#Florey temperature

[biology-geology-beaches-india]

TSRNOSS. Page 125.

[scotianostra]

On 28th September 1928 Alexander Fleming, a Scottish researcher discovered penicillin.

I know we all like to blow our own trumpets and us, as Scots gave the world a lot, certainly punching above our weights, per head of population, but let’s be honest, Fleming never had much of a clue what to do with his discovery at first.

Often described as a careless lab technician, oor Alex returned from a two-week holiday to find that a mould had developed on an accidentally contaminated staphylococcus culture plate. Upon examination of the mould, he noticed that the culture prevented the growth of staphylococci. Staphylococcus is a bacteria that can be found normally in the nose and on the skin.

That’s not to  say he wasn’t clever, he knew this was something special and in an article he had published in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology in 1929 he wrote;

 “The staphylococcus colonies became transparent and were obviously undergoing lysis … the broth in which the mould had been grown at room temperature for one to two weeks had acquired marked inhibitory, bactericidal and bacteriolytic properties to many of the more common pathogenic bacteria.”

At the time Fleming was actually working on the flu virus, penicillin was a bi-product of what most of us men are guilty of, - not doing the washing up! 

Fleming’s laboratory notebooks are sketchy, and his subsequent accounts of the discovery are contradictory. The evidence of the first culture, which he photographed, indicated that he observed lysis, the weakening and destruction of bacteria—as in his lysozyme studies. But sometimes he described the key observation as an instance of inhibition or prevention of bacterial growth in areas affected by the mould “juice,” evidenced by a clear zone surrounding the mould.

Although these two effects occur under quite different conditions, Fleming probably forgot which observation came first, for in the months subsequent to the original observation he conducted many experiments while varying conditions systematically.

He discovered that the antibacterial substance was not produced by all moulds, only by certain strains of Penicillium, namely, Penicillium notatum. Although he could not isolate it, he named the active substance “penicillin.” He studied methods of producing the impure product and determined its stability at different temperatures and over various lengths of time. He investigated its effect on many microbes, curiously omitting the familiar spirochete that causes syphilis (which Salvarsan controlled but did not eliminate). He tested its toxicity on a laboratory mouse and a rabbit. Forever after, it has been a puzzle why he did not inject these or other laboratory animals with staphylococcus or other disease-causing bacteria before injecting them with the fluid containing penicillin. Perhaps the explanation lay in his belief that cures come from within the body itself, rather than from an external agent. So he was not looking for a curative agent but rather focused on his new find as a topical antiseptic. In later years he claimed that the difficulties he had experienced in isolating and stabilizing penicillin, let alone the problems of producing sufficient quantities for clinical trials, had prevented him from realising the full fruits of his research.

So the main point of me saying this is it looks like he ran out of ideas because come 1931 he had stopped working with penicillin. In fact apart from his own work, little notice was taken by the scientific community of  the paper he published.

However his research was continued and finished by Howard Flory and Ernst Chain, researchers at University of Oxford who are credited with the development of penicillin for use as a medicine in mice.  It wasn’t  until 1939 that  Florey and Chain, led a team of British scientists who successfully manufactured the drug from the liquid broth in which penicillin grows. 

They, along with Fleming, were given the 1945 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their roles in the discovery and development of this agent, and the pair deserve as much credit for carrying on with the development of penicillin, so yes well done Alexander Fleming, but let’s not forget the others. 

[shaungodbee]

Water heater repairs Canberra | Hot Water Repair Canberra | Full Bore Plumbing and Gas

What is a Water Heater?

Water heating could be a heat transfer process that uses an energy source to heat water above its initial temperature. Typical domestic uses of hot water include cooking, cleaning, bathing, and space heating. In industry, hot water and water heated to steam have many uses

Water Heater Repairs Service

While having hot water at your home provides convenience, sometimes, water heaters fail at the foremost inopportune times. The heater may plan to break down entirely or merely a malfunction.

Fortunately, the experts at Full Bore Plumbing and Gas are qualified and have experience handling water heater repairs in Canberra. Having been within the service industry for a while, we have plumbers who can identify the cause of your water heater issues and work to make the required repairs.

As a homeowner, there are certain signs that you got to look out for that could indicate a drag with your heater. Addressing these issues at the onset helps you avoid bigger and dear problems within the future.

Some of the vital signs you need to seem out for include a leak within the water heater tank, signs of rust, sediment buildup at the bottom of the heater, discolored water, or you notice that your home only has a cold to lukewarm water. Also, if your hot-water heater is older than ten years, it may get to be repaired or replaced.

But when do you have to replace your hot-water heater? A tankless water heater may last for up to twenty years while a standard tank-style heater may choose 10 to 15 years. If you’ve begun hearing some plumbing noises and see that your heater could also be nearing the top of its lifecycle, it’s best to take a position during a new model.

At Full Bore Plumbing and Gas we have got a team trained to handle a spread of predicament heater products. We even have experience with instant hot water install. Also, we service various water heater brands by providing prompt solutions once you report a drag.

Our company also seeks to not only get the heater working again, but we also work to stop it from breaking down again. We also are happy to examine your water heater even when there isn’t a clear problem. Having an inspection makes it easy to catch any mechanical problem before it happens. This prevents future damage.

         ---------------------------------Read More---------------------------------------

Contact Us : Full Bore Plumbing and Gas. Telephone: 0430453465 Address:79 Barnard Cct Florey ACT 2615 Email: shaun.godbee@hotmail.com Website: https://fullboreplumbing.com/

[cleverwordsandotherstuffilike]

Inventions

Adrenaline: (isolation of) John Jacob Abel, U.S., 1897.

Aerosol can: Erik Rotheim, Norway, 1926.

Air brake: George Westinghouse, U.S., 1868.

Air conditioning: Willis Carrier, U.S., 1911.

Airship: (non-rigid) Henri Giffard, France, 1852; (rigid) Ferdinand von Zeppelin, Germany, 1900.

Aluminum manufacture: (by electrolytic action) Charles M. Hall, U.S., 1866.

Anatomy, human: (De fabrica corporis humani, an illustrated systematic study of the human body) Andreas Vesalius, Belgium, 1543; (comparative: parts of an organism are correlated to the functioning whole) Georges Cuvier, France, 1799–1805.

Anesthetic: (first use of anesthetic—ether—on humans) Crawford W. Long, U.S., 1842.

Antibiotics: (first demonstration of antibiotic effect) Louis Pasteur, Jules-François Joubert, France, 1887; (discovery of penicillin, first modern antibiotic) Alexander Fleming, England, 1928; (penicillin’s infection-fighting properties) Howard Florey, Ernst Chain, England, 1940.

Antiseptic: (surgery) Joseph Lister, England, 1867.

Antitoxin, diphtheria: Emil von Behring, Germany, 1890.

Appliances, electric: (fan) Schuyler Wheeler, U.S., 1882; (flatiron) Henry W. Seely, U.S., 1882; (stove) Hadaway, U.S., 1896; (washing machine) Alva Fisher, U.S., 1906.

Aqualung: Jacques-Yves Cousteau, Emile Gagnan, France, 1943.

Aspirin: Dr. Felix Hoffman, Germany, 1899.

Astronomical calculator: The Antikythera device, first century B.C., Greece. Found off island of Antikythera in 1900.

Atom: (nuclear model of) Ernest Rutherford, England, 1911.

Atomic theory: (ancient) Leucippus, Democritus, Greece, c. 500 B.C.; Lucretius, Rome c.100 B.C.; (modern) John Dalton, England, 1808.

Atomic structure: (formulated nuclear model of atom, Rutherford model) Ernest Rutherford, England, 1911; (proposed current concept of atomic structure, the Bohr model) Niels Bohr, Denmark, 1913.

Automobile: (first with internal combustion engine, 250 rpm) Karl Benz, Germany, 1885; (first with practical high-speed internal combustion engine, 900 rpm) Gottlieb Daimler, Germany, 1885; (first true automobile, not carriage with motor) René Panhard, Emile Lavassor, France, 1891; (carburetor, spray) Charles E. Duryea, U.S., 1892.

Autopilot: (for aircraft) Elmer A. Sperry, U.S., c.1910, first successful test, 1912, in a Curtiss flying boat.

Avogadro’s law: (equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules) Amedeo Avogadro, Italy, 1811.

Bacteria: Anton van Leeuwenhoek, The Netherlands, 1683.

Balloon, hot-air: Joseph and Jacques Montgolfier, France, 1783.

Barbed wire: (most popular) Joseph E. Glidden, U.S., 1873.

Bar codes: (computer-scanned binary signal code):

(retail trade use) Monarch Marking, U.S. 1970; (industrial use) Plessey Telecommunications, England, 1970.

Barometer: Evangelista Torricelli, Italy, 1643.

Bicycle: Karl D. von Sauerbronn, Germany, 1816; (first modern model) James Starley, England, 1884.

Big Bang theory: (the universe originated with a huge explosion) George LeMaitre, Belgium, 1927; (modified LeMaitre theory labeled “Big Bang”) George A. Gamow, U.S., 1948; (cosmic microwave background radiation discovered, confirms theory) Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson, U.S., 1965.

Blood, circulation of: William Harvey, England, 1628.

Boyle’s law: (relation between pressure and volume in gases) Robert Boyle, Ireland, 1662.

Braille: Louis Braille, France, 1829.

Bridges: (suspension, iron chains) James Finley, Pa., 1800; (wire suspension) Marc Seguin, Lyons, 1825; (truss) Ithiel Town, U.S., 1820.

Bullet: (conical) Claude Minié, France, 1849.

Calculating machine: (logarithms: made multiplying easier and thus calculators practical) John Napier, Scotland, 1614; (slide rule) William Oughtred, England, 1632; (digital calculator) Blaise Pascal, 1642; (multiplication machine) Gottfried Leibniz, Germany, 1671; (important 19th-century contributors to modern machine) Frank S. Baldwin, Jay R. Monroe, Dorr E. Felt, W. T. Ohdner, William Burroughs, all U.S.; (��analytical engine” design, included concepts of programming, taping) Charles Babbage, England, 1835.

Calculus: Isaac Newton, England, 1669; (differential calculus) Gottfried Leibniz, Germany, 1684.

Camera: (hand-held) George Eastman, U.S., 1888; (Polaroid Land) Edwin Land, U.S., 1948.

“Canals” of Mars:Giovanni Schiaparelli, Italy, 1877.

Carpet sweeper: Melville R. Bissell, U.S., 1876.

Car radio: William Lear, Elmer Wavering, U.S., 1929, manufactured by Galvin Manufacturing Co., “Motorola.”

Cells: (word used to describe microscopic examination of cork) Robert Hooke, England, 1665; (theory: cells are common structural and functional unit of all living organisms) Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, 1838–1839.

Cement, Portland: Joseph Aspdin, England, 1824.

Chewing gum: (spruce-based) John Curtis, U.S., 1848; (chicle-based) Thomas Adams, U.S., 1870.

Cholera bacterium: Robert Koch, Germany, 1883.

Circuit, integrated: (theoretical) G.W.A. Dummer, England, 1952; (phase-shift oscillator) Jack S. Kilby, Texas Instruments, U.S., 1959.

Classification of plants: (first modern, based on comparative study of forms) Andrea Cesalpino, Italy, 1583; (classification of plants and animals by genera and species) Carolus Linnaeus, Sweden, 1737–1753.

Clock, pendulum: Christian Huygens, The Netherlands, 1656.

Coca-Cola: John Pemberton, U.S., 1886.

Combustion: (nature of) Antoine Lavoisier, France, 1777.

Compact disk: RCA, U.S., 1972.

Computers: (first design of analytical engine) Charles Babbage, 1830s; (ENIAC, Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, first all-electronic, completed) 1945; (dedicated at University of Pennsylvania) 1946; (UNIVAC, Universal Automatic Computer, handled both numeric and alphabetic data) 1951.

Concrete: (reinforced) Joseph Monier, France, 1877.

Condensed milk: Gail Borden, U.S., 1853.

Conditioned reflex: Ivan Pavlov, Russia, c.1910.

Conservation of electric charge: (the total electric charge of the universe or any closed system is constant) Benjamin Franklin, U.S., 1751–1754.

Contagion theory: (infectious diseases caused by living agent transmitted from person to person) Girolamo Fracastoro, Italy, 1546.

Continental drift theory: (geographer who pieced together continents into a single landmass on maps) Antonio Snider-Pellegrini, France, 1858; (first proposed in lecture) Frank Taylor, U.S.; (first comprehensive detailed theory) Alfred Wegener, Germany, 1912.

Contraceptive, oral: Gregory Pincus, Min Chuch Chang, John Rock, Carl Djerassi, U.S., 1951.

Converter, Bessemer: William Kelly, U.S., 1851.

Cosmetics: Egypt, c. 4000 B.C.

Cosamic string theory: (first postulated) Thomas Kibble, 1976.

Cotton gin: Eli Whitney, U.S., 1793.

Crossbow: China, c. 300 B.C.

Cyclotron: Ernest O. Lawrence, U.S., 1931.

Deuterium: (heavy hydrogen) Harold Urey, U.S., 1931.

Disease: (chemicals in treatment of) crusaded by Philippus Paracelsus, 1527–1541; (germ theory) Louis Pasteur, France, 1862–1877.

DNA: (deoxyribonucleic acid) Friedrich Meischer, Germany, 1869; (determination of double-helical structure) Rosalind Elsie Franklin, F. H. Crick, England, James D. Watson, U.S., 1953.

Dye: (aniline, start of synthetic dye industry) William H. Perkin, England, 1856.

Dynamite: Alfred Nobel, Sweden, 1867.

Electric cooking utensil: (first) patented by St. George Lane-Fox, England, 1874.

Electric generator (dynamo): (laboratory model) Michael Faraday, England, 1832; Joseph Henry, U.S., c.1832; (hand-driven model) Hippolyte Pixii, France, 1833; (alternating-current generator) Nikola Tesla, U.S., 1892.

Electric lamp: (arc lamp) Sir Humphrey Davy, England, 1801; (fluorescent lamp) A.E. Becquerel, France, 1867; (incandescent lamp) Sir Joseph Swann, England, Thomas A. Edison, U.S., contemporaneously, 1870s; (carbon arc street lamp) Charles F. Brush, U.S., 1879; (first widely marketed incandescent lamp) Thomas A. Edison, U.S., 1879; (mercury vapor lamp) Peter Cooper Hewitt, U.S., 1903; (neon lamp) Georges Claude, France, 1911; (tungsten filament) Irving Langmuir, U.S., 1915.

Electrocardiography: Demonstrated by Augustus Waller, 1887; (first practical device for recording activity of heart) Willem Einthoven, 1903, Dutch physiologist.

Electromagnet: William Sturgeon, England, 1823.

Electron: Sir Joseph J. Thompson, England, 1897.

Elevator, passenger: (safety device permitting use by passengers) Elisha G. Otis, U.S., 1852; (elevator utilizing safety device) 1857.

E = mc2: (equivalence of mass and energy) Albert Einstein, Switzerland, 1907.

Engine, internal combustion: No single inventor. Fundamental theory established by Sadi Carnot, France, 1824; (two-stroke) Etienne Lenoir, France, 1860; (ideal operating cycle for four-stroke) Alphonse Beau de Roche, France, 1862; (operating four-stroke) Nikolaus Otto, Germany, 1876; (diesel) Rudolf Diesel, Germany, 1892; (rotary) Felix Wankel, Germany, 1956.

Evolution: (organic) Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, France, 1809; (by natural selection) Charles Darwin, England, 1859.

Exclusion principle: (no two electrons in an atom can occupy the same energy level) Wolfgang Pauli, Germany, 1925.

Expanding universe theory: (first proposed) George LeMaitre, Belgium, 1927; (discovered first direct evidence that the universe is expanding) Edwin P. Hubble, U.S., 1929; (Hubble constant: a measure of the rate at which the universe is expanding) Edwin P. Hubble, U.S., 1929.

Falling bodies, law of: Galileo Galilei, Italy, 1590.

Fermentation: (microorganisms as cause of) Louis Pasteur, France, c.1860.

Fiber optics: Narinder Kapany, England, 1955.

Fibers, man-made: (nitrocellulose fibers treated to change flammable nitrocellulose to harmless cellulose, precursor of rayon) Sir Joseph Swann, England, 1883; (rayon) Count Hilaire de Chardonnet, France, 1889; (Celanese) Henry and Camille Dreyfuss, U.S., England, 1921; (research on polyesters and polyamides, basis for modern man-made fibers) U.S., England, Germany, 1930s; (nylon) Wallace H. Carothers, U.S., 1935.

Frozen food: Clarence Birdseye, U.S., 1924.

Gene transfer: (human) Steven Rosenberg, R. Michael Blaese, W. French Anderson, U.S., 1989.

Geometry, elements of: Euclid, Alexandria, Egypt, c. 300 B.C.; (analytic) René Descartes, France; and Pierre de Fermat, Switzerland, 1637.

Gravitation, law of: Sir Isaac Newton, England, c.1665 (published 1687).

Gunpowder: China, c.700.

Gyrocompass: Elmer A. Sperry, U.S., 1905.

Gyroscope: Léon Foucault, France, 1852.

Halley’s Comet: Edmund Halley, England, 1705.

Heart implanted in human, permanent artificial:Dr. Robert Jarvik, U.S., 1982.

Heart, temporary artificial: Willem Kolft, 1957.

Helicopter: (double rotor) Heinrich Focke, Germany, 1936; (single rotor) Igor Sikorsky, U.S., 1939.

Helium first observed on sun: Sir Joseph Lockyer, England, 1868.

Heredity, laws of: Gregor Mendel, Austria, 1865.

Holograph: Dennis Gabor, England, 1947.

Home videotape systems (VCR): (Betamax) Sony, Japan, 1975; (VHS) Matsushita, Japan, 1975.

Ice age theory: Louis Agassiz, Swiss-American, 1840.

Induction, electric: Joseph Henry, U.S., 1828.

Insulin: (first isolated) Sir Frederick G. Banting and Charles H. Best, Canada, 1921; (discovery first published) Banting and Best, 1922; (Nobel Prize awarded for purification for use in humans) John Macleod and Banting, 1923; (first synthesized), China, 1966.

Intelligence testing: Alfred Binet, Theodore Simon, France, 1905.

Interferon: Alick Isaacs, Jean Lindemann, England, Switzerland, 1957.

Isotopes: (concept of) Frederick Soddy, England, 1912; (stable isotopes) J. J. Thompson, England, 1913; (existence demonstrated by mass spectrography) Francis W. Ashton, 1919.

Jet propulsion: (engine) Sir Frank Whittle, England, Hans von Ohain, Germany, 1936; (aircraft) Heinkel He 178, 1939.

Kinetic theory of gases: (molecules of a gas are in a state of rapid motion) Daniel Bernoulli, Switzerland, 1738.

Laser: (theoretical work on) Charles H. Townes, Arthur L. Schawlow, U.S., N. Basov, A. Prokhorov, U.S.S.R., 1958; (first working model) T. H. Maiman, U.S., 1960.

Lawn mower: Edwin Budding, John Ferrabee, England, 1830–1831.

LCD (liquid crystal display): Hoffmann-La Roche, Switzerland, 1970.

Lens, bifocal: Benjamin Franklin, U.S., c.1760.

Leyden jar: (prototype electrical condenser) Canon E. G. von Kleist of Kamin, Pomerania, 1745; independently evolved by Cunaeus and P. van Musschenbroek, University of Leyden, Holland, 1746, from where name originated.

Light, nature of: (wave theory) Christian Huygens, The Netherlands, 1678; (electromagnetic theory) James Clerk Maxwell, England, 1873.

Light, speed of: (theory that light has finite velocity) Olaus Roemer, Denmark, 1675.

Lightning rod: Benjamin Franklin, U.S., 1752.

Locomotive: (steam powered) Richard Trevithick, England, 1804; (first practical, due to multiple-fire-tube boiler) George Stephenson, England, 1829; (largest steam-powered) Union Pacific’s “Big Boy,” U.S., 1941.

Lock, cylinder: Linus Yale, U.S., 1851.

Loom: (horizontal, two-beamed) Egypt, c. 4400 B.C.; (Jacquard drawloom, pattern controlled by punch cards) Jacques de Vaucanson, France, 1745, Joseph-Marie Jacquard, 1801; (flying shuttle) John Kay, England, 1733; (power-driven loom) Edmund Cartwright, England, 1785.

Machine gun: (hand-cranked multibarrel) Richard J. Gatling, U.S., 1862; (practical single barrel, belt-fed) Hiram S. Maxim, Anglo-American, 1884.

Magnet, Earth is: William Gilbert, England, 1600.

Match: (phosphorus) François Derosne, France, 1816; (friction) Charles Sauria, France, 1831; (safety) J. E. Lundstrom, Sweden, 1855.

Measles vaccine: John F. Enders, Thomas Peebles, U.S., 1953.

Metric system: revolutionary government of France, 1790–1801.

Microphone: Charles Wheatstone, England, 1827.

Microscope: (compound) Zacharias Janssen, The Netherlands, 1590; (electron) Vladimir Zworykin et al., U.S., Canada, Germany, 1932–1939.

Microwave oven: Percy Spencer, U.S., 1947.

Motion, laws of: Isaac Newton, England, 1687.

Motion pictures: Thomas A. Edison, U.S., 1893.

Motion pictures, sound: Product of various inventions. First picture with synchronized musical score: Don Juan, 1926; with spoken dialogue: The Jazz Singer, 1927; both Warner Bros.

Motor, electric: Michael Faraday, England, 1822; (alternating-current) Nikola Tesla, U.S., 1892.

Motorcycle: (motor tricycle) Edward Butler, England, 1884; (gasoline-engine motorcycle) Gottlieb Daimler, Germany, 1885.

Moving assembly line: Henry Ford, U.S., 1913.

Neptune: (discovery of) Johann Galle, Germany, 1846.

Neptunium: (first transuranic element, synthesis of) Edward M. McMillan, Philip H. Abelson, U.S., 1940.

Neutron: James Chadwick, England, 1932.

Neutron-induced radiation: Enrico Fermi et al., Italy, 1934.

Nitroglycerin: Ascanio Sobrero, Italy, 1846.

Nuclear fission: Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassmann, Germany, 1938.

Nuclear reactor: Enrico Fermi, Italy, et al., 1942.

Ohm’s law: (relationship between strength of electric current, electromotive force, and circuit resistance) Georg S. Ohm, Germany, 1827.

Oil well: Edwin L. Drake, U.S., 1859.

Oxygen: (isolation of) Joseph Priestley, 1774; Carl Scheele, 1773.

Ozone: Christian Schönbein, Germany, 1839.

Pacemaker: (internal) Clarence W. Lillehie, Earl Bakk, U.S., 1957.

Paper China, c.100 A.D.

Parachute: Louis S. Lenormand, France, 1783.

Pen: (fountain) Lewis E. Waterman, U.S., 1884; (ball-point, for marking on rough surfaces) John H. Loud, U.S., 1888; (ball-point, for handwriting) Lazlo Biro, Argentina, 1944.

Periodic law: (that properties of elements are functions of their atomic weights) Dmitri Mendeleev, Russia, 1869.

Periodic table: (arrangement of chemical elements based on periodic law) Dmitri Mendeleev, Russia, 1869.

Phonograph: Thomas A. Edison, U.S., 1877.

Photography: (first paper negative, first photograph, on metal) Joseph Nicéphore Niepce, France, 1816–1827; (discovery of fixative powers of hyposulfite of soda) Sir John Herschel, England, 1819; (first direct positive image on silver plate, the daguerreotype) Louis Daguerre, based on work with Niepce, France, 1839; (first paper negative from which a number of positive prints could be made) William Talbot, England, 1841. Work of these four men, taken together, forms basis for all modern photography. (First color images) Alexandre Becquerel, Claude Niepce de Saint-Victor, France, 1848–1860; (commercial color film with three emulsion layers, Kodachrome) U.S., 1935.

Photovoltaic effect: (light falling on certain materials can produce electricity) Edmund Becquerel, France, 1839.

Piano: (Hammerklavier) Bartolommeo Cristofori, Italy, 1709; (pianoforte with sustaining and damper pedals) John Broadwood, England, 1873.

Planetary motion, laws of: Johannes Kepler, Germany, 1609, 1619.

Plant respiration and photosynthesis: Jan Ingenhousz, Holland, 1779.

Plastics: (first material, nitrocellulose softened by vegetable oil, camphor, precursor to Celluloid) Alexander Parkes, England, 1855; (Celluloid, involving recognition of vital effect of camphor) John W. Hyatt, U.S., 1869; (Bakelite, first completely synthetic plastic) Leo H. Baekeland, U.S., 1910; (theoretical background of macromolecules and process of polymerization on which modern plastics industry rests) Hermann Staudinger, Germany, 1922.

Plate tectonics: Alfred Wegener, Germany, 1912–1915.

Plow, forked: Mesopotamia, before 3000 B.C.

Plutonium, synthesis of: Glenn T. Seaborg, Edwin M. McMillan, Arthur C. Wahl, Joseph W. Kennedy, U.S., 1941.

Polio, vaccine: (experimentally safe dead-virus vaccine) Jonas E. Salk, U.S., 1952; (effective large-scale field trials) 1954; (officially approved) 1955; (safe oral live-virus vaccine developed) Albert B. Sabin, U.S., 1954; (available in the U.S.) 1960.

Positron: Carl D. Anderson, U.S., 1932.

Pressure cooker: (early version) Denis Papin, France, 1679.

Printing: (block) Japan, c.700; (movable type) Korea, c.1400; Johann Gutenberg, Germany, c.1450 (lithography, offset) Aloys Senefelder, Germany, 1796; (rotary press) Richard Hoe, U.S., 1844; (linotype) Ottmar Mergenthaler, U.S., 1884.

Probability theory: René Descartes, France; and Pierre de Fermat, Switzerland, 1654.

Proton: Ernest Rutherford, England, 1919.

Prozac: (antidepressant fluoxetine) Bryan B. Malloy, Scotland, and Klaus K. Schmiegel, U.S., 1972; (released for use in U.S.) Eli Lilly & Company, 1987.

Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud, Austria, c.1904.

Pulsars: Antony Hewish and Jocelyn Bell Burnel, England, 1967.

Quantum theory: (general) Max Planck, Germany, 1900; (sub-atomic) Niels Bohr, Denmark, 1913; (quantum mechanics) Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, Germany, 1925.

Quarks: Jerome Friedman, Henry Kendall, Richard Taylor, U.S., 1967.

Quasars: Marten Schmidt, U.S., 1963.

Rabies immunization: Louis Pasteur, France, 1885.

Radar: (limited to one-mile range) Christian Hulsmeyer, Germany, 1904; (pulse modulation, used for measuring height of ionosphere) Gregory Breit, Merle Tuve, U.S., 1925; (first practical radar—radio detection and ranging) Sir Robert Watson-Watt, England, 1934–1935.

Radio: (electromagnetism, theory of) James Clerk Maxwell, England, 1873; (spark coil, generator of electromagnetic waves) Heinrich Hertz, Germany, 1886; (first practical system of wireless telegraphy) Guglielmo Marconi, Italy, 1895; (first long-distance telegraphic radio signal sent across the Atlantic) Marconi, 1901; (vacuum electron tube, basis for radio telephony) Sir John Fleming, England, 1904; (triode amplifying tube) Lee de Forest, U.S., 1906; (regenerative circuit, allowing long-distance sound reception) Edwin H. Armstrong, U.S., 1912; (frequency modulation—FM) Edwin H. Armstrong, U.S., 1933.

Radioactivity: (X-rays) Wilhelm K. Roentgen, Germany, 1895; (radioactivity of uranium) Henri Becquerel, France, 1896; (radioactive elements, radium and polonium in uranium ore) Marie Sklodowska-Curie, Pierre Curie, France, 1898; (classification of alpha and beta particle radiation) Pierre Curie, France, 1900; (gamma radiation) Paul-Ulrich Villard, France, 1900.

Radiocarbon dating, carbon-14 method: (discovered) 1947, Willard F. Libby, U.S.; (first demonstrated) U.S., 1950.

Radio signals, extraterrestrial: first known radio noise signals were received by U.S. engineer, Karl Jansky, originating from the Galactic Center, 1931.

Radio waves: (cosmic sources, led to radio astronomy) Karl Jansky, U.S., 1932.

Razor: (safety, successfully marketed) King Gillette, U.S., 1901; (electric) Jacob Schick, U.S., 1928, 1931.

Reaper: Cyrus McCormick, U.S., 1834.

Refrigerator: Alexander Twining, U.S., James Harrison, Australia, 1850; (first with a compressor device) the Domelse, Chicago, U.S., 1913.

Refrigerator ship: (first) the Frigorifique, cooling unit designed by Charles Teller, France, 1877.

Relativity: (special and general theories of) Albert Einstein, Switzerland, Germany, U.S., 1905–1953.

Revolver: Samuel Colt, U.S., 1835.

Richter scale: Charles F. Richter, U.S., 1935.

Rifle: (muzzle-loaded) Italy, Germany, c.1475; (breech-loaded) England, France, Germany, U.S., c.1866; (bolt-action) Paul von Mauser, Germany, 1889; (automatic) John Browning, U.S., 1918.

Rocket: (liquid-fueled) Robert Goddard, U.S., 1926.

Roller bearing: (wooden for cartwheel) Germany or France, c.100 B.C.

Rotation of Earth: Jean Bernard Foucault, France, 1851.

Royal Observatory, Greenwich: established in 1675 by Charles II of England; John Flamsteed first Astronomer Royal.

Rubber: (vulcanization process) Charles Goodyear, U.S., 1839.

Saccharin: Constantine Fuhlberg, Ira Remsen, U.S., 1879.

Safety pin: Walter Hunt, U.S., 1849.

Saturn, ring around: Christian Huygens, The Netherlands, 1659.

“Scotch” tape:Richard Drew, U.S., 1929.

Screw propeller: Sir Francis P. Smith, England, 1836; John Ericsson, England, worked independently of and simultaneously with Smith, 1837.

Seismograph: (first accurate) John Milne, England, 1880.

Sewing machine: Elias Howe, U.S., 1846; (continuous stitch) Isaac Singer, U.S., 1851.  

Solar energy: First realistic application of solar energy using parabolic solar reflector to drive caloric engine on steam boiler, John Ericsson, U.S., 1860s.

Solar system, universe: (Sun-centered universe) Nicolaus Copernicus, Warsaw, 1543; (establishment of planetary orbits as elliptical) Johannes Kepler, Germany, 1609; (infinity of universe) Giordano Bruno, Italian monk, 1584.

Spectrum: (heterogeneity of light) Sir Isaac Newton, England, 1665–1666.

Spectrum analysis: Gustav Kirchhoff, Robert Bunsen, Germany, 1859.

Spermatozoa: Anton van Leeuwenhoek, The Netherlands, 1683.

Spinning: (spinning wheel) India, introduced to Europe in Middle Ages; (Saxony wheel, continuous spinning of wool or cotton yarn) England, c.1500–1600; (spinning jenny) James Hargreaves, England, 1764; (spinning frame) Sir Richard Arkwright, England, 1769; (spinning mule, completed mechanization of spinning, permitting production of yarn to keep up with demands of modern looms) Samuel Crompton, England, 1779.

Star catalog: (first modern) Tycho Brahe, Denmark, 1572.

Steam engine: (first commercial version based on principles of French physicist Denis Papin) Thomas Savery, England, 1639; (atmospheric steam engine) Thomas Newcomen, England, 1705; (steam engine for pumping water from collieries) Savery, Newcomen, 1725; (modern condensing, double acting) James Watt, England, 1782.

Steamship: Claude de Jouffroy d’Abbans, France, 1783; James Rumsey, U.S., 1787; John Fitch, U.S., 1790. All preceded Robert Fulton, U.S., 1807, credited with launching first commercially successful steamship.

Stethoscope: René Laënnec, France, 1819.

Sulfa drugs: (parent compound, para-aminobenzenesulfanomide) Paul Gelmo, Austria, 1908; (antibacterial activity) Gerhard Domagk, Germany, 1935.

Superconductivity: (theory) Bardeen, Cooper, Scheiffer, U.S., 1957.

Symbolic logic: George Boule, 1854; (modern) Bertrand Russell, Alfred North Whitehead, England, 1910–1913.

Tank, military: Sir Ernest Swinton, England, 1914.

Tape recorder: (magnetic steel tape) Valdemar Poulsen, Denmark, 1899.

Teflon: DuPont, U.S., 1943.

Telegraph: Samuel F. B. Morse, U.S., 1837.

Telephone: Alexander Graham Bell, U.S., 1876.

Telescope: Hans Lippershey, The Netherlands, 1608; (astronomical) Galileo Galilei, Italy, 1609; (reflecting) Isaac Newton, England, 1668.

Television: (Iconoscope–T.V. camera table), Vladimir Zworkin, U.S., 1923, and also kinescope (cathode ray tube), 1928; (mechanical disk-scanning method) successfully demonstrated by J.K. Baird, England, C.F. Jenkins, U.S., 1926; (first all-electric television image), 1927, Philo T. Farnsworth, U.S; (color, mechanical disk) Baird, 1928; (color, compatible with black and white) George Valensi, France, 1938; (color, sequential rotating filter) Peter Goldmark, U.S., first introduced, 1951; (color, compatible with black and white) commercially introduced in U.S., National Television Systems Committee, 1953.

Thermodynamics: (first law: energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another) Julius von Mayer, Germany, 1842; James Joule, England, 1843; (second law: heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a warmer body) Rudolph Clausius, Germany, 1850; (third law: the entropy of ordered solids reaches zero at the absolute zero of temperature) Walter Nernst, Germany, 1918.

Thermometer: (open-column) Galileo Galilei, c.1593; (clinical) Santorio Santorio, Padua, c.1615; (mercury, also Fahrenheit scale) Gabriel D. Fahrenheit, Germany, 1714; (centigrade scale) Anders Celsius, Sweden, 1742; (absolute-temperature, or Kelvin, scale) William Thompson, Lord Kelvin, England, 1848.

Tire, pneumatic: Robert W. Thompson, England, 1845; (bicycle tire) John B. Dunlop, Northern Ireland, 1888.

Toilet, flush: Product of Minoan civilization, Crete, c. 2000 B.C. Alleged invention by “Thomas Crapper” is untrue.

Tractor: Benjamin Holt, U.S., 1900.

Transformer, electric: William Stanley, U.S., 1885.

Transistor: John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain, William B. Shockley, U.S., 1947.

Tuberculosis bacterium: Robert Koch, Germany, 1882.

Typewriter: Christopher Sholes, Carlos Glidden, U.S., 1867.

Uncertainty principle: (that position and velocity of an object cannot both be measured exactly, at the same time) Werner Heisenberg, Germany, 1927.

Uranus: (first planet discovered in recorded history) William Herschel, England, 1781.

Vaccination: Edward Jenner, England, 1796.

Vacuum cleaner: (manually operated) Ives W. McGaffey, 1869; (electric) Hubert C. Booth, England, 1901; (upright) J. Murray Spangler, U.S., 1907.

Van Allen (radiation) Belt: (around Earth) James Van Allen, U.S., 1958.

Video disk: Philips Co., The Netherlands, 1972.

Vitamins: (hypothesis of disease deficiency) Sir F. G. Hopkins, Casimir Funk, England, 1912; (vitamin A) Elmer V. McCollum, M. Davis, U.S., 1912–1914; (vitamin B) McCollum, U.S., 1915–1916; (thiamin, B1) Casimir Funk, England, 1912; (riboflavin, B2) D. T. Smith, E. G. Hendrick, U.S., 1926; (niacin) Conrad Elvehjem, U.S., 1937; (B6) Paul Gyorgy, U.S., 1934; (vitamin C) C. A. Hoist, T. Froelich, Norway, 1912; (vitamin D) McCollum, U.S., 1922; (folic acid) Lucy Wills, England, 1933.

Voltaic pile: (forerunner of modern battery, first source of continuous electric current) Alessandro Volta, Italy, 1800.

Wallpaper: Europe, 16th and 17th century.

Wassermann test: (for syphilis) August von Wassermann, Germany, 1906.

Wheel: (cart, solid wood) Mesopotamia, c.3800–3600 B.C.

Windmill: Persia, c.600.

World Wide Web: (developed while working at CERN) Tim Berners-Lee, England, 1989; (development of Mosaic browser makes WWW available for general use) Marc Andreeson, U.S., 1993.

Xerography: Chester Carlson, U.S., 1938.

Zero: India, c.600; (absolute zero temperature, cessation of all molecular energy) William Thompson, Lord Kelvin, England, 1848.

Zipper: W. L. Judson, U.S., 1891.  

[synopsischemitech]

Chemical Technologies

The Chemical Technology of Wood is an eight-chapter introductory text on the developments in understanding the chemistry of wood and its chemical-technological utilization. The opening chapters of this book cover the productive aspects of forests, followed by a description of the anatomy and physical properties of wood. The subsequent chapter presents a summative wood analysis concerning its cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, and other extraneous components. This topic is followed by a presentation of several destructive processing of wood, including acid hydrolysis, pyrolysis, oxidation, and hydrogenolysis. The remaining chapters describe pulp production through sulfite cooking and using alkaline reagents. This book will prove useful to chemists, engineers, biologists, foresters, and economists.

This is a real shame because the world as we know it wouldn’t exist without chemistry. Here are my top five chemistry technology inventions that make the world you live in.

Penicillin

There’s a good chance that penicillin has saved your life. Without it, a prick from a thorn or sore throat can easily turn fatal. Alexander Fleming generally gets the credit for penicillin when, in 1928, he famously observed how a mold growing on his Petri dishes suppressed the growth of nearby bacteria. But, despite his best efforts, he failed to extract any usable penicillin. Fleming gave up and the story of penicillin took a 10-year hiatus. Until 1939, it took Australian pharmacologist Howard Florey and his team of chemists to figure out a way of purifying penicillin in useable quantities.

The Haber-Bosch process

Nitrogen plays a critical role in the biochemistry of every living thing. It is also the most common gas in our atmosphere. But nitrogen gas doesn’t like reacting very much, which means that plants and animals can’t extract it from the air. Consequently, a major limiting factor in agriculture has been the availability of nitrogen.

Polythene – the accidental invention

Most common plastic objects, from water pipes to food packaging and hardhats, are forms of polythene. The 80m tons of the stuff that is made each year is the result of two accidental discoveries.

The Pill and the Mexican yam

In, the 1930s physicians understood the potential for hormone-based therapies to treat cancers, menstrual disorders, and of course, contraception. But research and treatments were held back by massively time-consuming and inefficient methods for synthesizing hormones. Back then progesterone cost the equivalent (in today’s prices) of $1,000 per gram while now the same amount can be bought for just a few dollars.

The screen you are reading on

Incredibly, plans for flat screen color displays date back to the late 1960s! When the British Ministry of Defense decided it wanted flat screens to replace bulky and expensive cathode ray tubes in its military vehicles. It settled on an idea based on liquid crystals. It was already known that liquid crystal displays (LCDs) where possible, the problem was that they only really worked at high temperatures. So not much good unless you are sitting in an oven.

[rixxy8173571m3w1p3]

The Longest Week

Okay, so here’s chap two. I was happy to write this, and had a lot of fun, while trying to put myself in someone else’s shoes. To @porkchop-ao3 I know this is not enough dear, and for now this is what al I can give, but I hope you like it. Thanks to @hoodoo12 and @xerxezra who are very lovely to talk to. Oh, @councilofrickfics I made a movie mention that had been inspired by a lovely fic of yours. Please enjoy!

_______________

Chapter 2

You couldn’t do it, and if you made one wrong move, you’d kill his babies. Zeta-7 had demonstrated how to cut crossover branches and hangover branches, but you preferred just to clear away the dead leaves instead. Rick puttered around, lovingly pruning, whispering sweet nothings. It was both adorable, and sweet.

According to gardening for dummies, the practice of cleaning up the flower beds, dead plant debris, and clearing the ground, prevented mold growth, spores, and deterred pests. Rick kept his plants happy, healthy, of that you were sure of, but was mold really all that bad? For the plants, probably, but there must have been some that that weren’t. Thoughts of Florey and Fleming came to mind, and their scientific pursuits, as well as the scandals behind those names, but what did that have to do with mold?

Funny, the places your mind would go if you allowed it to wander. Why, if you wrote a story about Rick, he would be the protector of a locked garden, a creature of the day, who retreated to the branches at night, twisting, and curling himself, until he was nothing more than a bud. Not so much a beauty and the beast sort of story, but of friendship, of the melding of minds, of spirit, and whoever would come to love this creature, would be one with the garden. A story of two souls, symbiotic, lost to each other, and built up in love.

Rick came around, checked on your progress, and swept away the debris. This brought you back to the real world, and you were determined to do a good job. With a small dustpan, you cleaned up the little pile you had made and dumped it in the marked bin. When you turned back around, you found him staring at you. The lines about his mouth deepened, and whatever he thought about made him sigh happily before he returned to his activity.

It was a simple gesture, but you were appreciative of it. When he was at peace, it was like there was an extra sun in the universe. Everything smelled better, you felt prettier, and in his shared world, you had a taste of paradise. You fed the turtles, Rick fed the fish, every so often you poke him to remind him you were there, and he laughed wholeheartedly when you pouted, because he had been overly affectionate with the hydrangeas.

When you had finished, you passed by the old bird cage to find the rose bush bare. Oh no, why this one? Hmm, Rick must have dried the roses for tea, and before you could receive one of its beautiful offspring. Perhaps one could read too many novels, and with your girlish dreams being crushed by this revelation, you swept, even if it was already clean around it. You sighed, since another disappointment had been added to your list of disappointments.

You heard the clatter of a fallen broom, and then all of a sudden a pair of arms were around you, and he asked what was the matter. Your cheeks felt warm, his breath feathering your ear.Whatever it was you wanted, he said, he would do for you. Zeta-7 wasn’t normally this affectionate, and blame it on the magic of the garden, it’s warm temperatures, and earthy scents, it’s singing plants; his version of paradise, this was where he was most himself.

You leaned into him, taking advantage of his brief confidence. A part of you had craved this sort of attention, and the current of his happiness, made you very warm in your soul, and comfortable. Lips bitten, you thought over the consequences of telling him, but you figured it wouldn’t hurt. In a small voice, you told him how you had wanted a rose. Resting his chin on your head, you felt his voice reverberate through you.

There was something he had to show you.

________

In the garage, there were several small pots with different sprouting plants. Each one had tags with words written in Latin, each had a shade of colored light on them. Zeta-7 had been experimenting with gene splicing, and the effects of light. These were the ones which had survived. One had straight stems, another was twisted like a pigs tail, two were ghostly white, and the rest were in varying shades of green.

While you were sure they were all going to be lovely, they weren’t the blue roses you had seen. From the cabinet, he took out a small, glass bottle shaped like a rose, and gave it to you. It was the concentrated essence, a perfume made from his beloved roses. Knowing you enjoyed scents, he had made it, and you wanted to cry. You had been distressed over flowers, words, and stones, and here he goes being darling, and what had you done?

You ignored him for a week, even though he was only one call away. How could you accept it? You hadn’t earned it, but he insisted, and listed all the reasons as to why you did. Whatever ability he had in seeing the best in everyone, you wished you had it too. You wanted to be more like him, because there couldn’t possibly be anyone this good, perhaps because he was the only one.

The unattainable or the mysterious, like the single blue rose he handed you, is what he was. There was so much you wanted, so much you wished to understand. The blue rose, frozen in its peak of perfection, you turned in your fingers, finding all its thorns had been cut off. He told you how it had been dipped in a chemical which would prevent it from wilting. And as happy as you were, there was still that seed of self doubt, that there was someone out there more deserving than you.

___________

It was cold when you two went back inside. You settled yourself on the comfy side of the couch while he made some popcorn. You flipped through the channels until you found some alternate version of You’ve Got Mail. The crown jewel of rom-coms, you knew the lines by heart.

When Zeta-7 returned, he smiled when he recognized the Jerry on screen. Jerry? You have heard of Jerry Smith, though you had never seen him in person. This particular Jerry was an actor, and personally you thought he wasn’t cut out for the role, but it made Rick happy. Perhaps he knew this particular one. You had seen a few photos of a Jerry in Ricks house, though you hadn’t really paid attention to the likeness.

Considering you two had shared the bowl of popcorn, it was only a matter of time before your hand found his at the bottom of the bowl. You moved the bowl aside so you could snuggle up next to him. It was charming to watch as Zeta-7 blushed terribly as he slowly draped an arm around you, and pulled you a little closer. Really, after all the attention he had bestowed on you for a better part of the day, there was no need for all this shyness.

Still, such deep rooted behaviors didn’t change in a day. Oh, but this was not the time to ruminate.  With his warmth all around you, and your head on his shoulder, you closed your eyes for what felt like a few seconds. However, when you woke, you were in your own bed. Had everything which happened been a lovely, delusional dream?

You called for him, and wondered if you had dreamed it. Hmm, you were still wearing your minion pajamas, and your hair still braided. Moving the blanket, you noticed that about your shoulders, was Rick’s labcoat. No, this was proof that it couldn’t have been a dream. Again you called for him, and he came in, the floorboards squeaked under his weight.

A cup of warm tea he set on your bedside table, before he took a seat on the nearby stool. What had happened? You asked. When you had fallen asleep, he didn’t want you to sleep improperly, so he brought you back home. Not knowing what else to do, he waited.

Rick looked ready for a nap, and you asked if he’d like to go back home, but he didn’t want to, so you told him to make himself comfortable. There were plenty of books, your living room TV, or he could tinker with any one of your appliances if he cared to, as long as he was comfortable. Yet, before you went back to bed, he encouraged you to drink the tea so you would have a restful sleep. It didn’t smell very good, but with his hands placed over yours, you had the courage to down it. Knowing his comforting presence was in the house, you felt a calm no sedative could provide.

You tugged his lab coat tighter, and lost yourself to restful thoughts, and vanilla scented dreams.

_________

Later, you found Rick in the kitchen, with the disassembled parts of your vacuum cleaner. Lately, it had been doing that thing where it was spitting out dust. After he had taken apart one of the brush heads, you were a bit sheepish to find that the problem had been caused by an earring; thankfully it was not a favorite of yours. While he was reassembling it, you set about making breakfast and giving him one word answers to his questions.

By now, you thought you would have been over the whole outbid thing, but an early morning email had reminded you all over again of what you had lost. Yesterday, with all the lovely activities you two did together, you’d thought you would have forgotten. And when you no longer answered any of Rick’s questions, he stopped what he was doing and patted your back. You just looked at him, his smiling face, unassuming, curious about your cooking technique. It hurt even more to think that you wouldn’t get the chance to see that wonder, and the curiosity when you handed him the stones you had mentally picked out.

You opened your mouth, but no words came out.

There was so much which had been building up, and you had tried to forget it all, but it only made you feel worse. Rick waited for you to speak, and when you did, you poured out every stupid little detail. You set aside the unfinished set of pancakes. Right now, all you wanted to do was leave, and go back to bed. Oh, but Zeta-7 took you in his arms, rubbed your back while you sobbed.

It hadn’t just been about the crystals and gemstones, or being outbid. You were all sorts of stressed out, about work, and just had too many things on your mind. This was when he offered to take you somewhere. Of course, you were going to need to dress much lighter, and put on a pair of walking shoes.

__________

Everyone had their version of paradise, but this place, it….it reminded you of places you had only read about.

The brightside of the Moonstone cast a calming, ethereal, blueish glow. The Sunstone and it’s weak, yellow light casted a soft warmth. Downhill, arum lilies sang praises, waving about to distract you two. Quickly you two passed them, then stopped again, your eyes drinking in all you could for a moment. This, it couldn’t be right, you had just seen an armadillo made out of citrine walk by.

You tried to adjust your goggles, but Rick’s firm grip stopped you. On this planet, you had to wear protective eye wear or risk going blind, as well as protective gloves. It was easy to forget at times that even aesthetically pleasing places could hold dangers. You were sure to stay close.

On one side, there was a vision of the sea, calm waves, which even a child would not fear. No boats of any kind, no seashells on the shore, but the sweet breezes which kissed your skin were cooling and refreshing. The purple sands clean and smooth, it’s dunes covered with cotton candy maiden grass. In another direction, white peaked mountains were partially disguised by the oncoming storm. You took his offered hand, careful to tread quietly, but you felt no danger; it had been a long time since you had felt that way.

Rose colored clouds drifted by in the cerulean sky. Zeta-7 was quick to point out the shapes he saw, before you two ran for dear life as chunks of violet Apatite rained down. You mimicked his action to tug on the gloves, which activated a deflector shield. With this safety precaution, you were free to admire their loveliness.

_______________

According to Rick, the introduction of certain invasive species had caused some of the wildlife to lie dormant until the conditions were favorable enough for their return back to the surface. The road, a single, well traveled road glittered, it’s many misshapen stones made for a colorful walkway. How had it come about you wondered, but Zeta-7 confessed to have done it. It was a funny story actually, which involved a dragon, a princess, and Geologist Rick.

There were many details which were classified information, but as you understood it, many years ago, there was a rock Geologist Rick had wanted. The princess was the rock and the dragon it’s protector. In order to protect what he loved, the dragon scattered the shards of the princess in such a way that it was everywhere and in everything. When it was all said and done, a once thriving, and beautiful land was now a dangerous, but still very beautiful land, that could not sustain human life.

The road in question had been made by Zeta-7 who over the years tried to piece together the whereabouts of the princess, and who had unknowingly had attracted various creatures to follow his trail, only to die along the way. A handful of gravel showed pieces of cats eyes, rough bits of crystal, fool’s gold, fire opals, and fine purple sand. My how lovely, but he flashed a special light on them, and they began to crawl, while others flew away. What the hell?

As Rick explained, the wildlife were made of living gemstones. And when they ceased to be living souls, they became dust, their leftover organs becoming crystals or stones. However, it was hard to tell what was living, or what was dead. Oh, but you could spend hours here, gazing upon them, curious as to what they were before, who they were before. Still, there was somewhere else he wanted to show you.

__________

Everything on this side of the planet was dead.

You had your pick of all the stones you wanted, but you had a different opinion now. How many lives had been lost because of one person’s careless actions? Why was there such a drastic change in the environment? There was so much you didn’t understand, but one day you hoped you would. Perhaps, if there was ever enough time, Rick could teach you, show you his ways, so that in some way you could understand.

Every so often, when he did take you off world, to some distant planet, or to some different dimension, your universe expanded. The more you learned, the less you knew, and unless it was all fixed, like it suddenly all stopped somewhere, then the literal universe was ever expanding. With Rick, would there ever be enough time to see it all? Only time would tell.

_____________

Curious as to why the creatures here had died, you drew your own conclusions which were not too far off from the truth. Due to atmospheric changes, the air quality on this side of the planet was not sufficient to sustain any life, which was why you two had to wear breathing masks. The crystalline plants left standing were also dead, but you would never be able to tell. Everything was more muted here, a lot more greys, and earth tones, and there was more than enough stones to pick from. However, you weren’t here to take what was dead, but to learn.

Appreciate what you had, before it was taken away.

Alright, perhaps there was no moral to the story, and you had been searching for meaning where there wasn’t any. Knowing Zeta-7, he brought you here because he wanted to show you something beautiful, something you loved, and in some way share what he loved with you. The scientist he was, saw everything fascinating, even if melancholic. Who knows what power the princess had which allowed a utopia to fend for itself against the elements, but that was beyond you. All you saw now was your own piece of paradise as he brushed away some dust, collected small samples of various stone types.

You found a suitable place to sit, while Rick scanned some geodes. His face brightened when he cracked a few open to examine their formations. The loveliest you would say was one with multiple layers of colorful agate and a crystal-filled central cavity. Each colored band represented an episode of agate formation due to chemical changes in the ground water.

Along the side of your goggles, he pressed a button which allowed you to view the chemical composition of whatever it was you looked at. Charts and lists of known chemicals made it a bit hard to see, and when you stared at Zeta-7, it went crazy, words flashed, lists, charts, even a snazzy little jingle played. You pressed the side button, which deactivated the function before you had a seizure. It made you wonder what secrets he was hiding, but then again it might have had something to do with all the places he had to visit during work hours.

For a while, you made shapes in the sand. Later, not wanting to disturb him, you dared not stray too far, and settled with circling about the group of crystalline Juniper trees. They were terribly sharp, and perfectly shaped like figurines. Why, if you were to touch their very tips, would you not bleed? As tempting, and as stupid as it would have been, you backed away, and took plenty of photos instead.

This wasn’t the time to test the theory of whether or not you were a Disney princess.

Even here, in the desert plains, the Sunstone and the Moonstone were easily seen. Was it possible, that the princess became the moon and the dragon the sun? Ricks eyes widened to this idea, and he thought about testing your theory, but then stopped. There was some things better left unknown, and this place had been through enough.

Perhaps, you were smarter than you thought, and that somehow, someway, this place could be perfect again.

_________

Zeta-7 brought you two back to his garage before his portal gun lost all its charge. You were fast to sit by the roses, whose heat lamps kept you warm. To the smallest of them, you told the story of a very special man. And in your heart, you hoped that this one would grow to be the strongest, and even more beautiful than the rest.

In the corner, Rick had placed every sample in a chemical bath. When he was done, he removed his gloves, and scratched the back of his neck. The crystals would take about three days, while the stones about two weeks. Rick knew how to form rocks and grow crystals?

From all the samples he had collected, why he could grow you a garden of gems, shape them to your heart’s desire. He rubbed his arm, eager to please, waiting for you to say the word. He would do it, why he would do almost anything if you asked him, but you pressed a finger to his lips, and shook your head. No, he didn’t have to. This was enough, you admitted, you already had your perfect gem right here. With Rick, you had more than enough, and he would never not be enough.

[brisbanecollection-blog]

Frankenswine: scientists bring a pig brain back from dead

Most fundamentally, write a team of leading researchers in an accompanying editorial in Nature, it throws into question long-standing assumptions about what makes an animal or a human alive.

Illustration: Matt GoldingCredit: The brain chamber Our brains need huge flows of blood and oxygen to keep them alive. Just a few seconds of interrupted blood flow is enough to cause irreversible brain damage, scientists have long believed. This finding upends that. At Yale, a team of researchers led by neuroscientist Nenad Sestan built a machine that can pump blood, oxygen, and chemicals that prevent cell death into a 'brain chamber' that carefully controls temperature and humidity. They call it BrainEx. The team strapped pigs' brains sourced from abattoirs via ice-filled biohazard boxes into their machine more than four hours after the animals had been killed. And the brains they tested 32 in total appeared to come back to a form of life. Blood started flowing through veins and into cells. The cells started to breathe in oxygen and consume sugar, and started to regulate their own salt levels.

The dead pig's brain started to function but showed no sign of consciousness. Most importantly, the machine seemed to stop the brain degrading. On scans and under the microscope, the cells in crucial parts of the brain appeared intact. Some even spontaneously sparked electrical charges the basis of how a brain works. "Its frankensteinish we have taken dead bits and brought them back to life," says Dr Steve Kassem, a neuroscienist at NeuRA in Sydney. The neurons are on, working, functioning. Think of it sort of like the factory is on and working, but we dont know if its producing anything. The brains overall electrical activity the sparks in the lobes that signify consciousness did not restart in the six hours it sat in the chamber. Had it, the researchers were ready to administer an anaesthetic and cool the brain back to oblivion, which raises another question: what are the ethics of killing a pig twice? Other experiments have shown that consciousness might be able to restart if the brain is kept in the chamber for long enough. Or it could be the brain needs an electrical shock to restart thought patterns. Regardless, a conscious brain could well be possible. Big questions, big problems Before that next step can be taken, scientists from around the world will need to debate how to do it ethically. If you then revive the tissue, we dont know for certain that some level of awareness might return. Thats the major ethical implication in this work, says Ashley Bush, a professor of neuroscience at the Florey Institute. You couldnt imagine a worse nightmare than to be brought back to life after death but to be severed from your body. They are very alert to that possibility. We have to be very careful. Dr Kassem agrees. "Put someone in a sensory deprivation tank for 10 minutes and they start to lose their mind let alone forever." Liam is The Age and Sydney Morning Herald's science reporter Most Viewed in National Loading https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/frankenswine-scientists-bring-a-pig-brain-back-from-dead-20190417-p51f3t.html?ref=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_source=rss_feed

[zoomgenetics]

Biotechnology MCQ With Answers

Question-1: Which of the following is commercially being produced by biotechnological processes? (A) Tryptophan (B) Insulin (C) Glutonic Acid (D) Morphine

Question-2: Which of the following is used in gene cloning? (A) RNA (B) Plasmid (C) Virus (D) Mesosomes

Question-3: The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) process is carried out for about how many cycles after which its reliability decreases. (A) 10 – 12 (B) 90 – 92 (C) 28 – 30 (D) 15 – 16

Download ZoomGenetics – A Windows software to learn Genetics – for students preparing for NEET / AIIMS and other Medical Entrance Exams.

Question-4: The biotechnological activities in the areas of health, medical diagnostics is color coded as _____ biotechnology (A) Green (B) Blue (C) Purple (D) Red

Question-5: The biotechnological activities in the areas of food and nutritional science is color coded as _____ biotechnology (A) Green (B) Blue (C) Yellow (D) Red

Question-6: The biotechnological activities in the areas of aquaculture, coastal and marine is color coded as _____ biotechnology (A) Green (B) Blue (C) Yellow (D) Red

Question-7: The biotechnological activities in the areas of agriculture, environmental BT – biofuels, biofertilizers, bioremediation, geomicrobiology is color coded as _____ biotechnology (A) Green (B) Blue (C) Yellow (D) Brown

Question-8: The biotechnological activities in the areas of arid zone and desert technology is color coded as _____ biotechnology (A) Purple (B) Dark (C) White (D) Brown

Question-9: The biotechnological activities in the areas of bioinformatics, nanobiotechnology is color coded as _____ biotechnology (A) Gold (B) Dark (C) White (D) Brown

Question-10: The biotechnological activities in the areas of bioterrorism, biowarfare, biocrimes, anticrop warfare is color coded as _____ biotechnology (A) Gold (B) Dark (C) White (D) Brown

Question-11: The study of possible improvements of the genetics of a species. (A) ecumenics (B) cryogenics (C) eugenics (D) schizophrenics

Question-12: A process in which transgenic animals are used to mass-produce rare and expensive proteins for medicinal use. (A) pharmacopeia (B) pharming (C) pharmacology (D) pharmacognosy

Question-13: pBR322 is an example of (A) Plasmid (B) Bacteriophage (C) Cosmid (D) Phasmid or Phagemid

Question-14: Lambda Phage is an example of (A) Plasmid (B) Bacteriophage (C) Cosmid (D) Phasmid or Phagemid

Question-15: After gel electrophoresis, the separated DNA fragments can only be visualized after staining with ____________ followed by UV exposure. (A) Sodium Nitrate (B) Ethidium bromide (C) Radium chloride (D) Boron Phosphide

Question-16: After gel electrophoresis, the separated DNA fragments can only be visualized after staining, after which they colored ________. (A) Bright blue (B) Bright purple (C) bright orange (D) dark green

Question-17: ________ are vessels in which raw materials are biologically converted into specific products, enzymes, etc. They can process large volumes and provide optimal conditions for growth. (A) Abstractors (B) Digesters (C) Bioreactors (D) Agitators

Question-18: After completion of the biosynthetic stage, the product of rDNA technology has to be subjected to a series of processes called ___________ before it is ready for marketing as a finished product. (A) Upstream processes (B) Quality Assurance processes (C) Clinical Trails (D) Downstream processes

Question-19: Streptomycin belong to the category of (A) Steroids (B) Vaccines (C) Antibiotics (D) Hormones

Question-20: Insulin belong to the category of (A) Steroids (B) Vaccines (C) Antibiotics (D) Hormones

Question-21: Erythromycin belong to the category of (A) Steroids (B) Vaccines (C) Antibiotics (D) Hormones

Question-22: HGH belong to the category of (A) Steroids (B) Vaccines (C) Antibiotics (D) Hormones

Question-23: Riboflavin belong to the category of (A) Steroids (B) Vaccines (C) Antibiotics (D) Vitamins

Question-24: __________ are complex crystalline lipids with four hydrocarbon rings: one 5-carbon ring and three 6-carbon rings. (A) Steroids (B) Vaccines (C) Antibiotics (D) Vitamins

Question-25: The use of Biotechnology for recycling and treating waste, or clean-up sites contaminated by industrial activities is called __________ (A) Bioremediation (B) Biorefining (C) Bioleaching (D) Biomimetics

Question-26: Bt-Cotton is a pest-resistant cotton. Bt toxin is produced by the bacterium _________ (A) bacillus thermolactis (B) bacillus thioparans (C) bacillus thuringiensis (D) bacillus trypoxylicola

Question-27: Some strains of bacillus thuringiensis produce proteins that kill specific insects. The strains that kill moths and butterflies budworm are ____________ (A) Lepidoptera (B) Diptera (C) Coleoptera (D) Hymenoptera

Question-28: The strains of bacillus thuringiensis that produce proteins that kill flies and mosquitoes are ____________ (A) Lepidoptera (B) Diptera (C) Coleoptera (D) Hymenoptera

Question-29: The strains of bacillus thuringiensis that produce proteins that kill beetles are ____________ (A) Lepidoptera (B) Diptera (C) Coleoptera (D) Hymenoptera

Question-30: Vinegar is the product resulting from the conversion of ethyl alcohol to acetic acid by the bacteria _________ (A) bacillus thermolactis (B) Acidocella (C) Acetobacter (D) Gluconacetobacter

Question-31: _____ attacks glucose to produce fructose corn syrup, which is sweeter than either glucose or sucrose and is used in the production of soft drinks and in baking industry to sweeten biscuits and cakes. (A) Acidocella (B) Acetobacter (C) Gluconacetobacter (D) Glucose isomerase

Question-32: Chymosin or rennin is a protease produced by newborn ruminant animals in the lining of the fourth stomach to curdle the milk they ingest. It is widely used in the production of _____. (A) Curd (B) Cheese (C) Yoghurt (D) Butter

Question-33: Lactic acid was the first acid to be produced microbially by (A) Lactobacillus acetotolerans (B) Lactobacillus algidus (C) Lactobacillus buchneri (D) Lactobacillus delbrueckii

Question-34: __________ are plant hormones that regulate growth and various other developmental processes like stem elongation, germination, dormancy, flowering etc. (A) Abscisic acids (B) Auxins (C) Cytokinins (D) Gibberellins

Question-35: Insulin is a dimer of an A-chain and a B-chain, which are linked together by _______ bond (A) hydrogen (B) phosphodiester (C) glycosidic (D) disulphide

Question-36: On 5th July 1983, _________, an American Company, prepared two DNA sequences corresponding to chains A and B and introduced them into plasmids of E.coli to produce insulin chain – humulin (human insulin). (A) Merck (B) Abbott Laboratories (C) Pfizer (D) Eli Lilly

Question-37: Alexander Fleming, Howard Florey, and Ernst Boris Chan received Nobel Prize for discovery and development of ________ (A) Streptomycin (B) Erythromycin (C) Polymyxin (D) Penicillin

Question-38: Which of these is NOT an antibiotic. (A) Streptomycin (B) Tetracycline (C) Gentamycin (D) Riboflavin

Question-39: __________ are suspensions or killed or modified pathogenic micro-organisms; when injected into an animal, these produce immunity to a particular disease. (A) Steroids (B) Vaccines (C) Antibiotics (D) Vitamins

Question-40: Steroids are complex crystalline lipids having four cyclic hydrocarbon core, with _____ 5-carbon ring and ______ 6-carbon ring. (A) one, three (B) two, two (C) three, one (D) four, none

Question-41: PCR – Polymerase Chain Reaction can exponentially amplify a small amount of DNA to approximately billion copies. PCR is done in (A) E.coli (B) Yeast (C) Horse (D) Machine

Question-42: The temperature required for denaturation step of PCR to break hydrogen bonds and make ssDNA is ______ °C (A) 60 – 62 (B) 84 – 86 (C) 90 – 92 (D) 94 – 96

Question-43: The temperature required for annealing step of PCR is ______ °C (A) ~ 48 (B) ~ 58 (C) ~ 68 (D) ~ 78

Question-44: The temperature required for elongation step of PCR is ______ °C (A) 62 (B) 72 (C) 82 (D) 92

Question-45: Human insulin protein consists of 110 amino acids and has a molecular mass of _________ Da. (A) 2808 (B) 5808 (C) 9808 (D) 1808

Question-46: Humulin is a ______________ (A) Antiseptic (B) Steroid (C) Insulin (D) Antibiotic (like Penicillin)

Question-47: Insulin regulates sugar metabolism and insufficiency or lack of insulin leads to high blood sugar level; this disease is called __________. (A) diabetes (B) Evans syndrome (C) arthritis (D) psoriasis

Question-48: In mammals, including humans, insulin is synthesized as a pro-hormone, which contains an extra stretch called _________ (A) A-peptide (B) B-peptide (C) C-peptide (D) D-peptide

Question-49: Insulin is a hormone which is produced in the pancreas by _______ cells. (A) alpha (B) beta (C) gamma (D) sigma

Download ZoomGenetics – A Windows software to learn Genetics – for students preparing for NEET / AIIMS and other Medical Entrance Exams.

Answers to MCQ:

Ans-1: (B) Insulin Ans-2: (B) Plasmids are used as Vectors Ans-3: (C) Ans-4: (D) Red Ans-5: (C) Yellow Ans-6: (B) Blue Ans-7: (A) Green Ans-8: (D) Brown Ans-9: (A) Gold Ans-10: (B) Dark Ans-11: (C) eugenics Ans-12: (B) pharming Ans-13: (A) Plasmid Ans-14: (B) Bacteriophage Ans-15: (B) Ethidium bromide. Ans-16: (C) bright orange Ans-17: (C) Bioreactors Ans-18: (D) Downstream processes Ans-19: (C) Antibiotics Ans-20: (D) Hormones Ans-21: (C) Antibiotics Ans-22: (D) Hormones. HGH = Human growth hormone. Ans-23: (D) Vitamins. It is vitamin B2 Ans-24: (A) Steroids Ans-25: (A) Bioremediation Ans-26: (C) bacillus thuringiensis Ans-27: (A) Lepidoptera Ans-28: (B) Diptera Ans-29: (C) Coleoptera Ans-30: (C) Acetobacter Ans-31: (D) Glucose isomerase Ans-32: (B) Cheese Ans-33: (D) Lactobacillus delbrueckii Ans-34: (D) Gibberellins Ans-35: (D) disulphide Ans-36: (D) Eli Lilly Ans-37: (D) Penicillin Ans-38: (D) Riboflavin. It is a vitamin Ans-39: (B) Vaccines Ans-40: (A) one, three Ans-41: (D) Machine Ans-42: (D) 94 – 96 Ans-43: (C) ~ 68 Ans-44: (B) 72 Ans-45: (B) 5808 Ans-46: (C) Insulin Ans-47: (A) diabetes Ans-48: (C) C peptide Ans-49: (B) beta

[innovativeclassesgonda]

#innovative_classes_gonda #innovative_instagram_post #innovative_minds Bacterial infections that had been killing people previously were cured In the late 1930’s in Oxford, Howard Florey organized a research team, among them Ernst Chain, to produce a stable penicillin. After experiments in mice, the team accumulated enough stable penicillin to permit trials on people with normally fatal bacterial infections. A 43-year old police officer, Albert Alexander, became the first recipient of the Oxford penicillin on 12 February, 1941. Within 24 hours, Albert Alexander's temperature had dropped and the infection had begun to heal. But then the penicillin ran short. The team extracted penicillin from their patient’s urine to reuse it but after five days there was no more. Sadly, Albert Alexander got worse again and died in March. The stories normally have it that Albert Alexander had scratched his face on a rose bush, the wound had become infected and the infection had spread. In fact, there is no evidence for the rose thorn story according to University of OxfordInstead, there is evidence that he was injured when a bomb struck a police station and the injuries developed a life-threatening infection. However the injury was caused, he made a major contribution to the development of penicillin that have saved millions of lives. Better results followed with other patients though and soon there were plans to make penicillin available for British troops on the battlefield. Howard Florey and Ernst Chain shared the Nobel Prize with Alexander Fleming, who discovered penicillin in 1928. In his Nobel Lecture in 1945, Fleming made a warning concerning resistant microorganisms. Courtesy-Nobel Prize Facebook page (text and image both) (at Innovative Classes)

[leadgen]

Do You Have Problems with your Hot Water System Canberra?

Hot Water System Canberra can cause problems every once in awhile.

Sometimes, when you turn on the shower, it takes a while for the water to heat up. This is due to the amount of distance between the hot water system  Canberra and faucet. This may explain why when you hop into the shower, you are overcome with a cold blast of water! A solution to this is to have a small, water heater in your bathroom.

Another issue that occurs with a hot water system Adelaide is low water pressure.

Your hot water pipes are most likely clogged up with deposited minerals. This can cause you water pressure to go from a great amount of pressure with cold water, to barely any water coming out of the faucet with hot water! If you do not want this to occur, you can call a plumber Canberra to flush out your water heater yearly and clean out your pipes.

Another problem with hot water system Canberra is that the water temperature drops.

If you have several people in your home, this is a common problem. After some people take nice, hot showers, they leave you with the icy, cold water that nobody wants! We all know that that's not very fun! A solution to this issue is having your local plumber Canberra come and either install a larger water tank heater, or install a tankless water heater. This way, the entire family can enjoy nice, warm showers!

You may also wonder why your hot water system Canberra is noisy.

Well, the answer to this is that residue builds up in your hot water system  Canberra, and this may cause those loud pops and pings you hear every now and then! The residue building up in your hot water system can take up a lot of space in your tank, leaving you with a reduced water volume. If this is an issue for you, you can call your plumber Canberra to flush out and drain the tank.

Another possible trouble you may have is that your hot water system  Canberra smells.

No one wants their house filled with an unpleasant odor! You may have this problem because bacteria is entering through your pipes and is growing. Yuck! Luckily, you can call a plumber Canberra to handle this issue for you.

If you are experiencing any of these problems with your hot water system Canberra, other problems, or just want a new hot water system Canberra installed, you can call a plumber Canberra to fix them. This way, all your hot water problems will be gone!

We service many suburbs including: Plumber Latham, Plumber Lawson, Plumber MacGregor, Plumber Macquarie, Plumber McKellar, Plumber Kaleen, Plumber Holt, Plumber Higgins, Plumber Hawker, Plumber Giralang, Plumber Weetangera, Plumber Strathnairn, Plumber Spence, Plumber Scullin, Plumber Page, Plumber Melba, Plumber Hackett, Plumber Griffith, Plumber Fyshwick, Plumber Fraser, Plumber Forrest, Plumber Flynn, Plumber Florey, Plumber Evatt, Plumber Dunlop, Plumber Yarralumla, Plumber Wright, Plumber Weston, Plumber Watson, Plumber Waramanga, Plumber Wannaissa, Plumber Turner, Plumber Torrens, Plumber Theodore, Plumber Symonston, Plumber Stirling, Plumber Russel, Plumber Rivett, Plumber Richardson, Plumber Reid, Plumber Red Hill, Plumber Pialligo, Plumber Phillip, Plumber Pearce, Plumber Parkes, Plumber Palmerston, Plumber Oxley, Plumber Oaks Estate, Plumber Omalley, Plumber Oconnor, Plumber Nicholls, Plumber Ngunnawal, Plumber Narrabundah, Plumber Moncrieff, Plumber Monash, Plumber Mitchell, Plumber Mawson, Plumber Macarthur, Plumber Lyons, Plumber Lyneham, Plumber Kinlyside, Plumber Kingston, Plumber Kenny, Plumber Kambah, Plumber Jacka

Local Plumber Canberra is your local plumber Canberra specialist. If you have an issue with a blocked drain Canberra or hot water system Canberra, then you need a 24 hour plumber Canberra or an emergency plumber Canberra to service you. You might also reach out to a gas plumber Canberra to help you. It’s important that you have a Canberra plumber, Plumbing Canberra, plumbers Canberra you can trust. Drain Camera Canberra and Carbon Monoxide Testing Canberra are other service we offer to our clients. Emergency Plumbing Canberra is important to your home system. Do you have a Burst Pipe Canberra? Make sure to visit our contact page.

[cleverwordsandotherstuffilike]

What Year Was This Invented?

Adrenaline: (isolation of) John Jacob Abel, U.S., 1897.

Aerosol can: Erik Rotheim, Norway, 1926.

Air brake: George Westinghouse, U.S., 1868.

Air conditioning: Willis Carrier, U.S., 1911.

Airship: (non-rigid) Henri Giffard, France, 1852; (rigid) Ferdinand von Zeppelin, Germany, 1900.

ALS: NE1 Gene link to ALS - Landers and Jan Veldink of University Medical Center Utrecht led the study involving 11 countries, 2016

Aluminum manufacture: (by electrolytic action) Charles M. Hall, U.S., 1866.

Anatomy, human: (De fabrica corporis humani, an illustrated systematic study of the human body) Andreas Vesalius, Belgium, 1543; (comparative: parts of an organism are correlated to the functioning whole) Georges Cuvier, France, 1799–1805.

Anesthetic: (first use of anesthetic—ether—on humans) Crawford W. Long, U.S., 1842.

Antibiotics: (first demonstration of antibiotic effect) Louis Pasteur, Jules-François Joubert, France, 1887; (discovery of penicillin, first modern antibiotic) Alexander Fleming, England, 1928; (penicillin’s infection-fighting properties) Howard Florey, Ernst Chain, England, 1940.

Antiseptic: (surgery) Joseph Lister, England, 1867.

Antitoxin, diphtheria: Emil von Behring, Germany, 1890.

Appliances, electric: (fan) Schuyler Wheeler, U.S., 1882; (flatiron) Henry W. Seely, U.S., 1882; (stove) Hadaway, U.S., 1896; (washing machine) Alva Fisher, U.S., 1906.

Aqualung: Jacques-Yves Cousteau, Emile Gagnan, France, 1943.

Aspirin: Dr. Felix Hoffman, Germany, 1899.

Astronomical calculator: The Antikythera device, first century B.C., Greece. Found off island of Antikythera in 1900.

Atom: (nuclear model of) Ernest Rutherford, England, 1911.

Atomic theory: (ancient) Leucippus, Democritus, Greece, c. 500 B.C.; Lucretius, Rome c.100 B.C.; (modern) John Dalton, England, 1808.

Atomic structure: (formulated nuclear model of atom, Rutherford model) Ernest Rutherford, England, 1911; (proposed current concept of atomic structure, the Bohr model) Niels Bohr, Denmark, 1913.

Automobile: (first with internal combustion engine, 250 rpm) Karl Benz, Germany, 1885; (first with practical high-speed internal combustion engine, 900 rpm) Gottlieb Daimler, Germany, 1885; (first true automobile, not carriage with motor) René Panhard, Emile Lavassor, France, 1891; (carburetor, spray) Charles E. Duryea, U.S., 1892.

Automated Teller Machine (ATM): Long Island Branch of Chemical Bank

Autopilot: (for aircraft) Elmer A. Sperry, U.S., c.1910, first successful test, 1912, in a Curtiss flying boat.

Avogadro’s law: (equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules) Amedeo Avogadro, Italy, 1811.

Bacteria: Anton van Leeuwenhoek, The Netherlands, 1683.

Balloon, hot-air: Joseph and Jacques Montgolfier, France, 1783.

Barbed wire: (most popular) Joseph E. Glidden, U.S., 1873.

Bar codes: (computer-scanned binary signal code):

(retail trade use) Monarch Marking, U.S. 1970; (industrial use) Plessey Telecommunications, England, 1970.

Barometer: Evangelista Torricelli, Italy, 1643.

Bicycle: Karl D. von Sauerbronn, Germany, 1816; (first modern model) James Starley, England, 1884.

Big Bang theory: (the universe originated with a huge explosion) George LeMaitre, Belgium, 1927; (modified LeMaitre theory labeled “Big Bang”) George A. Gamow, U.S., 1948; (cosmic microwave background radiation discovered, confirms theory) Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson, U.S., 1965.

Blackberry, 2002

Blood, circulation of: William Harvey, England, 1628.

Boyle’s law: (relation between pressure and volume in gases) Robert Boyle, Ireland, 1662.

Braille: Louis Braille, France, 1829.

Bridges: (suspension, iron chains) James Finley, Pa., 1800; (wire suspension) Marc Seguin, Lyons, 1825; (truss) Ithiel Town, U.S., 1820.

Bullet: (conical) Claude Minié, France, 1849.

Calculating machine: (logarithms: made multiplying easier and thus calculators practical) John Napier, Scotland, 1614; (slide rule) William Oughtred, England, 1632; (digital calculator) Blaise Pascal, 1642; (multiplication machine) Gottfried Leibniz, Germany, 1671; (important 19th-century contributors to modern machine) Frank S. Baldwin, Jay R. Monroe, Dorr E. Felt, W. T. Ohdner, William Burroughs, all U.S.; (“analytical engine” design, included concepts of programming, taping) Charles Babbage, England, 1835.

Calculus: Isaac Newton, England, 1669; (differential calculus) Gottfried Leibniz, Germany, 1684.

Camera: (hand-held) George Eastman, U.S., 1888; (Polaroid Land) Edwin Land, U.S., 1948.

“Canals” of Mars:Giovanni Schiaparelli, Italy, 1877.

Carpet sweeper: Melville R. Bissell, U.S., 1876.

Car radio: William Lear, Elmer Wavering, U.S., 1929, manufactured by Galvin Manufacturing Co., “Motorola.”

Cells: (word used to describe microscopic examination of cork) Robert Hooke, England, 1665; (theory: cells are common structural and functional unit of all living organisms) Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, 1838–1839.

Cement, Portland: Joseph Aspdin, England, 1824.

Chewing gum: (spruce-based) John Curtis, U.S., 1848; (chicle-based) Thomas Adams, U.S., 1870.

Cholera bacterium: Robert Koch, Germany, 1883.

Circuit, integrated: (theoretical) G.W.A. Dummer, England, 1952; (phase-shift oscillator) Jack S. Kilby, Texas Instruments, U.S., 1959.

Classification of plants: (first modern, based on comparative study of forms) Andrea Cesalpino, Italy, 1583; (classification of plants and animals by genera and species) Carolus Linnaeus, Sweden, 1737–1753.

Clock, pendulum: Christian Huygens, The Netherlands, 1656.

Coca-Cola: John Pemberton, U.S., 1886.

Combustion: (nature of) Antoine Lavoisier, France, 1777.

Compact disk: RCA, U.S., 1972.

Computers: (first design of analytical engine) Charles Babbage, 1830s; (ENIAC, Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, first all-electronic, completed) 1945; (dedicated at University of Pennsylvania) 1946; (UNIVAC, Universal Automatic Computer, handled both numeric and alphabetic data) 1951.

Computer mouse: Doug Engelbart, 1962

Concrete: (reinforced) Joseph Monier, France, 1877.

Condensed milk: Gail Borden, U.S., 1853.

Conditioned reflex: Ivan Pavlov, Russia, c.1910.

Conservation of electric charge: (the total electric charge of the universe or any closed system is constant) Benjamin Franklin, U.S., 1751–1754.

Contagion theory: (infectious diseases caused by living agent transmitted from person to person) Girolamo Fracastoro, Italy, 1546.

Continental drift theory: (geographer who pieced together continents into a single landmass on maps) Antonio Snider-Pellegrini, France, 1858; (first proposed in lecture) Frank Taylor, U.S.; (first comprehensive detailed theory) Alfred Wegener, Germany, 1912.

Contraceptive, oral: Gregory Pincus, Min Chuch Chang, John Rock, Carl Djerassi, U.S., 1951.

Converter, Bessemer: William Kelly, U.S., 1851.

Cordless Tools, 1961

Cosmetics: Egypt, c. 4000 B.C.

Cosamic string theory: (first postulated) Thomas Kibble, 1976.

Cotton gin: Eli Whitney, U.S., 1793.

Crossbow: China, c. 300 B.C.

Cyclotron: Ernest O. Lawrence, U.S., 1931.

Deuterium: (heavy hydrogen) Harold Urey, U.S., 1931.

Disease: (chemicals in treatment of) crusaded by Philippus Paracelsus, 1527–1541; (germ theory) Louis Pasteur, France, 1862–1877.

DNA: (deoxyribonucleic acid) Friedrich Meischer, Germany, 1869; (determination of double-helical structure) Rosalind Elsie Franklin, F. H. Crick, England, James D. Watson, U.S., 1953.

Dye: (aniline, start of synthetic dye industry) William H. Perkin, England, 1856.

Dynamite: Alfred Nobel, Sweden, 1867.

Ebola Vaccine: Canadian Government, 2016

Electric cooking utensil: (first) patented by St. George Lane-Fox, England, 1874.

Electric generator (dynamo): (laboratory model) Michael Faraday, England, 1832; Joseph Henry, U.S., c.1832; (hand-driven model) Hippolyte Pixii, France, 1833; (alternating-current generator) Nikola Tesla, U.S., 1892.

Electric lamp: (arc lamp) Sir Humphrey Davy, England, 1801; (fluorescent lamp) A.E. Becquerel, France, 1867; (incandescent lamp) Sir Joseph Swann, England, Thomas A. Edison, U.S., contemporaneously, 1870s; (carbon arc street lamp) Charles F. Brush, U.S., 1879; (first widely marketed incandescent lamp) Thomas A. Edison, U.S., 1879; (mercury vapor lamp) Peter Cooper Hewitt, U.S., 1903; (neon lamp) Georges Claude, France, 1911; (tungsten filament) Irving Langmuir, U.S., 1915.

Electrocardiography: Demonstrated by Augustus Waller, 1887; (first practical device for recording activity of heart) Willem Einthoven, 1903, Dutch physiologist.

Electromagnet: William Sturgeon, England, 1823.

Electron: Sir Joseph J. Thompson, England, 1897.

Elevator, passenger: (safety device permitting use by passengers) Elisha G. Otis, U.S., 1852; (elevator utilizing safety device) 1857.

E = mc2: (equivalence of mass and energy) Albert Einstein, Switzerland, 1907.

Engine, internal combustion: No single inventor. Fundamental theory established by Sadi Carnot, France, 1824; (two-stroke) Etienne Lenoir, France, 1860; (ideal operating cycle for four-stroke) Alphonse Beau de Roche, France, 1862; (operating four-stroke) Nikolaus Otto, Germany, 1876; (diesel) Rudolf Diesel, Germany, 1892; (rotary) Felix Wankel, Germany, 1956.

Evolution: (organic) Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, France, 1809; (by natural selection) Charles Darwin, England, 1859.

Exclusion principle: (no two electrons in an atom can occupy the same energy level) Wolfgang Pauli, Germany, 1925.

Expanding universe theory: (first proposed) George LeMaitre, Belgium, 1927; (discovered first direct evidence that the universe is expanding) Edwin P. Hubble, U.S., 1929; (Hubble constant: a measure of the rate at which the universe is expanding) Edwin P. Hubble, U.S., 1929.

Falling bodies, law of: Galileo Galilei, Italy, 1590.

Fermentation: (microorganisms as cause of) Louis Pasteur, France, c.1860.

Fiber optics: Narinder Kapany, England, 1955.

Fibers, man-made: (nitrocellulose fibers treated to change flammable nitrocellulose to harmless cellulose, precursor of rayon) Sir Joseph Swann, England, 1883; (rayon) Count Hilaire de Chardonnet, France, 1889; (Celanese) Henry and Camille Dreyfuss, U.S., England, 1921; (research on polyesters and polyamides, basis for modern man-made fibers) U.S., England, Germany, 1930s; (nylon) Wallace H. Carothers, U.S., 1935.

Frozen food: Clarence Birdseye, U.S., 1924.

Gene transfer: (human) Steven Rosenberg, R. Michael Blaese, W. French Anderson, U.S., 1989.

Geometry, elements of: Euclid, Alexandria, Egypt, c. 300 B.C.; (analytic) René Descartes, France; and Pierre de Fermat, Switzerland, 1637.

Gravitation, law of: Sir Isaac Newton, England, c.1665 (published 1687).

Gunpowder: China, c.700.

Gyrocompass: Elmer A. Sperry, U.S., 1905.

Gyroscope: Léon Foucault, France, 1852.

Halley’s Comet: Edmund Halley, England, 1705.

Heart implanted in human, permanent artificial:Dr. Robert Jarvik, U.S., 1982.

Heart, temporary artificial: Willem Kolft, 1957.

Helicopter: (double rotor) Heinrich Focke, Germany, 1936; (single rotor) Igor Sikorsky, U.S., 1939.

Helium first observed on sun: Sir Joseph Lockyer, England, 1868.

Heredity, laws of: Gregor Mendel, Austria, 1865.

Holograph: Dennis Gabor, England, 1947.

Home videotape systems (VCR): (Betamax) Sony, Japan, 1975; (VHS) Matsushita, Japan, 1975.

Ice age theory: Louis Agassiz, Swiss-American, 1840.

Induction, electric: Joseph Henry, U.S., 1828.

Insulin: (first isolated) Sir Frederick G. Banting and Charles H. Best, Canada, 1921; (discovery first published) Banting and Best, 1922; (Nobel Prize awarded for purification for use in humans) John Macleod and Banting, 1923; (first synthesized), China, 1966.

Intelligence testing: Alfred Binet, Theodore Simon, France, 1905.

Interferon: Alick Isaacs, Jean Lindemann, England, Switzerland, 1957.

iPhone, 2007

iPod, 2001

Isotopes: (concept of) Frederick Soddy, England, 1912; (stable isotopes) J. J. Thompson, England, 1913; (existence demonstrated by mass spectrography) Francis W. Ashton, 1919.

Jet propulsion: (engine) Sir Frank Whittle, England, Hans von Ohain, Germany, 1936; (aircraft) Heinkel He 178, 1939.

Kinetic theory of gases: (molecules of a gas are in a state of rapid motion) Daniel Bernoulli, Switzerland, 1738.

Laser: (theoretical work on) Charles H. Townes, Arthur L. Schawlow, U.S., N. Basov, A. Prokhorov, U.S.S.R., 1958; (first working model) T. H. Maiman, U.S., 1960.

Lawn mower: Edwin Budding, John Ferrabee, England, 1830–1831.

LCD (liquid crystal display): Hoffmann-La Roche, Switzerland, 1970.

Lens, bifocal: Benjamin Franklin, U.S., c.1760.

Leyden jar: (prototype electrical condenser) Canon E. G. von Kleist of Kamin, Pomerania, 1745; independently evolved by Cunaeus and P. van Musschenbroek, University of Leyden, Holland, 1746, from where name originated.

Light, nature of: (wave theory) Christian Huygens, The Netherlands, 1678; (electromagnetic theory) James Clerk Maxwell, England, 1873.

Light, speed of: (theory that light has finite velocity) Olaus Roemer, Denmark, 1675.

Lightning rod: Benjamin Franklin, U.S., 1752.

Locomotive: (steam powered) Richard Trevithick, England, 1804; (first practical, due to multiple-fire-tube boiler) George Stephenson, England, 1829; (largest steam-powered) Union Pacific’s “Big Boy,” U.S., 1941.

Lock, cylinder: Linus Yale, U.S., 1851.

Loom: (horizontal, two-beamed) Egypt, c. 4400 B.C.; (Jacquard drawloom, pattern controlled by punch cards) Jacques de Vaucanson, France, 1745, Joseph-Marie Jacquard, 1801; (flying shuttle) John Kay, England, 1733; (power-driven loom) Edmund Cartwright, England, 1785.

Machine gun: (hand-cranked multibarrel) Richard J. Gatling, U.S., 1862; (practical single barrel, belt-fed) Hiram S. Maxim, Anglo-American, 1884.

Magnet, Earth is: William Gilbert, England, 1600.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Inventor not established, 1973

Match: (phosphorus) François Derosne, France, 1816; (friction) Charles Sauria, France, 1831; (safety) J. E. Lundstrom, Sweden, 1855.

Measles vaccine: John F. Enders, Thomas Peebles, U.S., 1953.

Metric system: revolutionary government of France, 1790–1801.

Microphone: Charles Wheatstone, England, 1827.

Microscope: (compound) Zacharias Janssen, The Netherlands, 1590; (electron) Vladimir Zworykin et al., U.S., Canada, Germany, 1932–1939.

Microwave oven: Percy Spencer, U.S., 1947.

Motion, laws of: Isaac Newton, England, 1687.

Motion pictures: Thomas A. Edison, U.S., 1893.

Motion pictures, sound: Product of various inventions. First picture with synchronized musical score: Don Juan, 1926; with spoken dialogue: The Jazz Singer, 1927; both Warner Bros.

Motor, electric: Michael Faraday, England, 1822; (alternating-current) Nikola Tesla, U.S., 1892.

Motorcycle: (motor tricycle) Edward Butler, England, 1884; (gasoline-engine motorcycle) Gottlieb Daimler, Germany, 1885.

Moving assembly line: Henry Ford, U.S., 1913.

Multiple Sclerosis genetic link: University of British Columbia, 2016

Music synthesizer: Robert Moog, 1964

Neptune: (discovery of) Johann Galle, Germany, 1846.

Neptunium: (first transuranic element, synthesis of) Edward M. McMillan, Philip H. Abelson, U.S., 1940.

Neutron: James Chadwick, England, 1932.

Neutron-induced radiation: Enrico Fermi et al., Italy, 1934.

Nitroglycerin: Ascanio Sobrero, Italy, 1846.

Nuclear fission: Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassmann, Germany, 1938.

Nuclear reactor: Enrico Fermi, Italy, et al., 1942.

Ohm’s law: (relationship between strength of electric current, electromotive force, and circuit resistance) Georg S. Ohm, Germany, 1827.

Oil well: Edwin L. Drake, U.S., 1859.

Oxygen: (isolation of) Joseph Priestley, 1774; Carl Scheele, 1773.

Ozone: Christian Schönbein, Germany, 1839.

Pacemaker: (internal) Clarence W. Lillehie, Earl Bakk, U.S., 1957.

Paper China, c.100 A.D.

Parachute: Louis S. Lenormand, France, 1783.

Pen: (fountain) Lewis E. Waterman, U.S., 1884; (ball-point, for marking on rough surfaces) John H. Loud, U.S., 1888; (ball-point, for handwriting) Lazlo Biro, Argentina, 1944.

Periodic law: (that properties of elements are functions of their atomic weights) Dmitri Mendeleev, Russia, 1869.

Periodic table: (arrangement of chemical elements based on periodic law) Dmitri Mendeleev, Russia, 1869.

Phonograph: Thomas A. Edison, U.S., 1877.

Photography: (first paper negative, first photograph, on metal) Joseph Nicéphore Niepce, France, 1816–1827; (discovery of fixative powers of hyposulfite of soda) Sir John Herschel, England, 1819; (first direct positive image on silver plate, the daguerreotype) Louis Daguerre, based on work with Niepce, France, 1839; (first paper negative from which a number of positive prints could be made) William Talbot, England, 1841. Work of these four men, taken together, forms basis for all modern photography. (First color images) Alexandre Becquerel, Claude Niepce de Saint-Victor, France, 1848–1860; (commercial color film with three emulsion layers, Kodachrome) U.S., 1935.

Photovoltaic effect: (light falling on certain materials can produce electricity) Edmund Becquerel, France, 1839.

Piano: (Hammerklavier) Bartolommeo Cristofori, Italy, 1709; (pianoforte with sustaining and damper pedals) John Broadwood, England, 1873.

Planetary motion, laws of: Johannes Kepler, Germany, 1609, 1619.

Plant respiration and photosynthesis: Jan Ingenhousz, Holland, 1779.

Plastics: (first material, nitrocellulose softened by vegetable oil, camphor, precursor to Celluloid) Alexander Parkes, England, 1855; (Celluloid, involving recognition of vital effect of camphor) John W. Hyatt, U.S., 1869; (Bakelite, first completely synthetic plastic) Leo H. Baekeland, U.S., 1910; (theoretical background of macromolecules and process of polymerization on which modern plastics industry rests) Hermann Staudinger, Germany, 1922.

Plate tectonics: Alfred Wegener, Germany, 1912–1915.

Plow, forked: Mesopotamia, before 3000 B.C.

Plutonium, synthesis of: Glenn T. Seaborg, Edwin M. McMillan, Arthur C. Wahl, Joseph W. Kennedy, U.S., 1941.

Polio, vaccine: (experimentally safe dead-virus vaccine) Jonas E. Salk, U.S., 1952; (effective large-scale field trials) 1954; (officially approved) 1955; (safe oral live-virus vaccine developed) Albert B. Sabin, U.S., 1954; (available in the U.S.) 1960.

Positron: Carl D. Anderson, U.S., 1932.

Pressure cooker: (early version) Denis Papin, France, 1679.

Printing: (block) Japan, c.700; (movable type) Korea, c.1400; Johann Gutenberg, Germany, c.1450 (lithography, offset) Aloys Senefelder, Germany, 1796; (rotary press) Richard Hoe, U.S., 1844; (linotype) Ottmar Mergenthaler, U.S., 1884.

Probability theory: René Descartes, France; and Pierre de Fermat, Switzerland, 1654.

Proton: Ernest Rutherford, England, 1919.

Prozac: (antidepressant fluoxetine) Bryan B. Malloy, Scotland, and Klaus K. Schmiegel, U.S., 1972; (released for use in U.S.) Eli Lilly & Company, 1987.

Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud, Austria, c.1904.

Pulsars: Antony Hewish and Jocelyn Bell Burnel, England, 1967.

Quantum theory: (general) Max Planck, Germany, 1900; (sub-atomic) Niels Bohr, Denmark, 1913; (quantum mechanics) Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, Germany, 1925.

Quarks: Jerome Friedman, Henry Kendall, Richard Taylor, U.S., 1967.

Quasars: Marten Schmidt, U.S., 1963.

Rabies immunization: Louis Pasteur, France, 1885.

Radar: (limited to one-mile range) Christian Hulsmeyer, Germany, 1904; (pulse modulation, used for measuring height of ionosphere) Gregory Breit, Merle Tuve, U.S., 1925; (first practical radar—radio detection and ranging) Sir Robert Watson-Watt, England, 1934–1935.

Radio: (electromagnetism, theory of) James Clerk Maxwell, England, 1873; (spark coil, generator of electromagnetic waves) Heinrich Hertz, Germany, 1886; (first practical system of wireless telegraphy) Guglielmo Marconi, Italy, 1895; (first long-distance telegraphic radio signal sent across the Atlantic) Marconi, 1901; (vacuum electron tube, basis for radio telephony) Sir John Fleming, England, 1904; (triode amplifying tube) Lee de Forest, U.S., 1906; (regenerative circuit, allowing long-distance sound reception) Edwin H. Armstrong, U.S., 1912; (frequency modulation—FM) Edwin H. Armstrong, U.S., 1933.

Radioactivity: (X-rays) Wilhelm K. Roentgen, Germany, 1895; (radioactivity of uranium) Henri Becquerel, France, 1896; (radioactive elements, radium and polonium in uranium ore) Marie Sklodowska-Curie, Pierre Curie, France, 1898; (classification of alpha and beta particle radiation) Pierre Curie, France, 1900; (gamma radiation) Paul-Ulrich Villard, France, 1900.

Radiocarbon dating, carbon-14 method: (discovered) 1947, Willard F. Libby, U.S.; (first demonstrated) U.S., 1950.

Radio signals, extraterrestrial: first known radio noise signals were received by U.S. engineer, Karl Jansky, originating from the Galactic Center, 1931.

Radio waves: (cosmic sources, led to radio astronomy) Karl Jansky, U.S., 1932.

Razor: (safety, successfully marketed) King Gillette, U.S., 1901; (electric) Jacob Schick, U.S., 1928, 1931.

Reaper: Cyrus McCormick, U.S., 1834.

Refrigerator: Alexander Twining, U.S., James Harrison, Australia, 1850; (first with a compressor device) the Domelse, Chicago, U.S., 1913.

Refrigerator ship: (first) the Frigorifique, cooling unit designed by Charles Teller, France, 1877.

Relativity: (special and general theories of) Albert Einstein, Switzerland, Germany, U.S., 1905–1953.

Revolver: Samuel Colt, U.S., 1835.

Richter scale: Charles F. Richter, U.S., 1935.

Rifle: (muzzle-loaded) Italy, Germany, c.1475; (breech-loaded) England, France, Germany, U.S., c.1866; (bolt-action) Paul von Mauser, Germany, 1889; (automatic) John Browning, U.S., 1918.

Rocket: (liquid-fueled) Robert Goddard, U.S., 1926.

Roller bearing: (wooden for cartwheel) Germany or France, c.100 B.C.

Rotation of Earth: Jean Bernard Foucault, France, 1851.

Royal Observatory, Greenwich: established in 1675 by Charles II of England; John Flamsteed first Astronomer Royal.

Rubber: (vulcanization process) Charles Goodyear, U.S., 1839.

Saccharin: Constantine Fuhlberg, Ira Remsen, U.S., 1879.

Safety pin: Walter Hunt, U.S., 1849.

Saturn, ring around: Christian Huygens, The Netherlands, 1659.

“Scotch” tape:Richard Drew, U.S., 1929.

Screw propeller: Sir Francis P. Smith, England, 1836; John Ericsson, England, worked independently of and simultaneously with Smith, 1837.

Seismograph: (first accurate) John Milne, England, 1880.

Sewing machine: Elias Howe, U.S., 1846; (continuous stitch) Isaac Singer, U.S., 1851. 

Smoke detector: Randolph Smith and Kenneth House, 1969

Solar energy: First realistic application of solar energy using parabolic solar reflector to drive caloric engine on steam boiler, John Ericsson, U.S., 1860s.

Solar system, universe: (Sun-centered universe) Nicolaus Copernicus, Warsaw, 1543; (establishment of planetary orbits as elliptical) Johannes Kepler, Germany, 1609; (infinity of universe) Giordano Bruno, Italian monk, 1584.

Spectrum: (heterogeneity of light) Sir Isaac Newton, England, 1665–1666.

Spectrum analysis: Gustav Kirchhoff, Robert Bunsen, Germany, 1859.

Spermatozoa: Anton van Leeuwenhoek, The Netherlands, 1683.

Spinning: (spinning wheel) India, introduced to Europe in Middle Ages; (Saxony wheel, continuous spinning of wool or cotton yarn) England, c.1500–1600; (spinning jenny) James Hargreaves, England, 1764; (spinning frame) Sir Richard Arkwright, England, 1769; (spinning mule, completed mechanization of spinning, permitting production of yarn to keep up with demands of modern looms) Samuel Crompton, England, 1779.

Star catalog: (first modern) Tycho Brahe, Denmark, 1572.

Steam engine: (first commercial version based on principles of French physicist Denis Papin) Thomas Savery, England, 1639; (atmospheric steam engine) Thomas Newcomen, England, 1705; (steam engine for pumping water from collieries) Savery, Newcomen, 1725; (modern condensing, double acting) James Watt, England, 1782.

Steamship: Claude de Jouffroy d’Abbans, France, 1783; James Rumsey, U.S., 1787; John Fitch, U.S., 1790. All preceded Robert Fulton, U.S., 1807, credited with launching first commercially successful steamship.

Stethoscope: René Laënnec, France, 1819.

Sulfa drugs: (parent compound, para-aminobenzenesulfanomide) Paul Gelmo, Austria, 1908; (antibacterial activity) Gerhard Domagk, Germany, 1935.

Superconductivity: (theory) Bardeen, Cooper, Scheiffer, U.S., 1957.

Symbolic logic: George Boule, 1854; (modern) Bertrand Russell, Alfred North Whitehead, England, 1910–1913.

Tank, military: Sir Ernest Swinton, England, 1914.

Tape recorder: (magnetic steel tape) Valdemar Poulsen, Denmark, 1899.

Teflon: DuPont, U.S., 1943.

Telegraph: Samuel F. B. Morse, U.S., 1837.

Telephone: Alexander Graham Bell, U.S., 1876.

Telescope: Hans Lippershey, The Netherlands, 1608; (astronomical) Galileo Galilei, Italy, 1609; (reflecting) Isaac Newton, England, 1668.

Television: (Iconoscope–T.V. camera table), Vladimir Zworkin, U.S., 1923, and also kinescope (cathode ray tube), 1928; (mechanical disk-scanning method) successfully demonstrated by J.K. Baird, England, C.F. Jenkins, U.S., 1926; (first all-electric television image), 1927, Philo T. Farnsworth, U.S; (color, mechanical disk) Baird, 1928; (color, compatible with black and white) George Valensi, France, 1938; (color, sequential rotating filter) Peter Goldmark, U.S., first introduced, 1951; (color, compatible with black and white) commercially introduced in U.S., National Television Systems Committee, 1953.

Thermodynamics: (first law: energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another) Julius von Mayer, Germany, 1842; James Joule, England, 1843; (second law: heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a warmer body) Rudolph Clausius, Germany, 1850; (third law: the entropy of ordered solids reaches zero at the absolute zero of temperature) Walter Nernst, Germany, 1918.

Thermometer: (open-column) Galileo Galilei, c.1593; (clinical) Santorio Santorio, Padua, c.1615; (mercury, also Fahrenheit scale) Gabriel D. Fahrenheit, Germany, 1714; (centigrade scale) Anders Celsius, Sweden, 1742; (absolute-temperature, or Kelvin, scale) William Thompson, Lord Kelvin, England, 1848.

Three point seat belt: Nils Bohlin, 1957

Tire, pneumatic: Robert W. Thompson, England, 1845; (bicycle tire) John B. Dunlop, Northern Ireland, 1888.

Toilet, flush: Product of Minoan civilization, Crete, c. 2000 B.C. Alleged invention by “Thomas Crapper” is untrue.

Tractor: Benjamin Holt, U.S., 1900.

Transformer, electric: William Stanley, U.S., 1885.

Transistor: John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain, William B. Shockley, U.S., 1947.

Tuberculosis bacterium: Robert Koch, Germany, 1882.

Typewriter: Christopher Sholes, Carlos Glidden, U.S., 1867.

Uncertainty principle: (that position and velocity of an object cannot both be measured exactly, at the same time) Werner Heisenberg, Germany, 1927.

Uranus: (first planet discovered in recorded history) William Herschel, England, 1781.

Vaccination: Edward Jenner, England, 1796.

Vacuum cleaner: (manually operated) Ives W. McGaffey, 1869; (electric) Hubert C. Booth, England, 1901; (upright) J. Murray Spangler, U.S., 1907.

Van Allen (radiation) Belt: (around Earth) James Van Allen, U.S., 1958.

Video disk: Philips Co., The Netherlands, 1972.

Vitamins: (hypothesis of disease deficiency) Sir F. G. Hopkins, Casimir Funk, England, 1912; (vitamin A) Elmer V. McCollum, M. Davis, U.S., 1912–1914; (vitamin B) McCollum, U.S., 1915–1916; (thiamin, B1) Casimir Funk, England, 1912; (riboflavin, B2) D. T. Smith, E. G. Hendrick, U.S., 1926; (niacin) Conrad Elvehjem, U.S., 1937; (B6) Paul Gyorgy, U.S., 1934; (vitamin C) C. A. Hoist, T. Froelich, Norway, 1912; (vitamin D) McCollum, U.S., 1922; (folic acid) Lucy Wills, England, 1933.

Voltaic pile: (forerunner of modern battery, first source of continuous electric current) Alessandro Volta, Italy, 1800.

Wallpaper: Europe, 16th and 17th century.

Wassermann test: (for syphilis) August von Wassermann, Germany, 1906.

Wheel: (cart, solid wood) Mesopotamia, c.3800–3600 B.C.

Windmill: Persia, c.600.

World Wide Web: (developed while working at CERN) Tim Berners-Lee, England, 1989; (development of Mosaic browser makes WWW available for general use) Marc Andreeson, U.S., 1993.

Xerography: Chester Carlson, U.S., 1938.

Zero: India, c.600; (absolute zero temperature, cessation of all molecular energy) William Thompson, Lord Kelvin, England, 1848.

Zipper: W. L. Judson, U.S., 1891.  

[leadgen]

Hot Water System Canberra – What type of system to install.

If there is one utility that is very important in any residence, it would be a hot water system Canberra. You might not realize it but there are different types of hot water systems that you can choose from. You can have an electric, solar or a gas-powered system. It is up to you with the help of an experienced plumber to figure out which one is best applicable to your specific case and need.

Why Do You Need Hot Water System Canberra Plumbers for Your Hot Water System Installation?

Installing these water systems is sensitive and would need our Hot water system Canberra professionals for the installation. This means that you should never attempt to do it yourself. Our Hot Water System Canberra professional plumbers have been in this job for a long period of time and they are in a better position to do what needs to be done. A water heater installed by Hot Water System Canberra experts will guarantee that you will not encounter any problems in the future. You would not want your hot water system Canberra breaking down during winter months! Just the thought of this will already compel you to seek the best professional plumbers from hot water system Canberra

Why It's Important to Receive Professional Advice from Our Hot Water System Canberra Plumbers on the Best System for Your Home?

These plumbers can give you an idea on what is best now. Just like the tank-less kind, sometimes called on demand system because the heated water comes out instantaneously - hot water as you need it. There is no need for you to store hot water in the tank - waiting for it to be used. A good reason for a on demand system is that you get the right temperature at the exact moment that you want it. You do not have to wait or be concerned that the hot water will run out while you shower or while you are bathing.

What Are Some of the Advantages of Using Our Hot Water System Canberra Plumber Experts?

One other advantage of having a professional from our hot water system Canberra plumbers install your water heating system is the professional service being rendered. Our company does not only install the device in your home. We also maintain it using the latest system technology. So, you will not have to worry finding someone who will fix or repair the system when it gets faulty. Just a call to our hot water system Canberra plumbers and your hot water equipment will be attended to promptly. If the system happens to totally breakdown, our company can also replace the unit. Our professionals are very efficient and swift in rendering the repairs because they know how important hot water is to all residents.  

Hot Water System Canberra-  Advantages of choosing an eco-friendly unit

With the concern for Mother Earth, there are different eco-friendly types of devices. What is great about this type of hot water system is the cost efficiency of the unit. You will be spending less on electricity or gas than whichever type of power you had previously installed. If you choose an eco-friendly type, you do not only benefit with your savings but you help make the environment fresher and cleaner.

Hot water system is a big necessity in every home. Despite the urgent need for this, you should never ever do the installing by yourself - unless you are a professional plumber. At hot water system Canberra, we have the solution to your plumbing needs. We are available 24 hours a day 365 days a year to service all your plumbing needs. You can contact us any time of the hour for your plumbing advice, price quotations, plumbing emergencies, hot water system repairs, blocked drains, gas leakages and we will be more than glad to provide you with our professional and efficient services.

We service many suburbs including: Plumber Latham, Plumber Lawson, Plumber MacGregor, Plumber Macquarie, Plumber McKellar, Plumber Kaleen, Plumber Holt, Plumber Higgins, Plumber Hawker, Plumber Giralang, Plumber Weetangera, Plumber Strathnairn, Plumber Spence, Plumber Scullin, Plumber Page, Plumber Melba, Plumber Hackett, Plumber Griffith, Plumber Fyshwick, Plumber Fraser, Plumber Forrest, Plumber Flynn, Plumber Florey, Plumber Evatt, Plumber Dunlop, Plumber Yarralumla, Plumber Wright, Plumber Weston, Plumber Watson, Plumber Waramanga, Plumber Wannaissa, Plumber Turner, Plumber Torrens, Plumber Theodore, Plumber Symonston, Plumber Stirling, Plumber Russel, Plumber Rivett, Plumber Richardson, Plumber Reid, Plumber Red Hill, Plumber Pialligo, Plumber Phillip, Plumber Pearce, Plumber Parkes, Plumber Palmerston, Plumber Oxley, Plumber Oaks Estate, Plumber Omalley, Plumber Oconnor, Plumber Nicholls, Plumber Ngunnawal, Plumber Narrabundah, Plumber Moncrieff, Plumber Monash

Local Plumber Canberra is your local plumber Canberra specialist. If you have an issue with a blocked drain Canberra or hot water system Canberra, then you need a 24 hour plumber Canberra or an emergency plumber Canberra to service you. You might also reach out to a gas plumber Canberra to help you. It’s important that you have a Canberra plumber, Plumbing Canberra, plumbers Canberra you can trust. Drain Camera Canberra and Carbon Monoxide Testing Canberra are other service we offer to our clients. Emergency Plumbing Canberra is important to your home system. Do you have a Burst Pipe Canberra? Make sure to visit our contact page.

[leadgen]

Plumber Canberra – Basic Plumbing Canberra advise.

We service many suburbs including: Plumber Latham, Plumber Lawson, Plumber MacGregor, Plumber Macquarie, Plumber McKellar, Plumber Kaleen, Plumber Holt, Plumber Higgins, Plumber Hawker, Plumber Giralang, Plumber Weetangera, Plumber Strathnairn, Plumber Spence, Plumber Scullin, Plumber Page, Plumber Melba, Plumber Hackett, Plumber Griffith, Plumber Fyshwick, Plumber Fraser, Plumber Forrest, Plumber Flynn, Plumber Florey, Plumber Evatt, Plumber Dunlop, Plumber Yarralumla, Plumber Wright, Plumber Weston, Plumber Watson, Plumber WaramangaLocal Plumber Canberra is your local plumber Canberra specialist. If you have an issue with a blocked drain Canberra or hot water system Canberra, then you need a 24 hour plumber Canberra or an emergency plumber Canberra to service you. You might also reach out to a gas plumber Canberra to help you. It’s important that you have a Canberra plumber, Plumbing Canberra, plumbers Canberra you can trust. Drain Camera Canberra and Carbon Monoxide Testing Canberra are other service we offer to our clients. Emergency Plumbing Canberra is important to your home system. Do you have a Burst Pipe Canberra? Make sure to visit our contact page.  If you have any plumbing problems you should consider that complications can arise at any time without further warning. Sometimes you can get lucky with an easy fix. Knowing about plumbing will make it easier and quicker to avoid or fix issues that arise. This article will help you to learn some Plumbing Canberra basics.

Plumber Canberra – How to deal with a frozen pipe

To prevent pipes in your house from freezing, avoid allowing the temperature in the house to drop below freezing. Any pipes exposed to the cold should be insulated. Of course, if it is below freezing outdoors, the pipes will be subjected to the same temperatures. The best-case scenario will be to heat the pipes and the water will start flowing again. The worse thing to happen would be that the pipes burst. If this should happen you will be stuck with costly repairs and a very messy clean-up. If not sure what to do its best to call a Plumber Canberra immediately.

If one of your water pipes freezes, turn on the tap to the faucet nearest the pipe so that the water has an exit as the pipe thaws. This helps to relieve the pressure in the pipe and may prevent bursting, which can prevent further damage to your home.

Plumber Canberra – Knowing your Plumbing Canberra Tools

You need to know your plumbing tools and exactly how to use them before you start on any plumbing repair.

Use manuals and online sites to get informed before doing a DIY plumbing project. Plan each project so that you don’t make time-consuming mistakes. Plumber Canberra – Taking care of your Plumbing Canberra drain.

Do not put grease, fat, and other oils down your drain. Oils tend to harden and clog up your drain. This usually occurs if you have a garbage disposal, as the fat will cause the blades to run slower and less efficiently. Make certain you dispose of all oils in other places other than down the sink.

Plumber Canberra – Service your Plumber Canberra drain monthly

Service your drain with baking soda. To keep things flowing smoothly through the drain of your bathtub and shower, you should feed it baking soda monthly. Pour one cup baking soda, with a cup of vinegar to chase it. Plug the drain when complete or cover it with a washcloth, as the two chemicals are going to react with each other. Allow some time to pass, and then pour down boiling hot water. This process usually opens the pipes by clearing out hair build-up and soap scum.

Plumber Canberra - How to unblock a Blocked Toilet Canberra

If your toilet happens to be blocked, and the plunger does not work, you can pour a bucket of hot water down the toilet, but be sure to pour it from a height that is waist level or above so you do not flood the bathroom. If the water falls to a lower level again, then you should repeat the procedure. If the level does not fall call a Plumber Canberra immediately.

We service many suburbs including: Plumber Latham, Plumber Lawson, Plumber MacGregor, Plumber Macquarie, Plumber McKellar, Plumber Kaleen, Plumber Holt, Plumber Higgins, Plumber Hawker, Plumber Giralang, Plumber Weetangera, Plumber Strathnairn, Plumber Spence, Plumber Scullin, Plumber Page, Plumber Melba, Plumber Hackett, Plumber Griffith, Plumber Fyshwick, Plumber Fraser, Plumber Forrest, Plumber Flynn, Plumber Florey, Plumber Evatt, Plumber Dunlop, Plumber Yarralumla, Plumber Wright, Plumber Weston, Plumber Watson, Plumber Waramanga

Local Plumber Canberra is your local plumber Canberra specialist. If you have an issue with a blocked drain Canberra or hot water system Canberra, then you need a 24 hour plumber Canberra or an emergency plumber Canberra to service you. You might also reach out to a gas plumber Canberra to help you. It’s important that you have a Canberra plumber, Plumbing Canberra, plumbers Canberra you can trust. Drain Camera Canberra and Carbon Monoxide Testing Canberra are other service we offer to our clients. Emergency Plumbing Canberra is important to your home system. Do you have a Burst Pipe Canberra? Make sure to visit our contact page.