germanium heating in a certain narrow temperature range leads to a significant decrease in the concentration of uncontrolled impurities. The use of such a heating as a preliminary germanium purification makes it possible to increase significantly the efficiency of subsequent germanium purification by a zone melting method.

Keywords: Germanium; Purification; Volatile impurities; Zone melting

 Introduction

Single-crystalline and poly-crystalline germanium is one of the main materials of semiconductor technique and is used for fabricating the elements of infrared optics (such as lenses, protective screens, etc.), detectors of ionizing radiation and other devices. Germanium is contained in the earth's crust in the form of a scattered element and may be found in sulfide and iron ores, some coals, almost in all silicates and in a number of minerals (such as argyrodite, confildite, etc.). By means of the use of certain complex and time-consuming operations, germanium may be extracted from the listed materials in the form of oxide GeO2, which may be then chemically reduced with hydrogen at high temperature. Since for most practical applications the high-purity germanium is used as a source material (which subsequently may be doped with certain impurities), processes of metallic germanium purification are very important. Very often the depth of such purification should be very high. For example, to provide germanium transparency in the infrared optical region, i.e. to prepare so-called optical germanium, it should be doped with a certain donor impurity (Sb, Na, etc.) at a concentration from 5∙1013 to 3∙1014cm-3 [1,2]. Therefore, the concentration of uncontrolled impurities in the source germanium before its doping should not exceed at least 1012cm-3. As to detector germanium, it should even be much better refined.

As a main method for germanium purification, zone melting is used. It makes it possible to prepare germanium, which is one of the most chemically pure materials known. However, during zone melting, each germanium ingot must be subjected to repeated purification, i.e. the container with germanium should be many times pulled through a narrow zone of melted germanium. This process is rather long, laborious and energy consuming. Obviously that to increase the efficiency of zone melting, it is desirable to use as much as possible purified source material. In this paper we describe the effect observed by us [3] that makes it easy to lower the content of impurities in the source germanium prior to its purification by zone melting. During a long time we successfully used this effect when preparing the initial material for growing large optical germanium crystals used in modern thermal imaging devices [4].

 Method of Preliminary Purification

Germanium powder obtained by reducing germanium oxide in a hydrogen flow at a temperature about 650-675 °C, weighing approximately 2kg, was placed in a graphite crucible and heated in a closed chamber under a pressure of 10-3 atm with continuous pumping. After the powder was completely melted, the melt was heated to a temperature of 1050-1150 °C. It was found that in this temperature range a quite narrow region existed, up to 20 °C wide, in which a rather unexpected process was observed that looked like boiling of the melt. This process lasted for about 5-10min. Temperature, corresponding to this region, was different depending on the nature of purified germanium. We explained this process by decomposition and evaporation of some chemical compounds whose composition we could not determine. It seems naturally to suggest that such compounds were initially contained in the germanium dioxide, from which the metal germanium was obtained. As a result of the described process, the content of electrically active impurities in the obtained crystalline germanium dropped by about 5-10 times compared with the material in which the heating in the described narrow temperature region was not carried out. Note that the concentration of electrically active impurities in the obtained germanium ingots was evaluated, as is often done, from the measured value of the electrical resistivity.

It was found that after the subsequent zone melting of the preliminary purified germanium (at 6 passes of the melted zone) the resistivity of almost the entire germanium ingot was approximately 47 Ohm∙cm at room temperature, which corresponded to the intrinsic electrical resistivity of germanium [5] and was indicative of its high purity. At the same time, zone purification of germanium, which was not subjected to the preliminary purification described above, resulted in obtaining ingots with a resistivity about 47 Ohm∙cm only in the front half of each ingot even after 12-fold passage of the melted zone. As for the rest portions of the ingots, their resistivity did not achieve this value even after the multifold zone-melting purification.

 Conclusion

It is shown that heating of the melted metallic germanium obtained from mineral raw materials, carried out in the experimentally determined narrow (approximately 20 °C wide) temperature region, results in a significant decrease of the concentration of contaminants. This results in a significant increase in the efficiency of the subsequent purification of this material by zone melting. The described technique has been successfully used for preparing germanium ingots used as a source material for growing, on an industrial scale, of optical germanium crystals for thermal imaging systems.

 References

Pekar GS, Singaevsky AF (2012) Na-doped optical germanium bulk crystals. Applied Physics A 108(3): 657-664.

Pekar GS, Singaevsky AF (2017) Solubility, diffusion and electrical activity of Na in bulk Ge crystals. Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing 64: 10-15.

Pekar GS, Singaevsky AF, Lokshin MM (2011) Method for obtaining of metal germanium from the germanium dioxide. Patent of Ukraine №

Pekar GS, Singaevsky AF, Lokshin MM, Gordienko VI, Mazurin IV (2018) Large polycrystalline optical germanium Ge: Na plates with improved optical parameters and their application. Semiconductor physics, quantum electronics and optoelectronics 19: 23-27.

Smith RA (1978) Semiconductors. (2nd edn), Cambridge University Press, UK, p. 540.

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[itssandrajoe22world]

12 unique advantages of LED lighting

Energy Conservation and sustainable development is no longer a selective issue, but it is the only way of world’s future development. Led as the representative of the new light source lighting to replace the traditional light source, it is causing a great change in lighting industry. Driven by innovative technology, the new lighting products are constantly being updated, from incandescent lamps to energy-saving lamps, halogen lamps to LED lamps. The lighting products have achieved energy-saving upgrades, and at the same time, they have also been improved in comfort, the lighting effect is also more diverse. As the representative of the Green energy-saving light source, LED lighting has become the most potential market in the industry. Compared with the more mature light source, what are the leading advantages of LED? The following is a brief introduction by the author.

12 unique advantages of LED lighting

In 1923, the scientist O.W. Lossew discovered that the P-N junction of silicon carbide had unidirectional conductivity and luminescence; around 1955, R. J. Haynes presented a study on P-N junction of semiconductor germanium, G. A. Wolff studied the luminescence of Gallium Phosphide; in 1968, the first red LED was produced by Monsanto and HP in the United States, making it an electronic product.

(1) energy conservation: the spectrum of leds is almost entirely concentrated in the visible light band, with a luminous efficiency of 80 to 90 per cent. The results show that the

luminous efficiency of the ordinary incandescent lamp is 12 lm/w, the life is less than 2000 hours, and the luminous efficiency of the spiral fluorescent lamp is 60 LM/W, with a life span of less than 8,000 hours, the T5 fluorescent lamp has a 96 ALMW life span of about 10,000 hours, while the 5 mm diameter white LED has a life span of 20 something 28 LLMW and can last more than 100000 hours. Some also predict an infinite upper limit on the lifetime of future leds.

The conventional wisdom is that cfls can save up to four fifths of energy, but leds can save up to a quarter more than cfls, a far greater innovation for Solid State Lighting. In addition, LED also has other advantages, high-quality light, basically no radiation, is a typical green lighting source, reliable and durable, very low maintenance costs, and so on. Because LED has the above other solid light source is unable to match the characteristics, 10 years later LED lighting industry will be the mainstream light source.

(2) safety and Environmental Protection: LED working voltage is low, mostly 1.4 something 3v; ordinary LED working current is only 10mA, ultra-high brightness is only 1a. Led in the production process do not add “Mercury” , do not need to inflate, do not need glass shell, impact resistance is good, earthquake resistance is good, not broken, easy to transport, very environmental protection, known as “Green Energy” .

(3) Long Life: LED small size, light weight, shell for epoxy packaging, not only to protect the internal chip, but also has the ability to light transmission and spotlight. Leds typically have a lifespan of between 50,000 and 100,000 hours, and because leds are semiconductor device, even frequent switches don’t affect their lifespan. At present, incandescent lamps, fluorescent lamps and energy-saving fluorescent lamps are mainly used for household lighting.

(4) Fast Response: the response frequency τmc of leds is related to the lifetime τmc of a few carriers injected. For example, for leds made of GaAs material, the response frequency of τmc is about 16 something 160 mhz in the range of 1 something 10 ns, this high response rate is sufficient for displaying a 6.5 mhz video signal, which is one of the key factors in achieving a video LED large screen.

At present, the lowest LED response time has reached 1 microsecond, the general for a few milliseconds, about the common light source response time 1/100. Therefore, it can be used in many high-frequency environments, such as car brake lights or state lights, can shorten the braking time of the vehicle behind the car, thus improving safety.

LED light source powerful advantage

(5) High luminous efficiency: incandescent lamps and halogen lamps have a luminous efficiency of 12-24 LM/W (Lumen/w) , fluorescent lamps have a luminous efficiency of 50 Something 70 lm/w, sodium lamps have a luminous efficiency of 90 Something 140 LM/w, and most electricity consumption becomes heat loss. The light efficiency of LED can reach 50 Something 200 LM/W after improvement, and the light has good monochromatic, narrow spectrum, no filtering can be directly issued colored visible light.

(6) small size of LED components: more convenient for the layout and design of various equipment, and can better realize the effect of “see the light but not the light source” in night scene lighting.

(7) high concentration of LED light energy: concentrated in the smaller wavelength window, high purity.

(8) LED light directivity is strong: brightness attenuation is much lower than traditional light source.

(9) LED can be driven by low-voltage DC power: with the advantages of small load, weak interference, the use of lower environmental requirements.

(10)  Better control of the composition of the Luminescence Spectrum: This makes it suitable for local or focal lighting in museums and exhibition halls.

(11) The size of the semiconductor luminescent layer and the List of semiconductor materials forbidden band can be controlled: thereby emitting light of various colors and having a higher degree of color.

(12) High color rendering: will not cause harm to the human eye.

In conclusion: as an emerging technology sector, the light-emitting diode industry is still in a fast developing stage, and we are pleased with the progress of Science and Technology, but we also have to realize that both the technology sector and the regulation of the industry, compared with the traditional light source, they are not mature and sound. There is still a long way to go before the LED can truly replace the traditional light source. We believe that by promoting the healthy and orderly development of the entire industry, continuously accelerating the pace of application and gradually transforming the traditional industry, and promoting the adjustment of the industrial structure, it will open energy-saving green quality of life for people.

Sousce by: https://www.recolux.cn/12-unique-advantages-of-led-lighting/

[szstrandingline18-blog]

Fiber Optic Cables

Secondary coating line

Every fiber optic cable guide features a radius limiting part that prevents fiber optic cables from being bent over and above their least bend radii. The fiber optic cables have apparent advantages around the copper cables. You can find extra safety, as well as the fiber optic cables tend to be more dependable than any other wire accessible. The fiber optic cable is in the significant voltage environment. Dry-band voltage of your polluted sheath's surface of the all-dielectric self-supporting fiber optic cable is analyzed in this paper.

Secondary coating line

The fiber optic cable seven-hundred, shown in FIG. The FIMT core 702 features an interior tube 706 encompassing one particular or maybe more optical fibers 708. The fiber optic cable will be the principal decision for prime velocity Net connections along with the most important substance useful for region to place or continent to continent Online connections. By going the connection type from copper to fiber optics it can allow the DisplayPort to attain better bandwidths that happen to be vital for HDTV playback and when you think about there are lots of games that you just can engage in over the internet, streaming them through the DisplayPort directly to your Lcd Tv might be a person choice the sector will soak up the around upcoming. The fiber optic cable could be installed very easily from level to stage, passing right future to major sources of EMI without having result. Conversion from copper networks is a snap with media converters, gadgets that change most sorts of systems to fiber optics.

The fiber optic cable assembly involves a bundle of fiber optic fibers, a tube, a observe, a plurality of fasteners and securing implies. The tube has a front floor plus a rear surface area. The fiber optic cable transmits the photon to a next quantum dot that also transpires to become sitting down between two mirrors. In such cases, the mirrors "catch" the photon and bounce it from the quantum dot till it eventually absorbs it. The fiber optic cable has an stop that is definitely stripped. The stripped end contains a bare fiber that extends in the connector and through the ferrule.

The fiber optic cable carries a number of providers all over campus which includes: voice, online video, cable Tv set, and facts. Besides possessing the fiber cable in place, newer fiber cable Tv set distribution gear grew to become a lot more available in a reduced price. The fiber optic cable and lens makes it possible for the instrument electronics to become retained far from the concentrate on environment wherever it could be subjected to increased temperatures, smoke, dust, steam or impressive electromagnetic emissions these as generated by induction heating. Each the stainless steel lens and rugged cable assembly may be replaced during the subject with out returning the instrument for calibration (a singular attribute). The Fiber Optic Cable Blower is suitable for the installation of fiber optic cables with diameters from 0.23" (five.eight mm) to 1.13" (28.7 mm) into innerduct from 0.98" (25 mm) outer diameter to one.97" (50.0 mm) outer diameter. The right size cable seals, feed tube and venturi needs to be determined for the cable remaining mounted.

The fiber optic cable receives enter in the reflection off of your internal 3/4 inch diameter sphere surface. The IS1 is right for transportable coloration measurements and functions just like a cosine receptor for irradiance measurements. The fiber optic cable (20) includes a light-weight carrying center (28), a cladding (30) plus a buffer (32). The cladding displacement connector (ten) has surfaces (sixty,62) that may be useful for displacing the buffer (32) and cladding (thirty) to expose (34) the light carrying heart (28).

Fiber-optic wires carry info while in the form of light-weight . To help make a fiber-optic nanowire, engineers initial commence which has a common fiber-optic cable. Fiber-optic cable has become getting used to transport both equally video clip and audio signals for brief and lengthy distances. This can be produced doable by modulating a video/audio sign(s) on to a beam of coherent light-weight, that is produced by a solid-state laser.

Fiber-optic cables usually are not crimped, soldered, or twisted jointly when they are repaired. If the cable is broken, one more cable has to be slice to suit between the 2 connectors. Fiber-optic technological know-how is very well regarded in telecommunications, regional spot networks, the CCTV security marketplace and in numerous Clever Transportation Procedure (ITS) highway projects. Even CATV (cable) distribution to varied regional feed points in just a household local community has become plan for fiber.

Network operators wish to recoup the price of the fiber-optic cable as well as other infrastructure parts which make a high-speed Net probable. They argue which the updates are needed to provide these innovations as high-definition video-on-demand and high-quality teleconferencing. Our typical fiber-optic ribbon cables give exceptional tensile power and resistance to cut-through and abrasion although preserving flexibility. Cables can be found for aerospace along with other demanding purposes. The fiber-optic cable didn't allow that.

glass,eyeglasses

Fiber Optic cabling is designed with glass fibers. Supply quite small variation during the signal they have above lengthy distances. Optical engineers have found that including distinctive further substances to the fundamental silicon dioxide they might change the optical qualities in the glass. By adding about 4% germanium dioxide (GeO2), by way of example, they could produce a glass that has a lot less attenuation, and far 'flatter' attenuation across various frequencies of sunshine, than silicon dioxide by by itself. Despite the fact that fibers may be built away from either plastic or glass, the fibers applied in long-distance telecommunications purposes are always glass, thanks to the lessen optical absorption of glass. The sunshine transmitted via the fiber is confined thanks to whole interior reflection inside of the material.

FYI, fiber optic (the main of it, not shell to go over it) is designed of glass rather than plastic. The fiber optic strands of glass (optic fibers) within just fiber optic cables carry analog or electronic alerts during the method of gentle waves. Length and capabilities will boost even more when the glass results in being much more pure.

Remembering the headache and also the good white gentle from superior SiO2 glass, Richard knew the formula will be ultra pure SiO2. Richard also understood that Corning produced superior purity SiO2 powder, by oxidizing pure SiCl4 into SiO2. NEP Supershooters has adapters that do the job across the fiber by breaking out the glass, but this suggests the camera have to be run within the closest electrical outlet or generator. It can be only one more thing to go erroneous in the event the ability plug gets pulled or the generator quits. A fibre optic cable is made up of the glass silica core by way of which light-weight is guided. This is protected using a substance which has a refractive index of somewhat significantly less compared to core.

The core and also the cladding (that has a lower-refractive-index ) are usually built of high-quality silica glass, though they might both equally be produced of plastic too. Connecting two optical fibers is finished by fusion splicing or mechanical splicing and requires particular expertise and interconnection know-how thanks on the microscopic precision required to align the fiber cores. A type of cable that transmits details as light-weight by way of strands of glass in lieu of electrical power through copper . Fiber-optic cable is often a amazing point; it may possibly transmit nearly insane amounts of information for each 2nd , and it is actually completely impervious to surge s, magnetic fields , lightning , and all of the other EM nasties which can influence copper cable. Fiber optic information transmission works by using mild in glass fiber cable as a interaction medium. It can be excellent for spanning locations with significant interference, these as close to major electrical equipment, welding or radio transmissions.

Fiber optics are skinny filaments of glass by means of which gentle beams are transmitted. Advantages of fiber include high info carrying ability (bandwidth), really small error rates and insensitivity to electromagnetic interference. Then, the bare glass (one hundred twenty five mm) is cleaned and established set up less than a distinctive laser underneath a custom made photograph mask that is definitely established 50 mm above the cable. As soon as the laser performs its cycle, the assembly has become personalized. Abraham Van Heel covered a bare fiber or glass or plastic using a clear cladding of lower refractive index. This shielded the whole reflection surface area from contamination and greatly decreased cross communicate amongst fibers.

Fiber-optic cable consists of glass fibers, allowing for appreciably bigger transfer speeds as opposed to copper. Facts are transmitted inside the form of mild pulses injected by a laser or an LED. The cable utilizes glass fibers in place of copper wires to transmit discussion and facts. AT&T's old cables generally are shark- free because they don't emit a great deal magnetism. Glass cables need to get custom-cut so that they have a nice crisp edge that doesn't scatter the light, but their plastic cousins is often trimmed on the jobsite. Still, no ordinary wire cutter will do.

From a technical standpoint, fiber optic cable consists of the bundle of glass or plastic rods that will transmit information alerts. Fiber optic cable can send and receive in both analog and digital formats, and can have online video, voice, and internet packets. Some new cable designers will actually give built-in bend limits to protect the glass within.

Although copper wires is often spliced and mended as lots of times as needed, it really is considerably harder to fix glass fiber-optic cables. And this time it is not all dependent on just one market (though Liquid crystal display glass is huge). We have the Liquid crystal display glass, auto/diesel catalytic converter substrates, and fiber. Theoretical perform showing that gentle loss in glass fibers could be decreased dramatically spurred experimental efforts to produce these types of fibers. Researchers continued exploring techniques to decrease mild loss in optical fibers.

[neonberk]

mse 45L lab 6 discussion RAW

Electronic Properties of Materials

DISCLAIMER: i post this in hope it is a helpful guide/for desperate times when you need some guidance. remember our honor code. remember this trust i put in you.

if you wanna see my full report just drop me a dm. ill share it gladly one surviving bear to another.

Graded: 27/30

Comments: Great work! Metals: Melting would increase resistance due to scattering. Semi: Nice, close! Ionic: Nice. Would be nice to see a final sentence on applications/implications

Part I (Metals/Conductors)

Question 1

Rank the five (5) specimens in order of purity, and specify ρr for each specimen in micro-ohm-cm.

<table of sample no, α, ꭓ and ρr>

Impurity is directly correlated with the (residual) resistivity in the sample. Since sample 17 has the smallest ρr, it has the least impurities followed by 16, 18, 19 then 20 (most impurities, least pure).

Question 2

To what precision can you verify Matthiessen's rule? To answer this question, consider how the resistivity changes with temperature for a fixed concentration of impurities, then how the resistivity changes with impurity concentration when the temperature is fixed.

Matthiessen's rule is usually used with data at liquid helium temperature (4.2 K), where the thermal component is effectively zero. Since the lowest temperature we could achieve in this lab was 77K, this was set as a baseline temperature for our calculation of resistivity by Matthiessen's rule, and resistance measured at this temperature was assumed to have no thermal resistivity component. Because resistivity increases as temperature/impurity concentration increases, our calculation with Matthiessen's rule is not the most accurate.

Question 3

Would you expect ρ to increase or decrease as T is increased through the melting point? Why?

Resistivity should decrease slightly as T is increased through the melting point. Past the melting point, in liquid state, the electrons are able to move more freely without having to navigate the uniform solid structure. However, there is still a very large thermal component to the resistivity at such high temperatures, and the change in state will not affect the overall resistivity by a lot.

Question 4

If you dope a metal A with another metal B where ρB < ρA, do you expect the resistivity of the alloy to increase or decrease? Why?

Doping is the introduction of a very small concentration of another substance. If a metal A was doped with another metal B where ρB < ρA, the resistivity would increase. Since the concentration is very small, metal B would still be considered an impurity and would increase the measured resistance. Unless metal B was introduced in significant quantities, it would not decrease the resistivity even though ρB < ρA.

Part II (Semiconductors)

Question 5

Plot ln (G) versus 1/T for the semiconducting sample studied in this lab.

Question 6

Over what temperature range, if any, does your sample behave as an intrinsic semiconductor?

When fitted with a best fit line, the R2 value of the line is very close to 1, with less than a 5 percent margin, indicating that the data can be fitted into almost a straight line. Temperatures above room temperature (range: 25˚C to 100˚C) where thermally generated carriers are numerous enough to dominate carrier concentration, were tested. However the graph does not exhibit an exhaustion range where the graph plateaus out and starts exhibiting extrinsic behaviour after. Along with the assumption that the germanium sample is sufficiently pure, we conclude that the semiconductor behaves intrinsically when between 25˚C to 100˚C.

Question 7

What is the energy gap for your sample? Compare with published literature values and cite your sources.

With the understanding that the graph displays intrinsic behaviour, the slope of the best fit line then represents -Eg/2k, equating to -3810.3. Solving for Eg (taking k as 8.617e−5 eV/K) the energy gap of the sample is 0.657 eV. This compares well with the known band gap energy for germanium⁴, 0.67eV.

Question 8

Predict the resistance at 150°C of your sample.

Assuming that the semiconductor continues to behave as an intrinsic semiconductor, the data can be extrapolated and resistance is predicted to be 37.42 Ohms at 150˚C.

Part III (Insulators)

Question 9

Plot ln (G) versus 1/T for the insulator sample studied in this lab.

Question 10

What is the temperature corresponding to the change in slope of the ln (G) vs 1/T plot? If you don't observe any change in slope, what does that mean?

A jump followed by a change in slope of the ln (G) vs 1/T plot is observed when the temperature is 529.9˚C. Below this temperature, the number of vacancies is due to impurities in the sample and is temperature independent. The conductivity is hence controlled by the migration energy, Em. Above the 529.9˚C, the steeper slope observed is due to the increase in anion-cation vacancy pairs (Schottky defects) and its effect on conductivity dominates that of vacancies due to impurities. The conductivity for this segment depends on the formation energy of Schottky pairs, W. If no change in slope is observed, it would suggest that there is an incredibly high amount of impurities in the sample and a large amount of thermal energy would be needed for conductivity due to thermally induced Schottky defects to dominate that of vacancies due to impurities.

Question 11

From your plot determine both Em and W in eV.

The slope for the portion 1, at temperatures above 529.9˚C would equal to -(Em + W/2)/k, and the slope for portion 2 would be -Em/k. With the gradient of the best fit lines for the two graphs, we can solve these equations (taking k as 8.617e−5 eV/K) to get Em = 0.775 eV and W = 1.629 eV

Question 12

Do you think that conductivity measurements could be used as an index of purity in ionic crystals? Discuss.

Conductivity measurements could be useful in determining the purity of ionic crystals for a given crystal lattice. For a known ionic compound, the impurity level can be determined relatively by comparing the critical temperature where the slope of the ln (G) vs 1/T plot changes, with that of the same compound with a known/different purity. However this cannot be done across different compounds and crystal structures as conductivity is different and cannot be attributed solely to differences in purity.

4. W. Callister, and D. Rethwisch, Materials science and engineering. 9th ed. Wiley. (2014)