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the-lonelyshepherd · 2 months ago

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wrote up a whole thing on salmon for my friend @wherethatoldtraingoes2 so figured i would share. keep in mind there might be inaccuracies this is all straight from my evil twisted mind

so before we get into the history of salmon farming, we gotta look at 18th century and talk about a man named robert bakewell so bakewell was an english farmer who changed the way people bred livestock by introducing selective breeding with sheep before bakewell, most farmers just let animals breed however they wanted but bakewell realized that if he picked the best animals to breed, he could create sheep that were bigger, had more meat, and better wool his methods completely changed farming and became the basis for modern animal breeding eventually, these ideas found their way to fish farming, particularly in norway, where salmon farmers took bakewell’s selective breeding techniques and applied them to salmon by controlling which fish were allowed to breed and in what conditions, norwegian farmers were able to produce salmon that grew faster and were more suited to farming environments than wild salmon it was all about efficiency—creating more fish in less time with fewer resources and in many ways they pulled it off, just like bakewell did with his sheep righr

salmon farming as we know it really started to take off in the 1970s, though the practice itself stretches back centuries, if not millennia, to indigenous peoples in the pacific northwest who had been managing salmon runs long before the arrival of european settlers!!!! but the industrial scale farming that now dominates the industry was born in norway, where the cold, clean waters and deep fjords provided the ideal environment for salmon aquaculture (yayyy)

norwegian scientists and entrepreneurs began experimenting with breeding salmon in captivity after the collapse of wild fisheries due to overfishing and pollution . the reason it worked better than the sheep is simply bc salmon reproduce so fast and have so many babies compared to like sheep or cows so the advances in efficiency happened way faster and with way more strains of salmon to choose from. rught so during the 20th century they developed methods to breed and raise salmon in ocean pens, which allowed them to mass-produce fish to meet growing demand by the 1980s, salmon farming had spread to scotland, canada, and chile (current second biggest producer i think) creating a global industry that produced millions of tons of fish every year by the 1990s, the boom had begun, and salmon farming was celebrated as a solution to the world's hunger for fish without further depleting already strained wild populations

but the expansion of salmon farms has come with a slew of environmental and social consequences the dense concentration of fish in the pens creates an ideal breeding ground for DIESEASESSSSS, parasites, and pollution …. sea lice infestations are one of the most notorious problems cause they often spread to wild salmon passing near the farms, weakening the wild fish populations that are already vulnerable due to habitat loss and climate change etc etc etc we’re overdeveloping our waterways that salmon have relied on for FOREVER. salmon farms also release vast amounts of waste into the surrounding waters like uneaten food, feces, and chemicals used to treat diseases so this can lead to eutrophication which js a process where excess nutrients in the water create algal blooms that deplete oxygen levels, harming local ecosystems and killing off marine life :(( oh and the feed used for farmed salmon often relies on wild-caught fish like anchovies and sardines, which means that farming salmon doesn't actually reduce pressure on wild fish stocks—it just shifts the burden to other species!! crazy!!!

then there's the issue of escapees in rough weather or when nets tear, so farmed salmon can escape from their pens and mingle with wild populations in places like norway and canada, these farmed fish can interbreed with wild salmon, diluting the genetic pool and making the wild fish less fit for survival cause the farmed salmon are bred to grow quickly and resist diseases, but in the wild, they can disrupt the delicate balance of local ecosystems bc they compete with native species for food and spawning grounds in some places, like chile i think. farmed salmon are an entirely non-native species, and their escape has led to the establishment of feral populations that are altering local food chains because farmed salmon are literally like a whole speetare thing at this point compared to wild salmon

then there there are human costs too cause rise of industrial salmon farming has displaced small-scale fishers and indigenous people who relied on wild salmon runs for their livelihoods in places like alaska and scotland, fishing communities that once thrived on the seasonal rhythm of wild salmon harvests now find themselves sidelined by multinational corporations that control the aquaculture industry the sheer scale of salmon farming has made it difficult for wild-caught fish to compete in the marketplace cause farmed salmon are cheaper to produce and can be sold year-round, while wild salmon are seasonal and much more expensive to catch for obvious reasons. this shift transformed the global salmon market and altered the cultural significance of the fish in many regions where salmon fishing was once a way of life,,, leaving places feeling. placeless

so rn salmon farming produces more than two-thirds of the world's salmon consumption im pretty sure BUT it remains a highly controversial industry while some see it as a necessary response to the growing global demand for protein, others view it as an unsustainable practice that is wreaking havoc on both the environment and traditional fishing communities as well as like there was some stuff about health problemss . is that good . yayy. slaamon

#shep speaks #shep talks fish #salmon

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thisvisionofmyspirit · 2 months ago

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This is the same anon who sent the ask about leather that was longer than I realized! I wanted to thank you for reading all of that and being kind about it, and I hope that it didn't seem judgmental or anything like that. Getting tone to come across correctly with just text can be difficult! Also I really hope it didn't seem like I was suggesting that you blamed poor people for pleather, or that I blame people for that either, because of course income can be a huge barrier for people when they are making purchase choices, and I didn't think that you were trying to fault individuals for that. I don't mean this to seem argumentative either, just sharing some information.

That is absolutely also true that something that happens to be free from animals doesn't automatically mean that it is safe or environmentally friendly, especially looking at something like palm oil and the harm it causes (many vegans also avoid palm oil for that reason actually), and I don't like seeing false or exaggerated claims about that either, it is just that there is also a lot of misinformation about vegan and plant-based products that frames those as bad even when it isn't backed up by evidence, and there are some people who put blame on vegans specifically for failings in those products, when, realistically, it isn't possible for anyone to live in a way that has zero impact on the world, but even though plant-based and vegan lifestyles have significantly less of an environmental impact, they still get a lot of blame for not being able to live perfectly. But I do think it is understandable that people who aren't vegan aren't going to be as exposed to as much information about vegan and plant-based products and the environmental impact of those things simply because they aren't as involved with plant-based products and the research being done.

Also, in your reply to my ask, you brought up plant milks like almond and soy, and I can't send links over ask, but there is a really good article from Our World in Data titled "Dairy vs. plant-based milk: what are the environmental impacts?" that has a chart showing the comparison of land use, greenhouse gas emissions, freshwater use, and eutrophication of different kinds of plant milks versus dairy, and it does show that dairy is shockingly worse than even the most damaging of plant milks, and like with almond milk you mentioned, it does use a concerning amount of freshwater, but the amount of water used is nearly half that of dairy, (though I do still think it is important that people try to lessen their impact even when choosing the less harmful options). That particular article also has information about deforestation in the Amazon and how the soy being grown there is largely used for animal feed for livestock animals, rather than being the soy that is most used for humans. The article includes sources for the information from reputable organizations so a person can do further research on it.

If you are interested to learn more about the environmental and human impact of leather, here are some studies that you should be able to find easily by searching for the titles :

Pollution and environmental impact of leather production

• "Leather tanning: Life cycle assessment of retanning, fatliquoring and dyeing" Website: Science Direct

• "Measuring the Environmental Footprint of Leather Processing Technologies" Website: ResearchGate

• "Treatment of leather industrial effluents by filtration and coagulation processes" Website: Science Direct

Environmental impact of raising animals to slaughter weight before they are skinned

• "Half of the world’s habitable land is used for agriculture: More than three-quarters of global agricultural land is used for livestock, despite meat and dairy making up a much smaller share of the world's protein and calories." Website: Our World in Data

• "A Global Assessment of the Water Footprint of Farm Animal Products" Website: Springer Link

• "Global greenhouse gas emissions from animal-based foods are twice those of plant-based foods" Website: Nature Journal

• "Livestock – Climate Change’s Forgotten Sector: Global Public Opinion on Meat and Dairy Consumption" Website: Chatham House

Health hazards to humans in leather tanning

• "Occupational cancers in leather tanning industries: A short review" Website: National Institutes of Health

• "Occupational health risks among the workers employed in leather tanneries at Kanpur" Website: National Institutes of Health

Health hazards to humans in slaughterhouses

• "Workers in the animal slaughtering and processing industry have higher incidence rates of injury or illness than the overall average for private industry workers" Website: United States Bureau of Labor Statistics

• "The Psychological Impact of Slaughterhouse Employment: A Systematic Literature Review" Website: National Institutes of Health

• "Respiratory Disorders Among Workers in Slaughterhouses" Website: National Institutes of Health

This really isn't to try to portray pleather as being faultless either though, only showing it in comparison to leather, but using neither or purchasing second-hand is definitely best whenever possible if a person does need something made from leather or pleather.

Thanks again for all the info and the sources! And sorry if I appeared defensive in my first reply. I didn't feel attacked in any way by your tone. The continued attack on consumers - as opposed to corporations - is a much bigger pet peeve of mine so I wanted to make sure whoever read my reply knew that I agree.

I'll definitely check these out!

#veganism #leather vs pleather

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cookie-nom-nom · 4 months ago

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The Impacts of Agricultural Practices on Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi

By popular demand (one single person) I present a semster's worth of research into the scientific uncertainty surrounding Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi as pertaining to agriculture because oh boy. is there some uncertainty. Which is a boring way of saying the world is ripe with potential and the mycology is a blossoming field of research! Yippee!

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) have potential to increase the efficiency of modern agricultural practices due to its beneficial impacts on crops. AMF are a broad category of fungi species that live in the soil and connect to the roots of plants, forming symbiotic relationships between them and other plants connected through the mycelium network. Due to their fine mycelium and ability to extract nutrients from inorganic compounds, AMF can access nitrogen and phosphorus from the soil and exchange it with for carbon compounds generated in photosynthesis by their plant hosts (Hodge and Storer 2014). This can provide crucial, often limiting nutrients to crops which otherwise deplete the nutrients in the soil with each harvest. AMF have also been found to increase plant resistance to pathogens, drought, or salinity (Cheng et al. 2023; Buysens, de Boulois, and Declerck 2014). However, the benefits of AMF to crops vary wildly, and in the wrong conditions AMF can become parasitic to their hosts (Hodge and Storer 2014). The complexity of AMF networks makes it difficult to ascertain their impacts, with variables such as available nutrients, soil conditions, or species involved in the symbiosis changing the results of studies. One component of addressing its potential use comes from examining how current farming practices impact the effectiveness of AMF for agriculture and the uncertainty obfuscating it.

Nutrients

Modern agriculture depends on ample fertilizer use to maintain yield output, which has heavy environmental costs, from excess nutrients causing eutrophication, to being carcinogenic and potentially radioactive, to the damage from mining and processing phosphate (Lubkowski 2016). One of the main advantages of AMF symbiosis is increased access to nutrients for the crop hosts, thus positioning it as a potential alternate source of nutrients. Understanding both the impact of fertilizers on AMF networks and how they compare in enriching crops is crucial when considering the potential of AMF in agriculture.

Over time, conventional fertilizers' usage greatly decreased the diversity of AMF species and their impact on crops (Oehl et al. 2004; Wang et al. 2018; Peng et al. 2023). Organic fertilizers resulted in nearly double the amount of AMF species compared to the plots using artificial fertilizers (Oehl et al. 2004). The composition of the fungal species was also different, with the species prevalent under organic farming more closely resembling those of a natural ecosystem. Furthermore, the dominant AMF species under long term, high intensity artificial fertilizer were less beneficial to crops (Peng et al. 2023). Potentially less efficient AMF species were selected for by high input farming as the crop would trade for phosphorous less readily due to the abundance from the fertilizer (Oehl et al. 2004). Less diversity in AMF resulted in decreased benefits to crops, suggesting that farming techniques that increase the diversity of AMF will be more beneficial to farmers (Oehl et al. 2004; Wang et al. 2018). However, Peng et al. found that the lower AMF diversity in fertilized fields did not cause lower crop yield, but did find increased soil stability and nutrient cycling (2023). As it was the diversity of the AMF being measured, the diverse and partially conflicting results are logical because of the different AMF species and dynamics present in each study. AMF diversity appeared to relate to multiple but inconsistent positive effects for agriculture and was clearly harmed by the use of conventional fertilizers.

Fertilizer negatively impacted the root colonization of AMF (Oehl et al. 2004; Sheng et al. 2012; Peng et al. 2023). Cultures taken from organic farming plots had a higher chance of inoculation and faster root colonization compared to traditional fertilizer use (Oehl et al. 2004). AMF species that quickly and more fully colonize roots would be highly valuable in modern agriculture, which prioritizes annual plants and thus would need to quickly renew relationships with AMF networks in order to benefit from the symbiosis. Potentially the particular species predominate under organic farming was well suited to swift colonization of the crops used. Alternatively, the diversity of the AMF species may have been the cause due to an increased chance of having a fungal species suited to the crop species. More testing is necessary to ascertain which variable has the greatest impact on root colonization.

Other indicators of fertilizer impact on AMF growth were not so clear-cut, as hyphal and spore density had conflicting responses to long-term fertilizer use. Sheng et al. posited that the limited benefits of AMF in fertilized fields could be attributed to added phosphorus causing limited hyphal growth in the top layers of soil, reducing the amount of root connections with crops (2012). However, Peng et al. found that hyphal length density increased with the addition of nitrogen and phosphorus in tandem but having neutral impact separately (2023). Potentially the negative impact Sheng et al. noted was influenced by a lack of nitrogen, but that would not fully explain the anathema results. Additionally, in two experiments fertilizer increased the spore density, potentially due to the fungi being in unfavorable conditions and consequently switching from an emphasis on hyphal growth to spores to increase their long-term survival (Sheng et al. 2012; Peng et al. 2023). In contrast, Oehl et al. found a decreased abundance of spores in fertilized fields (2004). The reason for the stark contrast in results is unclear, and could be contributed to different crop species, duration of studies, soil characteristics, or any other plethora of variables that without further study will not be elucidated.

Soil Organic Matter (OM) also influenced the relationship between AMF, fertilizer, and harvest due to influencing the amount of nutrients available to plants. The benefit of fertilizer on inoculated raspberries was significantly less pronounced in high OM environments, where the weight of berries had a negative relation to the amount of fertilizer (Chen et al. 2022). In low nutrient conditions with low OM and fertilizer usage, inoculated raspberries had small berries, potentially due to the host and fungi competing for limited nutrients. A similar trend was found with the fruit set, or percentage of flowers that produced berries. In an inoculated field with low OM, fertilizer increased the fruit set but in high OM it decreased (Chen et al. 2022). Furthermore, the highest fruit set belonged to an inoculated field with high OM and no fertilizer. Therefore, there is likely a limited range of available nutrients (whether from OM or fertilizers) wherein AMF are beneficial to crops, suggesting that future experiments concerning AMF and fertilizer must take pre-existing soil nutrients into consideration. Further testing is required to determine the optimal combination of OM and fertilizers to achieve the benefits of AMF, because as of yet the impact of nutrients on AMF networks is still not fully understood.

Crops

The AMF represent only one half of the symbiotic relationship, and so the hosts available to them greatly determine the impact of AMF. The harmful effects of annual monocultures are well established, resulting in decreased biodiversity and nutrient loss that could negatively impact AMF networks (Crews, Carton, and Olsson 2018). The prevalence of monocultures in modern agriculture raises the question of how the limited selection of hosts impacts AMF networks.

Crop diversity is clearly linked to AMF diversity. Oehl et al. suggested that the seven- year crop rotation method used in their experiment contributed to the high diversity of species, as they had more similar numbers of species in wild grasslands than is found in cropland that utilizes the same monoculture every year (2004). Intercropping systems were likewise found to sustain richer and more diverse AMF communities than monocultures (Lu 2018; Cheng et al. 2023). It is likely that the variety of the hosts provides a variety of symbiosis opportunities for differently adapted AMF species to bond with, thus increasing the AMF diversity and richness.

But as previously discussed, AMF diversity is not a clear indicator of benefit. Crop diversity may benefit AMF networks, but farmers are more interested in how that impacts crops. Intercropping results in a significant increase in yield compared to monocultures, known as over yielding. Cheng et al. found a positive correlation between intercrop yield and AMF diversity, though Wang et al. clarified that not all inoculated crop species in an intercrop system experienced an increased yield, further cementing how varied AMF-crop interactions are (2023; 2018). Lu hypothesized that the AMF nutrient transfers explained over yielding in intercropping system but due to confounding variables it was difficult to ascertain (2018). Notably, the yield benefits of intercropping were diminished in fields with high amounts of phosphorus from added fertilizer (Wang et al. 2018). Combined with the theory that less beneficial AMF were selected for in fertilized fields, the success of intercropping beneath conditions favorable to AMF suggests AMF could be a contributing factor to the over yielding phenomena found in intercropping and thus practice that support AMF are vital to intercrop systems (Oehl et al. 2004; Peng et al. 2023).

Annual crops dominate modern agriculture and thus their relationships with AMF are valuable to examine. The disruption of the soil from the tillage necessary for annual crops results in severe soil and nutrient erosion in a way that is unsustainable (Crews, Carton, and Olsson 2018). Tillage has a harmful impact on AMF due to severing the mycelium networks, so the practices associated with annual crops are already known to harm AMF communities due to severing mycelial networks and causing changes in nutrients (Peng et al. 2023; Sheng et al. 2012). Periods of bare soil between yearly annuals and destruction of weeds result in stretches of time when AMF have reduced host possibilities. Overall, the associated farming techniques used for annuals are not beneficial to AMF.

Annual crops also face the added complication of new plants having to re-establish their symbiosis with AMF. Due to the lag in benefit from AMF, short-lived plants may be less likely to invest in a symbiotic relationship with them. Perennial legumes with AMF networks had more growth than annual species, with increased nitrogen and phosphorous given to the crops (Primieri et al. 2021). It was possible the AMF reinvested in perennials over and over because they have proven to be good symbionts, whereas there was a time lag in reinvesting in a new year of annuals. Therefor agriculturalists using perennials may have even more investment in using practices that compliment AMF as they have an increased impact. However, the study’s results should be treated with caution as the perennial crop was an undomesticated crop species due to farming crops being mostly annuals and comparisons show that domesticated species can be less able to support AMF (Primieri et al. 2021). Because species react differently to AMF symbiosis, studies between annual and perennials were difficult to construct. However, combined with the associated practices of tilling and periods with decreased access to hosts, it is likely that AMF is more helpful to farmers in perennial systems. Though there is some uncertainty, the consensus of research is that perennial and diverse crops have more beneficial symbiotic relationships with AMF.

Pesticides, Herbicides, and Fungicides oh my!

Conventional farming heavily relies on utilization of hazardous chemicals to kill organisms that pose threats to crops, be they rivalrous weeds, hungry herbivores, or fungi plagues. While pesticides seek to target specific species or groups, the introduction of toxins in the environment often has unintended side effects that could be influencing mycorrhizal networks. Studies conflict greatly whether pesticides help or hinder AMF, in part thanks to the plethora of confounding variables involved.

The species involved in the system are a large factor in the effect pesticides have on AMF. Different AMF species have various methods of dealing with toxins in their environment, such as compartmentalization, producing protective molecules, and transporting pollutants (Hage-Ahmed, Rosner, and Steinkellner 2018). Therefore, the response an AMF network has to pesticides will depend on the predominant fungal strains. As AMF are in symbiosis with plants, their species are also relevant. The application of herbicides to weeds limits the number of hosts the AMF are able to rely on. However, in some studies the AMF were able to recover after a few weeks, though their ability to do so was dependent on the crop species they were partnered with (Hage-Ahmed, Rosner, and Steinkellner 2018). Other studies even found herbicides had a neutral or positive impact on AMF. Soil bacteria that associate with AMF can also vary in quantity and quality within the same field, especially species that biodegrade pesticides and influence their persistence (Hage-Ahmed, Rosner, and Steinkellner 2018). Due to AMF being symbiotic networks, the species at play, be they fungal, plant, or bacteria, can all highly influence how the system responds to pesticide disturbances.

Fungicides potentially pose a threat to AMF due to being designed to target fungi. At IC50 threshold to control a fungal pest, three fungicides had no impact on AMF except for flutolanil decreasing root colonization (Buysens, de Boulois, and Declerck 2014). Pencycuron had no effect on AMF at threshold concentrations and was contact based compared to the other tested fungicides, which were systemic and infiltrated the body of the plant (Buysens, de Boulois, and Declerck 2014; McGrath 2004). Potentially the integration of flurolanil in the host plant made it more hazardous for AMF. Alternatively, contact fungicides applied through foliar spray could be less likely to contaminate the soil (Hage-Ahmed, Rosner, and Steinkellner 2018). Azoxystrobin, like flurolanil, was a systemic fungicide but had lower systemic activity, which could be why it did not have adverse effects on AMF at the threshold level. Pencycuron and flutolanil were species specific fungicides, so the difference in impact could be attributed to increased effectiveness against a fungus similar to AMF species (Buysens, de Boulois, and Declerck 2014). At levels exceeding the threshold all three fungicides had significant negative impact on spore production, mycelium and root growth, and germination. Therefore, carefully choosing the type and quantity of fungicide is crucial to not harm beneficial fungal species.

When the pesticide is applied also greatly impacts the AMF as certain stages of its life cycle are more vulnerable to interference than others. Certain pesticides impeded germination, but multiple studies found that germination was not completely terminated, and that once the pesticide was removed germination was no longer impeded and AMF were able to establish (Buysens, de Boulois, and Declerck 2014; Hage-Ahmed, Rosner, and Steinkellner 2018). In early stages of its lifecycle, AMF had a limited time to find a host and will die if one is not found. Pesticide interference should be avoided in this stage so the AMF and crops can form symbiosis (Hage-Ahmed, Rosner, and Steinkellner 2018). Once established, AMF will be harmed if most of its plant hosts die, so non-selective herbicides can threaten them. They could depend on spores and colonized root fragments should they lack a host, however.

Pesticides vary in effectiveness based on environmental and agricultural conditions, confounding their impact on AMF. The history of the field being tested could greatly affect AMF networks. Practices like tilling and other soil disturbance made AMF colonies more vulnerable to being negatively impacted by pesticides, possibly due to not being as well established as an undisturbed network and thus less resilient. The sheer number of variables involved in studying pesticide’s impact on fungi deeply confound the results of studies.

The amount of exposure to the pesticide impacts to what degree AMF are affected, but it is highly influenced by confounding factors that make it difficult to assess its impact. Practices like tilling and other soil disturbance made AMF colonies more vulnerable to being negatively impacted by pesticides, possibly due to not being as well established as an undisturbed network and thus less resilient (Hage-Ahmed, Rosner, and Steinkellner 2018). The persistence of the pesticide depended greatly on soil condition, including type, pH, moisture, organic matter, and the ability for microflora to degrade substances, all influencing how much exposure the AMF had long-term (Hage-Ahmed, Rosner, and Steinkellner 2018). Furthermore, the type, dose, and application method of pesticide was dependent on the crop being grown, creating even more variation in AMF reaction, and thus confounding studies. In one experiment, going over the recommended dose of a pesticide could either impact the AMF negatively, positively, or not at all, but in another it reduced the effectiveness of symbiosis and the amount of phosphorus transported to the plant (Hage-Ahmed, Rosner, and Steinkellner 2018). Due to the variety of conditions impacting AMF exposure to pesticides, it was difficult to gauge their impact on AMF, and uncertainty in this aspect of studying agricultural AMF held great uncertainty.

Conclusions

The intense networks of factors involved in agriculture systems mean measuring the impact of farming techniques on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi is difficult. Given the variety of the fungal species involved in AMF networks, it may not be fully possible to have fully accurate generalizations about the impact of farming. With each system of unique combinations of hosts, fungi, and other soil microbiota comes new dynamics to be studied. This is further compounded by soil conditions, nutrient availability, tilling, and potentially many other variables not discussed in this paper. Uncertainty is rampant in this area, particularly as the usefulness of AMF have been discovered only relatively recently. The most evident example is in the realm of pesticides, where the intensity of the variability of results obfuscates broader patterns. However, there is growing evidence that many conventional farming practices such as fertilizers, monocultures, and annuals are damaging to AMF colonies and potentially diminish the benefits they can offer crops. If farming is to become sustainable while still providing enough food for the growing human population, healthier farming practices must be utilized. Though there is uncertainty, there is also great potential once we understand the factors influencing successful AMF symbiosis.

Bibliography

Buysens, Catherine, Hervé Dupré De Boulois, and Stéphane Declerck. 2014. “Do Fungicides Used to Control Rhizoctonia Solani Impact the Non-Target Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungus Rhizophagus Irregularis?” https://doi.org/10.1007/s00572-014-0610-7.

Chen, Ke ID, Jeroen Scheper, Thijs P M Fijen, and David Kleijn. 2022. “Potential Tradeoffs between Effects of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Inoculation, Soil Organic Matter Content and Fertilizer Application in Raspberry Production.” https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269751.

Cheng, Yunlong, Xing Xu, Yang Zhang, Xudong Gu, Haohie Nie, and Lin Zhu. 2023. “Intercropping of Echinochloa frumentacea with Leguminous Forages Improves Hay Yields, Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Diversity, and Soil Enzyme Activities in Saline–Alkali Soil.” Agronomy 2356: 1-13. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13092356.

Crews, Timothy E., Wim Carton, and Lennart Olsson. “Is the Future of Agriculture Perennial? Imperatives and Opportunities to Reinvent Agriculture by Shifting from Annual Monocultures to Perennial Polycultures.” Global Sustainability 1 (2018): e11. https://doi.org/10.1017/sus.2018.11.

Hage-Ahmed, Karin, Kathrin Rosner, and Siegrid Steinkellner. 2018. “Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Their Response to Pesticides.” Pest Management Science 75 (3): 583–90. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.5220.

Hodge, Angela, and Kate Storer. 2014. “Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Nitrogen: Implications for Individual Plants through to Ecosystems.” Plant and Soil 386 (1-2): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-014-2162-1.

Lu, Xingli. 2022. “Effect of Intercropping Soybean on the Diversity of the Rhizosphere Soil Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Communities in Wheat Fields.” Clean – Soil, Air, Water 2100014: 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1002/clen.202100014.

Lubkowski, Krzysztof. 2016. “Environmental Impact of Fertilizer Use and Slow Release of Mineral Nutrients as a Response to This Challenge.” Polish Journal of Chemical Technology 18 (1): 72– 79. https://doi.org/10.1515/pjct-2016-0012.

McGrath. 2004. “What Are Fungicides.” What Are Fungicides. https://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/disimpactmngmnt/topc/Pages/Fungicides.aspx.

Oehl, Fritz, Ewald Sieverding, Paul Mäder, David Dubois, Kurt Ineichen, Thomas Boller, and Andres Wiemken. 2004. “Impact of Long-Term Conventional and Organic Farming on the Diversity of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi.” Oecologia 138 (4): 574–83. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40005539.

Peng, Zhenling, Nancy Collins Johnson, Jan Jansa, Jiayao Han, Zhou Fang, Yali Zhang, Shengjing Jiang, et al. 2023. “Mycorrhizal Effects on Crop Yield and Soil Ecosystem Functions in a Long- Term Tillage and Fertilization Experiment.” New Phytologist 2023: 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.19493.

Primieri, Silmar, Susan M Magnoli, Thomas Koffel, Sidney L Stürmer, St ̈ Stürmer, James D Bever, and W K Kellogg. 2022. “Perennial, but Not Annual Legumes Synergistically Benefit from Infection with Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Rhizobia: A Meta-Analysis.” New Phytologist 233: 505–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.17787.

Sheng, Min, Roger Lalande, Chantal Hamel and Noura Ziadi. 2013. “Effect of long-term tillage and mineral phosphorus fertilization on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in a humid continental zone of Eastern Canada.” Plant and Soil 369 (1-2): 599-614. http://dx.doi.org.webster.austincollege.edu/10.1007/s11104-013-1585-4.

Wang, Guangzhou, Chengcheng Ye, Junling Zhang, Liz Koziol, James D Bever, and Xiaolin Li. 2018. “Asymmetric Facilitation Induced by Inoculation with Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Leads to Overyielding in Maize/Faba Bean Intercropping.” Journal of Plant Interactions 14 (1): 10-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/17429145.2018.1550218.

#amf #fungi #Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi #science #agriculture #is it okay if i put cottagecore as a joke bc i mean mushrooms farming its basically cottagecore lmao #sustainability #something to nom on #environmental science #environmentalism

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boycritter · 1 year ago

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before high levels of nutrients enter my body and i begin the process of eutrophication who wants to admit they have a crush on me

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rgenvs3000f23 · 1 year ago

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Blog 5

Hey! This week we were asked to write whatever was on our minds (presumably still related to nature interpretation).

This semester I’m in the process of completing an independent research project on aquatic plants, so needless to say they’ve been on my mind quite a bit recently. I thought my some of my experiences with the project and things I’ve learned so far fit in well with this class. There are two topics I wanted to write about today, the first being aquatic ecosystems in general, and the second being science communication and some thoughts on the readings for this week. The project I’m working on focuses on freshwater macrophytes. Macrophytes are aquatic plants that function as carbon sinks and important sources of oxygen, in addition to providing food and habitats to a variety of species (Bornette & Puijalon, 2011). I’m looking at their physiology, and determining how abiotic environmental parameters contribute to their survival and success. Specifically, my project focuses on pH (how acidic or basic the water is), and how aquatic plants respond to changes in water pH. The pH of freshwater systems is affected by climate change, in ways that are less predictable than marine systems (Hasler et al. 2016). If the pH of a lake changes to a level that its macrophytes can’t handle as well, they are at much greater risk of being outcompeted by photosynthetic algae (Sayer et al. 2010). This contributes to algal blooms, an issue that’s become quite prevalent recently. So, having a greater understanding of aquatic plants can assist with preventing algal blooms, as well as restoring damaged freshwater ecosystems. Reviews have found that most research on aquatic plants focuses on marine ecosystems, and very little research is done on freshwater ecosystems (Hasler et al. 2016). In my own (very non-qualitative) analysis from watching nature documentaries, it definitely seems like there’s a much greater focus on marine environments. While there is certainly more water in oceans than anywhere else, I think it’s important not to forget about freshwater ecosystems. So many of us, especially in Canada, get to enjoy being surrounded by so many beautiful lakes and rivers. It can definitely be easy to take them for granted. The readings for this week focused on interpreting nature through science, which is something I’ve been learning a lot about while working on my project. Currently, I’m in the process of learning how to communicate something I care about in a way that’s accessible to a variety of audiences. Part of the course is writing papers on the topic, as well as giving presentations. It’s made me realize how easy it can be in the sciences to get excited about a relatively niche topic (ex: freshwater botany) and essentially start speaking in a language that few people are going to understand. And if someone can’t understand a topic, they’re probably a lot less likely to care about it. So, it’s made me think about how important communicating science is when it comes to nature interpretation, as well as conservation.

References: Bornette, G. & Puijalon, S. (2011). Response of aquatic plants to abiotic factors: a review. Aquat Sci, 73, 1–14.

Hasler, C.T., Butman, D., Jeffrey, J.D. & Suski, C.D. (2016). Freshwater biota and rising pCO 2 ? Ecol Lett, 19, 98–108.

Sayer, C.D., Burgess, A., Kari, K., Davidson, T.A., Peglar, S., Yang, H., et al. (2010). Long-term dynamics of submerged macrophytes and algae in a small and shallow, eutrophic lake: implications for the stability of macrophyte-dominance. Freshwater Biology, 55, 565–583.

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nunuisancenewt · 1 year ago

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Kooky proposal:

The largest crop by area of land in Europe is wheat, which produces 4 million calories per acres a year,

Before wheat was introduced ( convenient, grows quickly unlike trees), Europeans mainly ate and grew hazelnuts( in a sort of food forest type poly culture system alongside smaller plants of course ) , 15,000-6,000 years ago

Hazelnuts provide 5 million calories per acre

I would expect a modern Europe fed by Hazelnuts to be more environmentally friendly, in terms of using less land for food, less soil erosion/eutrophication ( annuals are horrible for this) , hazelnut orchards are a “ natural” environment by the holocene start date I usually default towards, one european species coexisted with for millennia,

Will this ever happen? No, is there a ton of other lower hanging fruit of improving plant based agriculture? Yes, are the flaws of plant based agriculture nothing next to the moral atrocity of livestock farming? Yes, I just think this is neat to think about

While we are at it, I am going to express my frustrations with The Land Institute, who are working to create high yielding perennial versions of common oil and grain crops, amazing and important work, but aren’t using genetic modification for it which of course makes the whole process slower:(,

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cookie-nom-nom · 5 months ago

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thanks for the @, this man is a legend. I'd like to get into a little more explaining, though I'm by no means a soil ecologist and am doing cursory research. First of all the change in A profile is INSANE. That's the topsoil, where most of the organic decomposed stuff is. Also where most nutrients are, and so you want a good layer for farming since your crops grow better. Soil formation is extremely slow, so the sheer amount gained is impressive, especially when taken to account how much soil is usually eroded by conventional farming practice. Pretty bad given you need soil to grow stuff in.

Thing is, lots of farming practices disturb soil hella bad, like the tilling that is mentioned Dave avoided. Tilling very deliberately stirs up/loosens the soil such as through plows, which can destroy weeds and make it easier to plant. But tilling also causes problems like disturbing helpful organisms in the soil, like earth worms and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (...well amf oscillate in usefulness but I like them so dangit they get a mention!). And it makes erosion far easier because the soil is less compact and wind and rain can move it better. That soil causes problems both by no longer being on the farm, and often ending up in places its not supposed to be like rivers or blowing across the country like in the infamous Dust Bowl. Who knew breathing in dirt constantly is bad for literally everyone!

Fertilizer. Oh man. So, fertilizer causes a couple of problems. It also solved a lot of them in full transparency! There were massive concerns about how to feed the growing population, and fertilizer was a huge part in that. There are substantial consequences though. 1, you got to get those nutrients from somewhere, such as mining phosphorous and potassium, or mixing air nitrogen with hydrogen from natural gas. I don't have time to get into the ramifications of mining on the environment, but trust there's lots of them. 2. Lots of those fertilizers are washed away into rivers, lakes, etc which then inject excess nutrients that cause problems that kickstarts a process leading to fish and aquatic life dying due to lack of oxygen (eutrophication). So Dave cutting down on fertilizer usage helps the environment, but not necessarily his crop yield. Which he offset using cover crops (grown between the main crops, prevent bare ground (erosion) and can make it harder for weeds to grow). Peas are a legume, which have the ability to intake nitrogen from the air and store it, which adds nitrogen to the soil. I see evidence for peas as good for getting that nitrogen need (here). That source also suggests radishes work, though another source contradicts that. Anyway crop cover is hella important, and it's driving me a little crazy that my current job doesn't utilize it but well that's a confounding variable when trying to take data so we all make sacrifices in the name of science. Alas.

Multiple species have different nutrient requirements, and so by using a mixture of crops they can compete less. Niche partitioning lets gooo. It's like how I won't touch my roommate's blueberries, but since he's full on berries he only nibbles at my spaghetti whereas a second Nom in the house would mean WAR. Less bloodshed since we need different nutrient imput. More complete use of the nutrients in the soil mean they need less fertilizer imputs, plus the nutrients cover crops like the nitrogen fixing peas are adding to the soil. Dave used very little fertilizer without sacrificing yield much, which is a sign of very sustainable farming.

Fungicides and insecticides cause so so so many problems. Like you're introducing poison into the equation, and they don't ever affect only the pest a farmer is trying to get rid off. They tend to have health consequences for humans and ecosystems. The famous case of course being DDT, an insecticide that accumulated in fat and would travel up the foodchain when a contaminated animal was eaten, increasing in concentration and doing things like killing off eagles and songbirds. Also potentially doing things like leading to the endangerment of honey bees, generally being carcinagens, etc etc. Dave switching to using no fungicides and insecticides doubtlessly was very difficult, given pest control is a nightmare and jeopardizes yield. There are other methods of pest control however: things like using predators to the pest, having a variety of crops (see: monocultures are horrible), mechanical control, etc.

I know absolutely nothing about neonicotinoids and seed treatment, and so won't comment to avoid potential misinformation. Most of this has been my background knowledge supplemented with cursory research to confirm and offer jumping off points for further research if anyone cares to.

His cash crop yields have been increasing by an average of 5% annually for the past 5-6 years, with far less fertilizer and no fungicides, insecticides or seed treatment

^^highlighting because it's absolutely INSANE. Proof that more environmentally friendly approaches are beneficial. Wish this discussed more the economics of this, since if he's getting a 5% increase in yield but it takes 10% more money input it may still be infeasible for most people. As thin of a margin as many farmers operate on, more intensive and expensive methods may not always be possible, or too risky. I'm not here to demonize anyone who isn't employing these environmentally conscious agricultural practices, of course, since as it often is the real enemy is capitalism. I'm of the firm belief that anything that benefits the environment benefits humans in the long run, but as is the current system incentivizes profit now consequences later. Hard to change the machine when you're just trying not to get crushed. Which makes Dave's commitment all the more impressive despite the rigidity trap of the agricultural system being self propagating as it asks greater and greater inputs to maintain the human population.

It's honest work, and it means so, so much that he did it.

#tho hm shinigami eyes marks disgruntled-etc-etc as transphobic oops anyway #hats off to the Dirt Man (my fav prof)#environmentalism #agriculture #farming #environment #something to nom on

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suchi05 · 2 days ago

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The Importance of Proper Waste Water Management 2023

The availability of water is limited, and the demand for it is increasing day by day. With growing population and rapid industrialization, the problem of water scarcity is becoming more severe. In such a scenario, proper wastewater management has become crucial to ensure the sustainability of water resources.

Wastewater management is the process of treating and managing wastewater to minimize its impact on the environment and human health. The process involves the collection, treatment, and disposal of wastewater from households, industries, and other sources. Wastewater treatment involves physical, chemical, and biological processes that remove harmful contaminants from the water.

Importance of Wastewater Management Protecting Human Health: Proper wastewater management is essential to protect human health. Wastewater contains harmful pathogens and pollutants that can cause waterborne diseases. Treating wastewater before it is discharged into the environment can prevent the spread of diseases.

Protecting the Environment: Wastewater contains harmful pollutants that can have a negative impact on the environment. Discharging untreated wastewater into water bodies can cause eutrophication, which leads to the growth of harmful algae and can cause the death of aquatic life. Wastewater treatment ensures that the harmful pollutants are removed before the water is discharged into the environment, protecting the environment from the negative impact of wastewater.

Conserving Water Resources: Proper wastewater management can help to conserve water resources. Wastewater can be treated and reused for various purposes such as irrigation, industrial processes, and even drinking water. This reduces the demand for freshwater resources and ensures that water is used efficiently.

Cost-Effective: Wastewater management can be cost-effective in the long run. Proper wastewater management can prevent the need for expensive water treatment facilities and reduce the cost of treating waterborne diseases. By treating wastewater and reusing it, industries and municipalities can save money on water bills.

Compliance: Proper wastewater management is essential to comply with environmental regulations. Discharging untreated wastewater into water bodies is illegal and can lead to heavy fines and penalties. By implementing a proper wastewater management system, industries and municipalities can ensure compliance with environmental regulations.

Water Audit and Water Conservation Audit A water audit is a comprehensive assessment of water usage in a building, facility, or process. The purpose of a water audit is to identify opportunities for water conservation and to reduce water usage. A water audit typically involves the following steps:

Identify water sources and usage: The first step in a water audit is to identify all the water sources and how the water is being used. This includes water usage in toilets, showers, sinks, and other fixtures, as well as water usage in industrial processes.

Water metering: Water metering involves measuring the amount of water used in a building, facility, or process. Water meters can help to identify areas where water usage can be reduced.

Leak detection: Leak detection involves identifying and repairing leaks in pipes, fixtures, and other water systems. Leaks can result in significant water loss and increase water bills.

Water efficiency measures: Water efficiency measures involve implementing measures to reduce water usage. This can include installing low-flow fixtures, using water-efficient appliances, and implementing water recycling and rainwater harvesting systems.

A water conservation audit is a specialized type of water audit that focuses on identifying opportunities for water conservation. A water conservation audit typically involves the following steps:

Water usage analysis: The first step in a water conservation audit is to analyze water usage data to identify areas where water usage can be reduced.

Water efficiency measures: Water efficiency measures involve implementing measures to reduce water usage. This can include installing low-flow fixtures, using water-efficient appliances

Read more: https://zenithenergy.com/the-importance-of-proper-waste-water-management-2023/

#renewable energy careers #green energy water #wind water solar energy systems #Water Conservation #Rooftop Solar installation services #net zero energy technology #net zero energy solutions #Installing Solar Panels on the Roof #renewable energy corporation

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thefertilizermachine · 5 days ago

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Green food is always inseparable from the processing of organic fertilizer equipment

The importance of organic fertilizer equipment in green food production is reflected in the following aspects:

1. Improve soil quality: Organic fertilizer produced by organic fertilizer equipment can increase and renew soil organic matter, promote microbial reproduction, and improve soil physical and chemical properties and biological activity.

2. Improve the quality of agricultural products: Agricultural products using organic fertilizers have higher nutritional value, better taste and longer shelf life to meet the needs of modern consumers for a healthy diet.

3. Promote ecological balance: The use of organic fertilizer helps to reduce the use of chemical fertilizers, reduce soil hardening, water eutrophication and other problems, and protect the ecological environment.

4. Reduce environmental pollution: The production and application of organic fertilizers reduce soil compaction, acidification and other problems caused by chemical fertilizers, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

5. Promote the development of green agriculture: Organic fertilizer is an important part of green agricultural development and helps to improve the sustainability of agriculture.

6. Improve agricultural competitiveness: The application of organic fertilizer production lines improves the market competitiveness of agricultural products, and the premium brought by green food certification incentivized family farms to adopt new technologies and increase their income.

7. Ensure the quality and safety of agricultural products: organic fertilizer produced by organic fertilizer equipment helps to improve the quality of agricultural products and ensure the dietary safety of consumers.

8. Promote agricultural scientific and technological innovation: The development of organic fertilizer equipment has promoted agricultural scientific and technological innovation and promoted the transformation of agricultural production methods.

In summary, organic fertilizer equipment plays an important role in green food production, not only improving the quality and yield of agricultural products, but also helping to achieve sustainable development of agriculture.

#organic fertilizer equipment #organic fertilizer production line

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jungkookandyugyeomwhores · 5 days ago

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How Lake Dredge Can Improve Water Quality and Biodiversity?

Lake dredging improves water quality and biodiversity by removing accumulated sediments, debris, and pollutants that degrade aquatic ecosystems. This process restores water flow, reduces nutrient buildup that causes algae blooms and enhances oxygen levels, creating a healthier habitat for aquatic life. By deepening and cleaning the lakebed, dredging supports diverse flora and fauna, improves water clarity, and ensures sustainable ecological balance, benefiting both the environment and surrounding communities.

Understanding the Role of Lake Dredge in Water Quality Improvement

Lake dredging involves the removal of sediment and debris from the lake floor, which can accumulate over time due to natural processes or human activities. These sediments often contain pollutants like heavy metals, nutrients, and toxins that degrade water quality. By using a Lake dredge to remove these materials, the water becomes cleaner, reducing contaminants that can lead to algal blooms, poor oxygen levels, and harmful bacteria. Cleaner water ensures that the ecosystem within the lake, including aquatic life, remains healthy and vibrant.

Reducing Nutrient Pollution through Lake Dredge

Excess nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, often enter lakes through runoff from agricultural lands, urban areas, and wastewater. These nutrients contribute to eutrophication, a process that depletes oxygen levels and harms aquatic life. A lake dredge helps by removing the nutrient-rich sediments that can act as a reservoir for these pollutants. By addressing nutrient pollution at the source, dredging not only improves water quality but also prevents long-term damage to the ecosystem, ensuring that water remains clear and oxygen-rich for aquatic species.

Improving Oxygen Levels with Lake Dredge

Sediment buildup in lakes can lead to the depletion of oxygen, particularly in the lower layers of water. This lack of oxygen can result in "dead zones," where aquatic life cannot survive. By using a lake dredge to remove accumulated organic matter from the lakebed, oxygen levels are increased throughout the water column. As a result, fish and other aquatic organisms thrive in an oxygen-rich environment, contributing to a more balanced and sustainable ecosystem.

Enhancing Biodiversity Through Lake Dredge

Biodiversity in lakes is often compromised by the accumulation of pollutants and excessive sediments that can disrupt natural habitats. A lake dredge helps restore these habitats by removing harmful substances and providing a cleaner, more stable environment for a diverse range of species. Dredging can revitalize areas where plants, fish, and other organisms had previously struggled due to poor water quality. As a result, the overall biodiversity of the lake improves, benefiting both aquatic and surrounding terrestrial ecosystems.

Lake Dredge and the Restoration of Fish Populations

One of the most significant benefits of lake dredging is the restoration of fish habitats. Polluted sediments and nutrient imbalances can cause fish populations to decline, either by depleting oxygen levels or by creating toxic conditions. By removing these pollutants with a lake dredge, fish can return to previously damaged areas, where they can find better breeding grounds and access to food. This restoration of fish populations has far-reaching effects on the ecosystem, as it supports a balanced food chain and improves overall ecological health.

Mitigating Algal Blooms with Lake Dredge

Algal blooms are a common issue in lakes that have been subjected to excessive nutrient loading. These blooms can deplete oxygen levels, block sunlight from reaching aquatic plants, and release toxins that harm aquatic organisms and animals. A lake dredge helps to mitigate algal blooms by removing the nutrient-rich sediments that serve as a breeding ground for algae. By addressing the root cause of the blooms, dredging not only improves water clarity but also helps restore a healthy balance of aquatic life.

Promoting Cleaner, Safer Recreational Areas with Lake Dredge

Recreational activities such as swimming, fishing, and boating depend on clean, safe water. Accumulated sediments, pollutants, and excess nutrients can make water bodies unsafe for human use. A lake dredge helps to enhance the safety and attractiveness of these areas by improving water quality and reducing health risks associated with polluted lakes. Dredging ensures that lakes remain a safe and enjoyable environment for both residents and visitors, supporting tourism and local economies.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the use of a lake dredge offers significant benefits for water quality and biodiversity. By removing harmful pollutants, improving oxygen levels, restoring fish habitats, and mitigating algal blooms, dredging plays a pivotal role in ensuring the health of lake ecosystems. As a result, it supports the overall well-being of aquatic organisms, enhances recreational opportunities, and promotes biodiversity. Lake dredging is a long-term solution that fosters a balanced and thriving aquatic environment, benefiting both nature and the communities that rely on these water resources.

#lake dredge

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