#Gravite Particle Sample

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[spacetimewithstuartgary]

Asteroid grains shed light on the outer solar system’s origins

Tiny grains from a distant asteroid are revealing clues to the magnetic forces that shaped the far reaches of the solar system over 4.6 billion years ago. 

Scientists at MIT and elsewhere have analyzed particles of the asteroid Ryugu, which were collected by the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency’s (JAXA) Hayabusa2 mission and brought back to Earth in 2020. Scientists believe Ryugu formed on the outskirts of the early solar system before migrating in toward the asteroid belt, eventually settling into an orbit between Earth and Mars. 

The team analyzed Ryugu’s particles for signs of any ancient magnetic field that might have been present when the asteroid first took shape. Their results suggest that if there was a magnetic field, it would have been very weak. At most, such a field would have been about 15 microtesla. (The Earth’s own magnetic field today is around 50 microtesla.) 

Even so, the scientists estimate that such a low-grade field intensity would have been enough to pull together primordial gas and dust to form the outer solar system’s asteroids and potentially play a role in giant planet formation, from Jupiter to Neptune.

The team’s results, which are published today in the journal AGU Advances, show for the first time that the distal solar system likely harbored a weak magnetic field. Scientists have known that a magnetic field shaped the inner solar system, where Earth and the terrestrial planets were formed. But it was unclear whether such a magnetic influence extended into more remote regions, until now. 

“We’re showing that, everywhere we look now, there was some sort of magnetic field that was responsible for bringing mass to where the sun and planets were forming,” says study author Benjamin Weiss, the Robert R. Shrock Professor of Earth and Planetary Sciences at MIT. “That now applies to the outer solar system planets.”

The study’s lead author is Elias Mansbach PhD ’24, who is now a postdoc at Cambridge University. MIT co-authors include Eduardo Lima, Saverio Cambioni, and Jodie Ream, along with Michael Sowell and Joseph Kirschvink of Caltech, Roger Fu of Harvard University, Xue-Ning Bai of Tsinghua University, Chisato Anai and Atsuko Kobayashi of the Kochi Advanced Marine Core Research Institute, and Hironori Hidaka of Tokyo Institute of Technology. 

A far-off field

Around 4.6 billion years ago, the solar system formed from a dense cloud of interstellar gas and dust, which collapsed into a swirling disk of matter. Most of this material gravitated toward the center of the disk to form the sun. The remaining bits formed a solar nebula of swirling, ionized gas. Scientists suspect that interactions between the newly formed sun and the ionized disk generated a magnetic field that threaded through the nebula, helping to drive accretion and pull matter inward to form the planets, asteroids, and moons. 

“This nebular field disappeared around 3 to 4 million years after the solar system’s formation, and we are fascinated with how it played a role in early planetary formation,” Mansbach says.

Scientists previously determined that a magnetic field was present throughout the inner solar system — a region that spanned from the sun to about 7 astronomical units (AU), out to where Jupiter is today. (One AU is the distance between the sun and the Earth.) The intensity of this inner nebular field was somewhere between 50 to 200 microtesla, and it likely influenced the formation of the inner terrestrial planets. Such estimates of the early magnetic field are based on meteorites that landed on Earth and are thought to have originated in the inner nebula. 

“But how far this magnetic field extended, and what role it played in more distal regions, is still uncertain because there haven’t been many samples that could tell us about the outer solar system,” Mansbach says. 

Rewinding the tape

The team got an opportunity to analyze samples from the outer solar system with Ryugu, an asteroid that is thought to have formed in the early outer solar system, beyond 7 AU, and was eventually brought into orbit near the Earth. In December 2020, JAXA’s Hayabusa 2 mission returned samples of the asteroid to Earth, giving scientists a first look at a potential relic of the early distal solar system. 

The researchers acquired several grains of the returned samples, each about a millimeter in size. They placed the particles in a magnetometer — an instrument in Weiss’ lab that measures the strength and direction of a sample’s magnetization. They then applied an alternating magnetic field to progressively demagnetize each sample.

“Like a tape recorder, we are slowly rewinding the sample’s magnetic record,” Mansbach explains. “We then look for consistent trends that tell us if it formed in a magnetic field.”

They determined that the samples held no clear sign of a preserved magnetic field. This suggests that either there was no nebular field present in the outer solar system where the asteroid first formed, or the field was so weak that it was not recorded in the asteroid’s grains. If the latter is the case, the team estimates such a weak field would have been no more than 15 microtesla in intensity. 

The researchers also reexamined data from previously studied meteorites. They specifically looked at “ungrouped carbonaceous chondrites” — meteorites that have properties that are characteristic of having formed in the distal solar system. Scientists had estimated the samples were not old enough to have formed before the solar nebula disappeared. Any magnetic field record the samples contain, then, would not reflect the nebular field. But Mansbach and his colleagues decided to take a closer look. 

“We reanalyzed the ages of these samples and found they are closer to the start of the solar system than previously thought,” Mansbach says. “We think these samples formed in this distal, outer region. And one of these samples does actually have a positive field detection of about 5 microtesla, which is consistent with an upper limit of 15 microtesla.”

This updated sample, combined with the new Ryugu particles, suggest that the outer solar system, beyond 7 AU, hosted a very weak magnetic field, that was nevertheless strong enough to pull matter in from the outskirts to eventually form the outer planetary bodies, from Jupiter to Neptune. 

“When you’re further from the sun, a weak magnetic field goes a long way,” Weiss notes. “It was predicted that it doesn’t need to be that strong out there, and that’s what we’re seeing.”

The team plans to look for more evidence of distal nebular fields with samples from another far-off asteroid, Bennu, which were delivered to Earth in September 2023 by NASA’s OSIRIS-REx spacecraft. 

“Bennu looks a lot like Ryugu, and we’re eagerly awaiting first results from those samples,” Mansbach says. 

This research was supported, in part, by NASA.

IMAGE: MIT scientists analyzed one of several particles (shown in black) from the asteroid Ryugu, and found evidence that a weak magnetic field likely existed in the outer solar system where the asteroid is thought to have first formed, more than 4.6 billion years ago. Credit Elias Mansbach

[slippinmickeys]

The Mesas of Deuteronilus Mensae (28/31)

Mulder took a step toward her anyway.

“What’s the experiment?” he asked.

Scully looked at him, shoulders up around her ears with tension. The noise of the dust storm outside had become a steady static of sound, of particles being blown into metal. A constant smatter of dissonance.

Finally she sighed. “The bacterium I came into contact with on your suit,” she started, “normally exists at extreme temperatures. The pit had an average temperature of -125 degrees Fahrenheit. Yet they’re functioning just fine on the rover.”

“The surface temperature of Mars can hit 70 degrees in the summer,” Mulder pointed out.

“True,” she admitted. “But it got me thinking that if it could survive at 73 degrees,” she said, referring to the base temperature of the Rover, “why couldn’t it survive at 98.6?”

Mulder could see how the dots had connected in her head, but correlation did not equal causation.

“This is a creature that feeds off of sulfur and ammonia, Scully,” he said gently. “It doesn’t need you.”

“But I’m sick, Mulder. I am.” He opened his mouth to try to calm her, but she plowed on. “I don’t feel well. And the effects of gravitational biology—zero G changes our biology on a fundamental level, Mulder. It changes our DNA. It makes bacteria more potent, more dangerous. You know this. What if this bacterium came into contact with another bacterium that hitched a ride from Earth and changed in space? What if it created a hybrid microbe? It’s been proven that bacterial cells from different species can combine into unique hybrid cells by fusing their cell walls and membranes and sharing cellular contents,including proteins and ribonucleic acid.hose are the molecules that regulate gene expression and control cell metabolism, Mulder. What if this alien bacteria is… What if it’s now feeding on me?”

“Scully,” he said, stepping forward and keeping his voice low. “You’re panicking.”

“I’m sick.”

“And we will figure it out.” He got a little closer to her. If he could touch her, he could calm her down and reassure her, he was certain. She didn’t back away. Finally, he reached out and put a hand on her shoulder. Her skin did feel warm, even through her jumpsuit. He wasn’t certain it was a fever, but it was concerning.

“Mulder, you should be in full PPE,” she said. Her voice had lost the desperate edge to it.

“If this is some kind of contagion, I’ve already been exposed. Come here.” And he pulled her into his body. She sagged into his touch.

“Tell me about your experiment,” he said after a moment.

“I’ve exposed an isolated population of the Martian bacterium to a host of bacteria that we’ve carried with us,” she started.

He thought of her quick jaunt to the lav. “I don’t think I want to know how,” he said, and he felt her small huff of a laugh.

“You don’t,” she said. “I want to see how they react to each other. It shouldn’t take long. We’ll know what’s possible in a few hours. If I need to be worried.”

“Pardon me if I’m pointing out the obvious, Scully, but you already seem to be worried.”

Her breath into his jumpsuit was humid and warm.

“I have a quicker idea,” Mulder spoke again, pulling back so he could get a look in her eyes.

They were big and blue and wet, and he wanted so badly to fall into them and drown in her. If she was sick, he wasn’t sure what he’d do, how he’d cope. But he was determined to be strong right now, because she was not.

“How does the phlebotomy queen feel about a self-stick?”

“A blood sample?” she asked.

He nodded. She pulled back, running the back of her hand under her nose. “I thought of that,” she said, sniffling. “But I didn’t want to get ahead of myself.”

They both chuckled at that.

“I think I’m too shaky to do a self-draw,” she finally said.

“I’ll do it,” Mulder said gently. “As long as you don’t judge my technique.”

XxXxXxXxXxX

She had somehow let herself get completely worked up and overwrought, the excitement of her discovery, the off-ness of not feeling well, the grip of exhaustion and the stress of the storm, and their isolation all aggregating until she was a jumble of pathos and hysteria.

What was the matter with her?

Mulder’s solution was simple and direct. If she was concerned about contagion, she should test herself. They’d know one way or the other. One step at a time.

He’d done the blood draw beautifully, had been gentle and deferential, asking her advice on the best way to do this or that, and she didn’t realize until he was done that he’d drawn her focus away from her fear and managed to calm her down without her catching on to his tactics.

They’d taken three vials worth of blood; one to run under the microscope, one to run through The Machine (a piece of NASA medical equipment that ran multiple simple diagnostic analyses), and one for further testing and experimentation, if necessary.

Mulder held up the first vial.

“Do you want me to do it?” he asked.

She felt calm now, and silly for having gotten so worked up. She was embarrassed and needed a distraction. “I’ll do it,” she said, and she took the vial from him and readied a slide, putting it into the Glove Box for a closer look.

Her nerves were tightly wound, but she moved with confidence, in her element, determined to do the science right. She clicked the light on the microscope and changed out the lens. One deep breath, and she looked into the eyepiece.

XxXxXxXxXxX

Mulder was on the edge of his seat, his nerves worn raw with concern, but unwilling to let Scully catch on to any of his internal disquiet. She needed confidence and calm and a partner to shore her up. He would wait, quietly and calmly, for Scully to do her work and tell him what she saw.

Blood thrumming, he watched as she adjusted the slide, swapped lenses, adjusted again, swapped again. And just when he was about to burst out of his skin, Scully pulled back from the microscope and gripped the lab table hard, her knuckles turning white. She inhaled and exhaled once and then turned to Mulder.

“There’s no evidence of contagion,” she said with a shaky voice. “My blood is clean.”

Mulder was up before he could tell his legs to move, and he wrapped Scully in a tight hug. She clung to him just as fiercely and he could feel her sag in relief.

“You had me worried,” he said into the silk of her hair.

“I had myself worried,” she said, her voice muffled from where her face was pressed into his chest. “But Mulder,” and with this he pulled back a little, looked down at her. “Something is going on with me, and we need to figure out what it is.”

He nodded and ran hands over her hair, tucking it behind both ears at the same time. “And we will. We’ll start right now.”

“You know how to load the sample into The Machine?” she asked him. The next course of action would be to run the second vial of blood through the small diagnostic computer, which would give them an idea of where to start depending on the results of the various analyses it ran.

“I’ve been told it’s so simple even a psychologist can do it.”

She smiled at him tiredly. “Can you load it, then? It’ll take a few hours to run. We should get some sleep.”

He nodded and leaned down to press a quick kiss to the tip of her nose. “Go get ready for bed,” he said, and took the second sample over to the lab’s computer interface.

When he was done loading it and the machine was up and running, he turned to find Scully standing in front of the larger cot on the edge of the lab, dropping her jumpsuit to pool on the floor at her feet. She stood before him in a white tank top and a pair of panties and she looked thinner than she had the last time they’d been together. Outside, a low throb of thunder rumbled.

“Take me to bed, Mulder,” she said. “Take me away from here for a little while.”

He swallowed hard and his face went hot. He stepped up to her, ran a finger slowly up the side of her bare arm. “Anywhere,” he whispered.

Later, when he lifted his head from her lap, the foggy moisture of her center plied to his chin like rich river mud, in texture, in taste, he realized where they’d gone. Back to grassy hills and expansive water. Back to the heat of the desert, to the brackish shore of the Chesapeake. She was all the flavors of home, of the Earth, her hands like a starfish in his hair, her very essence of the sea.

They’d gone back. At least for a little while.

Xx

When he awoke hours later, she was riffling through a supply cabinet with an unnerving air of hysteria, her jumpsuit pulled back over her shoulders, but the front unzipped and gaping and showing the pendulous curve of her perfect breasts.

He tried to blink the sleep out of his eyes and glanced over at The Machine, the screen of which was showing a readout that he couldn’t make out from where he lay on the cot across the room.

“Scully?” he called over to her, his voice sounding groggy and frog-like, still choked with sleep. “Is The Machine done? What does it say?

She didn’t answer, just continued to paw through the contents of one of the medical lockers. Concerned, Mulder sat up, thinking maybe she was searching for a drug, something to fix whatever it was that was wrong.

“Scully?” he said again, and then, not bothering to dress, he walked over to The Machine and rove his eyes over the results of Scully’s blood analysis. Some of the results he was familiar with, some he was not. From his base-level understanding, everything appeared to be in order.

He ran his finger down the screen and stopped near the bottom, at a line that had been highlighted with the cursor.

Quantitative (beta) human chorionic gonadotropin level: 153,767 mIU/mL, it read.

The hair on the back of his neck stood on end. He turned slowly to Scully, who had risen from the cabinet, holding several small bottles in her hand.

“Scully,” he said once more, and she slowly turned to him. He pointed to the screen. “What does this mean?”

Her nostrils flared and she looked him dead in the eye.

“I’m pregnant,” she said.

[quotesfrommyreading]

Europa is enveloped in a thick coat of water ice. (Some other moons in our solar system have ice made of methane and nitrogen—the cosmos is a weird place.) The criss-crossing lines visible in the new pictures are actually cracks and fissures in that frozen exterior. Scientists suspect that they’re caused by the stretching and squashing that Europa experiences as it orbits giant Jupiter. The moon’s terrain is sprinkled with chemical compounds such as sodium chloride and magnesium sulfate—more commonly known to Earthlings as table salt and Epsom salt—and they could indicate briny waters below.

Scientists got their best evidence that a Europan ocean might exist two decades ago, when that earlier NASA spacecraft detected a magnetic connection between Europa and Jupiter that could easily be explained by the presence of a salty, global sea. This deep into the solar system, Europa’s underground ocean wouldn’t feel the warmth of the sun; it would stay liquid because of Jupiter’s gravitational tugging. In recent years, telescopes have detected signs of plumes of water vapor spewing out of the cracks and into space. Scientists believe that Europa’s ocean could be as old as the moon itself, about 4 billion years or so, which would give life plenty of time and a stable environment in which to evolve, Phillips said.

The data suggest that Europa has a rocky mantle—the layer between the moon’s crust and core—and when rock and water come together, magical things can happen: Chemical interactions between them are known to produce hydrogen-rich materials for tiny creatures to metabolize. “On our own planet, hydrothermal systems at the seafloor provide energy for communities of microorganisms,” Samantha Trumbo, a planetary scientist at Cornell who studies icy ocean worlds like Europa, told me.

The upcoming NASA mission, named Clipper—a nod to the speedy, lightweight vessels favored by 19th-century merchants—will study nearly every bit of the Europan surface. If it gets lucky, the spacecraft could fly through some plume particles, take a sip, and analyze the contents. Alyssa Rhoden, a planetary geophysicist at the Southwest Research Institute who studies Europa, is most excited about a Clipper instrument designed to detect warmer-than-usual spots on the moon’s surface. “When you look at Europa’s surface, you can see a lot of pits where the surface seems to have dropped down a little bit, places where the surface has been disrupted,” Rhoden told me. “We think that that’s happening from heating coming from below.” That signature could simply indicate the presence of melted bits of ice near the frigid crust—or it could mean a roiling sea has floated toward the surface, perhaps bringing any tiny inhabitants with it.

The Clipper mission is not meant to find definitive proof that life exists on Europa, only explore whether the moon has the right conditions and chemistry to make life possible. Evidence of life will require more missions, guided by Clipper’s data, that could land on the Europan surface and drill into the ice. NASA is also searching for life elsewhere in the solar system, notably on Mars, where a rover is collecting samples from a dried-up river delta. But Europa is a more tantalizing target, and so are the other ocean moons sprinkled across the solar system, such as Enceladus and Titan, which orbit Saturn, and Triton, around Neptune. The Mars mission is designed to search for signs of fossilized life that existed several billion years ago, when water once flowed on the planet. “It’s quite possible that Mars could have had life in the past, in a warmer-weather era, and it’s possible that there are subsurface pockets on Mars that could have remnants of this living biosphere,” Phillips said. “But on somewhere like Europa, life could exist there now.”

And what might humanity, by way of carefully engineered machines, find on Europa, once we’ve figured out which melty bits to inspect? “I would love for there to be Europan whales swimming around in that ocean,” Phillips said with a laugh. But alien life, if it exists, is likely to be small and simple. Energy sources are limited in the Europan depths, and scientists don’t think the environment can support the development of more complex organisms, Phillips said. Still, even the discovery of a single microbe would mark an explosive event in human history. It would mean that life had managed to spring up in two different places around the same star—in a universe absolutely brimming with stars. If it happened more than once here, in our own solar system, it’s likely happened elsewhere in the cosmos, around someone else’s sun. This is why scientists are so eager to catch a glimpse of Europa, and prepare as much as they can for the exploration to come. “We all want it to be water,” Rhoden said. “We all want it to be a cool plumbing system in the shell with lots of activity, and someday we’ll get down there and find little Europan sea urchins clinging to the bottom of the ice.”

  —  There’s Hope for Life on Europa, a Distant Moon

[kingda-2016]

What is lab planetary ball mill? A planetary ball mill is a type of grinding mill used to crush ,mill or disperse materials into fine particles, commonly used in laboratories for research and industrial purposes. It is designed with a rotating disc (planetary motion) on which grinding jars,cups or bowls are mounted. These jars rotate in the opposite direction to the disc, creating both centrifugal and gravitational forces. This unique motion results in high-energy impacts between the grinding balls and the material being milled, which produces a fine, homogeneous powder. Key Features: Planetary Motion: The jars rotate around their own axis while revolving around a central axis, simulating the planetary motion, which increases the milling efficiency. High-Energy Milling: The combined motion of the jars and balls generates intense mechanical force, leading to fine and fast grinding. Small-Scale Grinding: Ideal for small-batch grinding, commonly used in research labs for mechanical alloying, material synthesis, and sample preparation. Versatility: Suitable for grinding various materials, including metals, ceramics, and even biological samples, with the ability to control the particle size distribution. Applications: Used in materials science, chemistry, and mineralogy for applications such as nano-particle production, mechanical alloying, and sample mixing. In order to prevent excessive abrasion, the hardness of the grinding jars used and of the grinding balls must be higher than that of the material used. Normally, grinding jars and grinding balls of the same material should be chosen. If you want to know more or have interests to purchase it, pls contact us soon. Whatsapp: +86 15367874686 Email: info@kingdacera.com

[jdminingseparation]

Understanding the Role of Vertical Centrifuges in Modern Industry

In the realm of industrial separation and filtration, the vertical centrifuge stands out as a crucial piece of equipment. This article delves into the workings and benefits of vertical centrifuges and how they are used in various sectors.

What is a Vertical Centrifuge?

A vertical centrifuge is a type of centrifuge that operates with its axis in a vertical orientation. Unlike horizontal centrifuges, which have a horizontal axis, vertical centrifuges are designed to maximize efficiency in separating substances based on density. These machines spin samples at high speeds, creating a force that pushes heavier particles to the bottom, where they can be easily collected.

Advantages of Using a Vertical Centrifuge

Space Efficiency Vertical centrifuges are known for their compact design. They require less floor space compared to their horizontal counterparts, making them ideal for settings where space is limited. Their vertical orientation allows for a more streamlined setup, which can be beneficial in crowded industrial environments.

High Efficiency The vertical design of these centrifuges often results in higher separation efficiency. The gravitational force applied during operation tends to be more effective at separating finer particles from liquids. This makes them suitable for applications that demand precise separation, such as in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries.

Easy Maintenance Maintaining a vertical centrifuge is typically straightforward. The vertical arrangement allows for easier access to critical components, facilitating quicker maintenance and servicing. This reduces downtime and ensures consistent performance.

Applications of Vertical Centrifuges

Chemical Industry In the chemical industry, vertical centrifuges are used for separating chemicals and solvents from solid contaminants. Their high-speed spinning capability makes them effective in purifying chemical solutions, which is essential for maintaining product quality.

Pharmaceutical Sector Pharmaceutical companies rely on vertical centrifuges for separating active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) from solvents and other impurities. The precision offered by these centrifuges ensures the purity of the final pharmaceutical products.

Food and Beverage Vertical centrifuges play a significant role in the food and beverage industry. They are used to separate and clarify juices, oils, and other liquid products. Their efficiency helps in achieving the desired quality and consistency in food and drink products.

Choosing the Right Vertical Centrifuge

Selecting the right vertical centrifuge involves considering several factors, including the specific needs of your application, the required separation efficiency, and space constraints. For expert advice and high-quality vertical centrifuges, visit JD Mining Separation. They offer a range of centrifuge solutions tailored to meet various industrial requirements.

The vertical centrifuge is an indispensable tool in many industrial processes, offering space efficiency, high separation performance, and ease of maintenance. Whether in the chemical, pharmaceutical, or food and beverage industries, vertical centrifuges provide the necessary separation solutions for optimal results. For more information on vertical centrifuge options, visit JD Mining Separation.

[softrobotcritics]

Freezecasting porous materials

How does freeze casting work?

First, a substance is dissolved or suspended in a solvent, here water, and placed in a mold. Then a well-defined cooling rate is applied to the copper mold bottom to directionally solidify the sample. Upon solidification, a phase separation into a pure solvent, here ice, and a solute and particles occurs, with the ice templating the solute/particle phase.

Once the sample has been fully solidified, the solid solvent is removed by sublimation during lyophilization. Lyophilization reveals the highly porous, ice-templated scaffold, a cellular solid, whose cell walls are composed of the solute/particle that self-assembled during solidification.

The size and number of pores, their geometry and orientation, the packaging of particles and the surface characteristics of the cell walls and with it the mechanical, thermal, magnetic and other properties of the material can be tailored for a desired application.

To gain further information on the fundamental science of freeze casting, experiments to be performed on the International Space Station are planned. This is because ISS microgravity, i.e. an enormously reduced gravitational force, minimizes effects of sedimentation and convection on structure formation.

The experts expect this to lead to further advances in the understanding of freeze casting processes and the manufacture of custom-designed, defect-free materials.

[enas-gohar227]

The most important laws of Emsat Physics 

To excel in the EMSAT Exam  and secure the highest score, students must engage in detailed and structured preparation. The EMSAT Exam  plays a crucial role in the academic assessment process for students who aim to pursue higher education in universities across the United Arab Emirates. In this article, we will delve into strategies for students to achieve top performance in the EMSAT physics test , examine how the Elmadrasa.com platform can offer support, discuss the significance of individual tutoring, explain the Registration for the EmSAT, and highlight the EmSAT Exam Dates.

EMSAT Physics Exam covers a wide range of Physics topics, and to achieve good EMSAT results , students must master a number of fundamental laws and principles . Here is a summary of the most important laws that students must know:

Newton's Laws of Motion:

First Law (Law of Inertia): An object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force.

Second Law: The force acting on an object equals the mass of the object times its acceleration (F=ma).

Third Law (Action-Reaction Law): For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation:

It expresses the force between two bodies as F=G(m1m2/r^2), where G is the gravitational constant, m1 and m2 are the masses of the bodies, and r is the distance between their centers.

Conservation Laws:

Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can change from one form to another.

Law of Conservation of Momentum: In a closed system, the total momentum before a collision equals the total momentum after the collision.

Thermodynamics:

First Law of Thermodynamics (Law of Conservation of Energy): Explains how energy transforms from work to heat and vice versa.

Second Law of Thermodynamics: Determines the direction of heat transfer processes and introduces the concept of entropy.

Electromagnetism:

Coulomb's Law: Describes the force between two electric charges.

Maxwell's Equations: A set of equations describing how electric and magnetic fields are generated and interact with electric charges and currents.

Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction: Describes how an electric current can be induced by a changing magnetic field.

Quantum Mechanics:

Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle: Sets the minimum limit for the uncertainty between simultaneous measurements of position and momentum.

Schrödinger Equation: Describes the change of state of a quantum particle with time.

These laws and principles are fundamental for understanding the EMSAT Physics Exam, and it is crucial for students to be able to apply them in solving various physics problems. Students should also master the use of standard units, unit conversions, and have the ability to interpret physics graphs and tables.

You can visit ELMADRASAH.COM website for more Emsat exam  practice tests and sample EMSAT Physics  exam questions.

[spacenutspod]

In the coming years, NASA plans to send several astrobiology missions to Venus and Mars to search for evidence of extraterrestrial life. These will occur alongside crewed missions to the Moon (for the first time since the Apollo Era) and the first crewed missions to Mars. Beyond the inner Solar System, there are ambitious plans to send robotic missions to Europa, Titan, and other “Ocean Worlds” that could host exotic life. To accomplish these objectives, NASA is investing in some interesting new technologies through the NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC) program. This year’s selection includes solar-powered aircraft, bioreactors, lightsails, hibernation technology, astrobiology experiments, and nuclear propulsion technology. This includes a concept for a Thin Film Isotope Nuclear Engine Rocket (TFINER), a proposal by senior technical staff member James Bickford and his colleagues at the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory – a Massachusetts-based independent technology developer. This proposal relies on the decay of radioactive isotopes to generate propulsion and was recently selected by the NIAC for Phase I development. As their proposal paper indicates, advanced propulsion is essential to realizing several next-generation mission concepts. These include sending a telescope to the focal point of the Sun’s gravitational lens and a rendezvous with a passing interstellar object. These mission concepts require rapid velocities that are simply not possible with conventional rocketry. While lightsails are being investigated for rapid-transit missions within the Solar System and Proxima Centauri, they cannot make the necessary propulsive maneuvers in deep space. A collage of illustrations highlighting the novel concepts proposed by the 2024 NIAC Phase I awardees. Credit: (clockwise, from upper right) Benner/Zhang/McQuinn/Romero-Calvo/Hibberd-Kennedy/Carpenter/Bickford/Romero/Calvo/Cabauy/Landis/Rothschild/Ge-Cheng Zha/NASA Nuclear concepts that are possible with current technology include nuclear-thermal and nuclear-electric propulsion (NTP/NEP), which have the necessary thrust to reach locations in deep space. However, as Bickford and his team noted, they are also large, heavy, and expensive to manufacture. “In contrast, we propose a thin film nuclear isotope engine with sufficient capability to search, rendezvous, and then return samples from distant and rapidly moving interstellar objects.” they write. “The same technology allows a gravitational lens telescope to be repointed so a single mission could observe numerous high-value targets.” The basic concept is similar to a solar sail, except that it relies on thin sheets of a radioactive isotope that uses the momentum of its decay products to generate thrust. As they describe it, the baseline design incorporates sheets of the Thorium-228 measuring about ~10 micrometers (0.01 mm) thick. This naturally radioactive metal (typically used in radiation therapy) undergoes alpha decay with a half-life of 1.9 years. Thrust is produced by coating one side with a ~50-micrometer (0.05 mm) thick absorber layer, forcing alpha particles in the direction opposite of travel. The spacecraft would require 30 kg (66 lbs) of Thorium-228 spread over an area measuring over 250 m2 (~2700 square feet), providing more than 150 km/s (93 mi/s) of thrust. For comparison, the fastest mission that relied on conventional propulsion was the Parker Solar Probe (PSP), which achieved a velocity of 163 km/s (101 mi/s) as it reached the closest point in its orbit around the Sun (perihelion). However, this was because of the gravity-assist maneuver with Venus and the pull of the Sun’s gravity. The advantages of this system include simplicity, as the design is based on known physics and materials. It also offers scalability to accommodate smaller payloads (like sensors) or larger missions (like space telescopes). A single conventional launch vehicle could insert several of these spacecraft into a solar escape trajectory, requiring an escape velocity of 42.1 km/s (26 mi/s). The thrust sheets can also be reconfigured to enable thrust vectoring and spacecraft maneuvers, meaning that the spacecraft could scout for future missions once it reaches deep space. A plutonium-238 ceramic pellet glowing red hot. Credit: Los Alamos Laboratory This includes telescopes bound for the Solar Gravitational Lens’ (SGL) focal point and missions that will rendezvous with interstellar objects (ISOs) and possibly return samples to Earth for analysis. Speaking of which, the spacecraft would have the spare capacity to rendezvous with an ISO on its own and return samples. The natural decay of the sheets can also be harnessed using a layer of thermoelectric materials (or Peltier Tiles) to generate excess electrical power of about 50 kW at 1% efficiency. A layer of beta-particle emitting material could also be added to neutralize the alpha radiation and “induce a voltage bias that directs exhaust emissions and/or exploits outbound solar wind.” They also note how the concept can be designed with multiple “stages” equipped with Actinium-227 (or other isotopes with a longer half-life), leading to higher velocity over extended mission lifetimes. Similarly, a modified version that relies on Thorium-233 can harness the Thorium fuel cycle – a cascading isotope decay that eventually produces Uranium-232 – that will result (they claim) in an increased performance of about 500%. Clearly, the proposed technology presents many opportunities for future development and could be used to execute several mission profiles. These missions align with NASA’s vision for the coming century, which includes sending spacecraft to study ISOs up close, discover habitable planets in neighboring star systems, conduct crewed missions beyond the Earth-Moon system, and search for life on other celestial bodies. Further Reading: NASA The post NASA Invests in New Nuclear Rocket Concept for the Future of Space Exploration and Astrophysics appeared first on Universe Today.

[uberstrainer]

How to Choose the Right Labware for Particle Separation

This comprehensive blog explores the significance of particle separation techniques in various scientific and industrial applications, covering different methods, common applications, and the efficiency of size-based techniques.

Particle separation is a critical process in various scientific and industrial applications, including chemistry, biology, and material science. Selecting the appropriate labware for particle separation is crucial to ensure accurate and reliable results. The choice of labware depends on factors such as the nature of the particles, the separation method employed, and the specific requirements of the experiment. In this comprehensive guide, we will delve into the importance of particle filtration techniques, explore different methods, and highlight specific labware tools such as TwinSpin Tubes and pluriMate.

What are particle separation techniques, and why are they important?

Particle separation techniques serve as methods crucial for isolating, segregating, or purifying particles from mixtures, finding paramount significance across diverse fields such as chemistry, biology, environmental science, and industry. These techniques play a pivotal role in extracting specific particles, indispensable for tasks like research, analysis, quality control, and the development of new materials. From wastewater treatment and pharmaceutical manufacturing to particle characterization and environmental monitoring, particle separation techniques are indispensable for removing impurities, concentrating valuable components, and ensuring high product quality.

What are the different methods for particle separation?

Various methods are employed for particle filtration, with each technique tailored to specific purposes. Common approaches include filtration, centrifugation, sedimentation, and chromatography. Filtration utilizes porous barriers to segregate particles based on size, while centrifugation employs centrifugal force to separate particles according to their density and size. Sedimentation involves the gravitational settling of particles, while chromatography separates particles based on size or their affinity for a stationary phase.

Labware Tools for Particle Filtration

TwinSpin Tubes

TwinSpin centrifugation tubes are designed for optimal separation of cells from whole blood and bone marrow. These tubes utilize Density Gradient Medium (DGM) to achieve efficient separation. The TwinSpin comprises a standard 15 ml tube and an inner tube with an open bottom submerged in the DGM. During centrifugation, leukocytes, lymphocytes, and PBMCs are separated from unwanted erythrocytes and granulocytes, depending on the DGM used. The result is an interphase enriched with target cells above the DGM.

pluriMate

pluriMate is developed for optimal separation of leukocytes and PBMCs from whole blood and bone marrow. The key feature of pluriMate is the porous sponge incorporated at the bottom of the centrifuge tube, made of high-grade polyurethane. This barrier eliminates the need for time-consuming overlaying of the sample material. Anticoagulated blood or bone marrow can be directly poured into the pluriMate tube, preventing mixing with the separation medium.

Learn about membrane filters with defined pore sizes, perfect for precise filtration in lab analyses, from cytology to environmental testing. Enhance the accuracy and quality of your lab experiments with these advanced filters. Also 100 um strainer and different sizes are available in UberStrainer.

In conclusion, choosing the right labware for particle separation is crucial for the success of scientific and industrial processes. Whether employing size-based techniques or specific tools like TwinSpin Tubes and pluriMate, the efficiency and accuracy of particle filtration techniques significantly impact the reliability of results and the quality of products. Researchers and industry professionals must carefully consider the specific requirements of their separation task to make informed decisions about the most suitable labware for their needs.

[timetravelandgravityengineering]

Mitigation instead of propagation due too the carrier between the W and interaction rather than an outward force from the leptons as the bosons are created into varies states such as electrons and quarks.

I'm using the W as an exemplar of the mechanism

Which also explains why so much of this is formed though the Em and the Nutrino weirdness as being phase spin effect of the opposing charge variance

So the gravition like the higgs is a mitigation feild between the W and thus gravity and weight has no connection as such.

The Z should then be a regulator of the interaction thus creating elementary particles such as quarks.

So gravity is a self organising effect through biological and atomic structures into molecular valance feilds.

The thermodynamics would then have entropic effects resulting from a time resonance within that feild being a time gravity parity within that feild.

Thats why neutrinos are so interesting as they seem out of phase with the rest of the galaxy spin.

I'm using galactic rather than universal as this seems to be a large enough sample size for accuracy

*depending on the interaction it may be the chronoton.

The 3rd option is its both which would mean a 4th boson would be viable with symmetries

So garvitron chronoton & ???? Its probably just one.

As a resolution of string creation of an infrance manifold as a mitigation of the feilds interaction

*an internal dynamic as apposed to an outward dynamic if it is 3 separate bosons then there's a bit more room on the prediction. But I think that strings are actual the propagation of time as a vibrational mitagation state.

It requires more data

String dimensions certainly resolve DeM ratios so a relation to gravity waves and entanglement as an internal geometry

This part is mostly strings

[myfragrancesample]

Gravite Particle Sample for Men

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[neuation]

Principles and Types of Bench Top Centrifuges

Benchtop centrifuges are used in laboratories to separate and filter molecular mixtures in liquid media based on their density gradient. Centrifugation is widely used in biochemistry laboratories for investigating and isolating cells, subcellular fractions, molecular complexes, and biological macromolecules such as proteins, DNA, and RNA. Centrifuges are high-speed machines that use vacuum, gravitational acceleration, and centrifugal force to separate molecules from liquid mixtures while avoiding scorching the samples. In 1924, Nobel Laureate Theodor Svedberg invented the first analytical centrifuge for sediment monitoring. Later, in the 1940s, Claude and his colleagues refined the centrifugation method, which became the foundation of biomedical and biological research over the next few decades. Small-capacity benchtop centrifuges are becoming an essential tool for routine biomedical research.

The particles are evenly disseminated in a medium prior to centrifugation. The denser particles in the medium sink to the bottom during centrifugation, while the lighter particles rise. The top liquid fraction obtained following centrifugation is referred to as “supernatant.” The part that sinks to the bottom is referred to as “pellet.” The supernatant and the pellet have an interaction. The fraction of particles left in the pellet after centrifugation is referred to as particle recovery. This recovery is affected by particle density and size.

What exactly is a bench top centrifuge?

A benchtop centrifuge is a tiny, laboratory-grade centrifuge intended for use on a laboratory bench or countertop. Centrifugal force is commonly employed to separate substances in a liquid or solid mixture. This type of centrifuge is extensively used in medical, scientific, and industrial contexts to isolate cells or cell components, separate blood components, purify proteins and nucleic acids, and prepare samples for analysis.

Benchtop centrifuges are available in a variety of sizes and configurations, and can be powered by electricity or a hand crank. Depending on the model, they may also have different features and capabilities, such as the ability to adjust the rotor speed, the capacity to hold different types of tubes or other containers, and the ability to run for a specific amount of time or until a certain number of revolutions have been completed. Some tabletop centrifuges are intended to be used in conjunction with a cooling system, while others can be operated at room temperature.

Benchtop Centrifuge Types

Benchtop centrifuges are classified into numerous categories, including:

Microcentrifuges: These are small, lightweight centrifuges designed to handle small amounts of liquid, typically 0.2 to 2 mL. They are often employed for cell separation, DNA and RNA isolation, and sample preparation for analysis.

Mini centrifuges: Mini centrifuges take up even less area than ordinary tabletop centrifuges. They have an eight-tube maximum processing capacity and a maximum speed of 6000rpm. These centrifuges are great for laboratories with limited space, however they may not be appropriate for laboratories with high production.

Plate Centrifuges: Plate centrifuges are widely used in PCR laboratories. These centrifuges make certain that all reagents are placed to the bottom of the wells for accurate concentrations and results. A maximum horizontal spin speed of 400xg is possible with plate centrifuges. To avoid spillage, these benchtop centrifuges use a distinctive “wing-out rotor design.”

Refrigerated Centrifuges: Temperature-sensitive samples require cooled centrifuges since even minor temperature changes can destroy them. These seem nearly identical to their non-refrigerated cousins. They do, however, allow temperature adjustment between -10°C and 40°C.

Tabletop centrifuges: These are larger, heavier-duty centrifuges designed for use with larger amounts of liquid, typically 10 to 100 mL. They are frequently utilized in the separation of blood components, the purification of proteins, and the isolation of cell components.

High-speed centrifuges: These are powerful centrifuges with high-speed rotors that can achieve extremely high centrifugal forces. They are typically employed to separate particles that are denser or heavier than the surrounding liquid in a combination.

Refrigerated centrifuges: Refrigerated centrifuges are those that have a cooling system that keeps the samples at a consistent, low temperature during the centrifugation process. They are widely employed for separating biological samples that are temperature sensitive or for working with samples that require low-temperature storage.

Centrifuges with fixed-angle rotors: These have a fixed-angle rotor, which implies that the tubes or containers being spun are held at a fixed angle relative to the axis of rotation. They are frequently employed for particle separation based on size or density.

Swinging bucket rotor centrifuges: These centrifuges have a swinging bucket rotor, which allows the tubes or containers being spun to vary angle relative to the axis of rotation while the rotor rotates. They are frequently employed for particle separation based on size or density.

Different types of centrifuge rotors

In a centrifuge, numerous types of rotors can be employed, including:

Fixed-angle rotors: Set-angle rotors are intended to hold tubes or containers at a set angle relative to the axis of rotation. They are frequently employed for particle separation based on size or density.

Swinging bucket rotors: Swinging bucket rotors are designed to hold tubes or containers in a swinging bucket, allowing them to alter angle relative to the axis of rotation as the rotor spins. They are frequently employed for particle separation based on size or density.

Vertical rotors: Vertical rotors are intended to hold tubes or containers vertically, with the axis of rotation passing through the center of the tubes. They’re frequently employed to separate cells or cell components.

Horizontal rotors: Horizontal rotors are intended to hold tubes or containers horizontally, with the axis of rotation running perpendicular to the tubes. They are frequently used to separate blood components or to purify proteins.

Zonal rotors: These rotors are meant to support vertical tubes or containers, with the axis of rotation passing through the center of the tubes. They are separated into zones, each with its own centrifugal force. They’re frequently employed to separate cells or cell components based on size or density.

Benchtop Centrifuge Principle

The gravitational force ‘g’ (g = 9.81ms-2) exerted by the Earth’s gravitational field causes substances to separate based on their density. The sedimentation rate increases when these samples are accelerated in a centrifugal field (G > 9.81ms-2). The relative gravitational field is frequently represented as a multiple of gravitational acceleration. When employing benchtop centrifuges, underlying factors must be addressed.

The more dense biomolecules sediment faster in a centripetal field.

The larger the mass of a molecule, the faster it settles in the centripetal field.

The biological structure moves slowly via a more dense buffer system.

The particle’s velocity decreases as the coefficient of friction increases.

Particles settle faster under higher centrifugal forces.

When the density of a biomolecule matches that of the surrounding medium, its sedimentation rate becomes zero.

A biological medium’s frictional force in a viscous medium acts in the opposite direction of sedimentation. It is equal to the product of the particle’s velocity and frictional coefficient. As previously stated, the centrifugal field is related to the Earth’s gravitational field. At a given radius and speed, the relative centrifugal field (RCF) is the ratio of centrifugal force to standard gravitational acceleration.

This Blog Originally Posted Here: 

https://ibusinessday.com/principles-and-types-of-bench-top-centrifuges/

[dmsap7g2]

Eutierria

Week 13 - 27/04/23

*Lighting elements not present due to complications capturing installation lighting post-presentation.

CONCEPT

Eutierria: (eu: good) (tierra: earth) (ia: belonging to) describes the boundaries between oneself and all else, especially as a means of belonging to the Earth(1).

Originating from pre-Socratic philosophy, the ancient Greek interpretation of four basic elements; earth, water, air, and fire(2) (and later aether), were proposed to explain the world and intricacy of all matter through fundamental physical substances(3). Since interpretation of the nature of physical reality is a key part of these philosophies, we gravitated towards Plato's philosophical interpretations of the classical elements. Plato learned of the four classical elements directly from Empedocles, whom the theory is credited to(4). However, Plato added that all four of these element particles had mathematical forms, called "Platonic solids"(5), with a fifth element being assigned to the heavens, which his student Aristotle later named "aether" in his own interpretation(6).

We created an audio-visual installation surrounding our own interpretation of the natural (classical) elements via a unique speaker setup, lights, and accompanying visualizer, which all work together to provide a different interpretation of the Greek classical elements. Through our carefully composed soundscape, which utilises our own field recordings of the natural elements (rain, wind, water dripping, etc) and other recorded materials from our experimentation re-contextualized with heavy processing, this piece provides four sections for each individual element, earth, fire, water, and wind, which all take place within aether, visually represented by the installation space, and sonically represented by the droning bass playing throughout.

During the formation of this installation, we looked back to Plato’s theory of forms: every object we perceive is traced to the idealized, timeless, unachievable form, that gives shape and categorization to the material world. Faults in our perception validate recording as a method. An imperfect aural image, taken from one precise perspective, still gives enough context for our mind to shape the image to what makes most sense to us. Utilizing field recordings and separating the sonic component from its source allowed us extended creative control over the viewer’s perception. Movement could be redirected, certain resonant frequencies — accentuated and harmonized. We used these opportunities with the more basic elements of the environment, finding similarities between nature’s aural spectrum and the overgrown system of man-made sounds: FM waves, white noise, short bursts of accidental melody.

SOUND

Ableton Live effects chain for processing water droplets - Munich for Corpus utilised to harmonise sound impulses

Processing sound for the installation was a matter of analysing our samples and discovering which aspects of sound were present (timbre, rhythm, tone) that we wanted to enhance or modify. for example, water was primarily presented in the form of droplets - short bursts of sound with a discernible resonance. We used delay extensively to multiply those small-length samples and permeate the mix with their subtle impacts. The resonant, impactful nature allowed us to harmonise each splash into a predetermined musical value.

With so many speakers within the SDL space, there were both advantages and disadvantages to utilising them, the main pitfall we found being the inability to take any project work home for further experimentation due to mixing in a non-stereo speaker setup. Our main advantage of the speaker setup was our ability to create an atmosphere through experimental placement and modulation of our sounds across the speakers. During the creation stage, we referred to Murray R. Schafer's The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World, which provided a different perspective on how to create a soundscape, and elements Schafer breaks down the experience of an acoustic environment to. Perception of sound as thematically presented by Schafer's words provided a great conceptual link to our piece, particularly within our individual experiences recording and interpreting the classical elements, and informed our arrangement and processing of the sound events of the work.

VISUALS

Ableton Live UI of Jitter patch utilised to generate/control visuals

Utilising a dynamically responsive visualizer plugin came quite late in the process, during the conceptual implementation of the Greek classical elements. We used a jitter patch to cycle through simple geometrical forms, automating the shape in accordance with the installation's element narrative; the result was as much controlled as it was self-generating. The amplitude of audio signal was used to generate the reactive pulse and subtle movements of the lines of our shapes, allowing the shapes to feel more "alive" whilst retaining the audio-visual link to, in turn consolidating the installations overall concept. This balance in automation and generation of our accompanying visuals allowed for a refined but characteristically unpredictable energy within the installation, as we had tied our concept around philosophy related to the fundamental forces of nature, which is itself a refined but unpredictable force. The visualizer became a vital component for the installation - without it, our installation concept becomes a lot more difficult to see.

LIGHTING

Ableton Live automation rack for Beam controlling each light during sections of the piece

The integration of light sources and, in particular, the setup of dynamic parameters, came with several obstacles we had to work around. The variance of size across the individual lights translated in the amount of light they could project; we compensated for this by varying the saturation of our colours across the piece, depending on what type of light was being used and for what. The larger Fresnel lenses required saturation of colour to compensate for the softer coloured light produced when fed a colour value. The smaller lamps however would translate colour more directly, sometimes requiring the reverse approach - we would dial the intensity down to create a warmer, balanced light. Consideration also had to be given to how using too many light sources could expose the space too much, which we felt took away from the atmosphere.

Ableton Live only allows for a single parameter to be dynamically modified by an LFO or envelope follower, understandably done to prevent message interference and allowing one continuous stream of data pointed to one output device. However, the message source cannot be changed even when it is turned off: that meant that if we were to set a control device to a single parameter, we were stuck with it for the entirety of the piece. We had to choose which characteristics of the lights worked best when modulated cyclically via LFOs and which needed to work in direct relation to sound.

We utilised lighting this way to create depth and atmosphere for the installation; instead of observing a flat 2D rendered image of our visualizer on one end of a room with depth, accompanying it was aesthetically matching and dynamic lighting to allow for more of a spatial experience.

REFERENCES

(1) G. Albrecht. Eutierria. Eutierria. Last updated 2020. Accessed 17 Apr 2023. http://www.eutierria.org/our-story.html

(2) K. L. Ross. The Greek Elements. Friesian. Last updated 2021. Accessed 17 Apr 2023. https://www.friesian.com/elements.htm

(3) R. Bertrand. History of Western Philosophy and its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Simon & Schuster. New York. 1945. p. 62.

(4) P. Ball. The Elements: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. New York. 2004. p. 1.

(5) ibid., p. 9.

(6) ibid., p. 10.

PROJECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

Albrecht, Glenn. Eutierria. Eutierria. Last updated 2020. Accessed 17 Apr 2023. http://www.eutierria.org/our-story.html

Ball, Philip. The Elements: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. New York. 2004.

Bertrand, Russell. History of Western Philosophy and its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Simon & Schuster. New York. 1945.

Covarrubias, Sabina. Geometrum. Sabina Covarrubias. 2023. Accessed 19 Apr 2023. https://www.sabinacovarrubias.com/geometrum

L. Ross, Kelley. The Greek Elements, Friesian. Last updated 2021. Accessed 17 Apr 2023. https://www.friesian.com/elements.htm

Opsopaus, John. The Ancient Greek Esoteric Doctrine of the Elements: Fire. Web Archive. Last updated 1999. Accessed 20 Apr 2023. https://href.li/?https://web.archive.org/web/20071029052110/http://www.cs.utk.edu/~Mclennan/BA/AGEDE/Fire.html#EF

R. Murray, Schafer. The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World. Destiny Books. Rochester Vermont. 1994.

University of Twente. Wide-band WebSDR. Last updated 2017. Accessed 23 Feb 2023. https://href.li/?http://websdr.ewi.utwente.nl:8901/

user191954. Why does fire make very little sound? Physics Stack Exchange. Last updated 2018. Accessed 20 Apr 2023. https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/426698/why-does-fire-make-very-little-sound

[vjinstruments]

Working Principle & Process Of Ball Mill Machine In The Pharmaceutical Industry

Ball Mill Machine -

A Ball Mill Machine is excellent for combining dry and moist materials, as well as grinding crystalline material.

To grind or combine materials, a ball mill machine is typically used in mineral dressing operations as well as in paints, pyrotechnics, ceramics, and selective laser sintering.

Process of ball mill -

Ball milling is a grinding method that grinds nanotubes into extremely fine powders. During the ball milling process, the collision between the tiny rigid balls in a concealed container will generate localized high pressure. Usually, ceramic, flint pebbles, and stainless steel are used.

Applications of ball mill -

Ball mills are used to size-reduce down to or below 1 micron, including minerals, glass, advanced ceramics, metal oxides, semiconductor and solar cell materials, nutraceuticals, and medicines.

Advantages -

1. It is suitable for milling toxic materials since it can be used in a completely enclosed form.

2. It is used in milling highly abrasive materials.

3. It is suitable for both dry grinding and wet.

Disadvantages -

1. Large size.

2. Lower Capacity.

 Laboratory Ball mill :

A Laboratory Ball Mill  is an indispensable tool when it comes to the rapid, reproducible pulverizing, milling, or grinding of a large variety of materials. Samples can be soft, elastic, or fibrous as well as hard or brittle, depending on the configuration and choice of the mill.

VJ Instruments is a leading laboratory ball mill manufacturer in India.

Ball mill machines easily meet laboratory and industrial grinding requirements. Their multipurpose design allows machines to handle wet or dry, brittle or fibrous materials effectively with intensive mixing performance.

The purpose of ball mills is to blend and grind dry powder samples. A laboratory ball mill consists of a ball grinding tank (jar) made of stainless steel. Steel balls of various sizes are placed within the jar to aid in the high-speed, one-way mixing and grinding of the samples.

Features  -

1. Auto stop feature when process time completes.

2. Emergency stop switch.

3. Continuous grinding performance.

4. Suitable for wet and grinding.

Lab ball mills -  

Lab roll ball mill.

Lab vibratory ball mill.

Planetary ball mill.

Lab stirred ball mill.   

  Ball Mill In Pharmaceutics :

The ball mill’s basic concept dates back to prehistoric times when it was used to grind flint for pottery. A type of grinder called a pharmaceutical ball mill is used to blend and grind ingredients in order to create various dosage forms. As the balls fall from almost the top of the shell, the impact diminishes their size. Ball mills are frequently used for regrinding, fine grinding, and the second stage of two-stage grinding circuits. Ball mills are available in both wet and dry designs, depending on the application.

Ball mill principle -

As the balls fall from close to the top of the shell, fragmentation processes (impact and attrition) cause the size to be reduced in the ball mill. Via the high-energy collision of balls, feed is mixed. Balls can have energies that are up to 12 times greater than gravitational acceleration. The grinding balls experience centrifugal force from the base plate's revolution, and the shell rotates independently to cause the balls to strike the interior of the shell. Due to the shell's alternate rotation (one cycle in the forward direction and one cycle in the reverse), substantial grinding also occurs in addition to homogenous mixing.

The hopper feeds the material to be ground at a 60° angle, and the final product is discharged at a 30° angle. As the shell spins, the balls are elevated on the rising side and cascade down (or drop into the feed) from near the top of the shell. The impact of descending grinding balls and the abrasion of particles in between the balls cause material grinding. In mills where the milled product is emptied from the center, the ground material is discharged either through the grid or the hole in the center of the discharge cap.

[mysticstronomy]

WHAT IS THE COSMIC DARK AGE??

Blog# 178 

Saturday, March 26th, 2022

Welcome back,

Starlight is the lingua franca of our universe; it’s the language astronomers must learn to speak if they want to understand our place in space and time. But starlight hasn’t always been a feature of the universe. In Big Bang cosmology, shortly after the blazingly bright Big Bang itself, there came a time when the universe was utterly dark. This period, before the first stars were born, and is thought to have lasted several hundred million years in our 13.8-billion-year-old universe. Astronomers call it the Cosmic Dark Ages.

(July 11, 2017), the National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO) said astronomers took another step forward in probing the early universe with the discovery of 23 small star-forming galaxies – called Lyman alpha emitting galaxies, or LAEs – found when the universe was only 800 million years old. Finding these galaxies helps them pinpoint when the Cosmic Dark Ages ended, and the first stars and galaxies formed. NOAO said:

The results suggest that the earliest galaxies, which illuminated and ionized the universe, formed [even earlier than 800 million years].

What are the Cosmic Dark Ages? Here’s a good description from the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, suggesting that, only a few hundred thousand years after the Big Bang, the universe:

… began to enter the cosmic ‘dark ages,’ so named because the luminous stars and galaxies we see today had yet to form. Most of the matter in the cosmos at this stage was dark matter with the scant remaining ordinary matter comprised largely of neutral hydrogen and helium.

Over the next few hundred million years, the universe entered a crucial turning point in its evolution, known as the Epoch of Reionization. During this period, the predominant dark matter began to collapse into halo-like structures through its own gravitational attraction. Ordinary matter was also pulled into these halos, eventually forming the first stars and galaxies, which, in turn, released large amounts of ultraviolet light. That light was energetic enough to strip the electrons out of the surrounding neutral matter, a process known as cosmic reionization.

That’s a good description of what might have happened to end the Cosmic Dark Ages. Astronomers doing studies like this one are trying to gather as much observational evidence as they can. They picture the end of the Cosmic Dark Ages as occurring sometime in the interval between 300 million years and 1 billion years after the Big Bang. Thus they want to observe galaxies as close as possible to the end of this period, but, as NOAO said in its recent statement, those observations remain “a challenge:”

The intergalactic gas … strongly absorbs and scatters the ultraviolet light emitted by the galaxies, making them difficult to detect.

One way of probing this period in the early universe is to look for the Lyman alpha emitting galaxies, or LAEs. NOAO said:

To home in on when the transformation occurred, astronomers take an indirect approach. Using the demographics of small star-forming galaxies to determine when the intergalactic gas became ionized, they can infer when the ionizing sources, the first galaxies, formed.

If star-forming galaxies, which glow in the light of the hydrogen Lyman alpha line, are surrounded by neutral hydrogen gas, the Lyman alpha photons are readily scattered, much like headlights in fog, obscuring the galaxies. When the gas is ionized, the fog lifts, and the galaxies are easier to detect.

NOAO went on to describe the astronomers’ new work, which resulted in the discovery of 23 candidate LAEs, the largest sample of such galaxies discovered to date at that epoch of the universe. These small star-forming galaxies:

… were present 800 million years after the Big Bang.

The study also found that LAEs were 4 times less common at 800 million years than they were a short time later, at 1 billion years. NOAO said:

The results imply that the process of ionizing the universe began early and was still incomplete at 800 million years, with the intergalactic gas about half neutral and half ionized at that epoch.

Sangeeta Malhotra of Goddard Space Flight Center and Arizona State University, one of the co-leads of the survey, said the study shows that:

…the fog was already lifting when the universe was 5% of its current age.

Malhotra was part of an international team of astronomers from China, the U.S., and Chile, who conducted this study. They used the Dark Energy Camera on the Blanco 4-meter Telescope at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile to carry out the study – Lyman-Alpha Galaxies in the Epoch of Reionization (LAGER) – published in the peer-reviewed Astrophysical Journal Letters.

Originally published on https://earthsky.org

COMING UP!!

(Wednesday, March 30th, 2022)

“WHAT HAPPENED DURING THE DARK EPOCH??”