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kathasworld · 3 years ago

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Folklore expresses a culture – and translation builds the bridge between different cultures.

Kali of Kolkata – Chitreswari

november 7, 2018 by kathamukh

This story is based on history. The early 20th century author Jogendranath cites reference from Calcutta Review, volume III of 1845. I had to rewrite while presenting it for English-speaking readers of 21st century.

I was walking through Chitpur Road. Renamed as Rabindra Sarani, it was given a chance to associate itself with the Nobel-laureate Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore. True, that the palatial ancestral home of Tagores is located by this road; but while renaming, did anyone ask the road whether it wanted to forget its colonial past or even the notorious Kali temple located here? – A sudden though crept in my mind. If not, why commoners in the locality still love to call this Chitpur Road, why do we still see nameplates before many old buildings here displaying the address as Chitpore Road? Local belief says that long before the road was made for motorized vehicles it derived its own name from the terrifying Chitreswari – form of goddess Kali, who once offered boon to devotees in exchange of human blood.

This is one road of much significance in old Kolkata. This crowded road was constructed later for trams and other vehicles by the British ruler, at a time when they developed Calcutta as a city to be suitable as the capital of India. India became one of their prestigious colonies from the very beginning of their coming here.

That day while walking, I heard the road telling me something whispering:

-“Do you know, I did not always look like this?”

-“You mean you looked different before?

-“Yes.”

-“How did you look previously then?”

-“That is your task to find out.”

The road went silent making me speechless. Only the vehicles kept on moving on it making noise as usual.

I knew what Chitpur Road told me was true. Probably it was trying to encourage me to tell the story of its past.

Long before the Battle of Plassey, the Dutch, Portuguese and British were engaged in trading in Eastern part of India. Current West Bengal became the centre of their activities. They conducted mainly import and export business from the business houses – locally known as Kuthi which they had built in cities and towns. The country was being ruled by Islamic rulers – Mughals were still in control from their throne in Delhi, though their power started decreasing and influence shrinking. The Nawabi throne in Subeh Bengal was seeing disputes – Aliwardi Khan became the ruler defeating the competitor Sarafraj. Anarchy overtook law and order in this area.

During that chaotic period, none could imagine Kolkata to emerge as an enormous city like today’s. Only three small villages, Sutanuti, Kolikata and Govindapur were human-habitats surrounded by forests and canals. Near Chitpur canal, one route starting from the bank of river Bhagirathi connected Sutanuti, Burrabazar, Kolikata, Govindapur and Chowringhee through its serpentine course before ending near the temple of Kalighat at the bank of Adiganga, an older course of Ganga. British settlers named it Pilgrim Road. This had no resemblance to the asphalt road we know these days. If we could go back few hundred years from now, we would find dense forests adjacent to Chitpur. Large Sundari and other varieties of trees lined up besides cane forest, long bushes, narrow and wide canals, water bodies, marshland and bamboo forests surrounding that narrow muddy track. These bushes and forests were inhabited by dacoits and slaughterers and burglars. Also the famous Royal Bengal tigers, wild boars and different venomous and non-venomous snakes were others inhabitants of this region. Tidal waves also created knee-deep muddy patches on the track in this low lying area. Our story evolved in that area called Calcutta by the European traders.

Kolkata in 17th\ early18th century

There were two old Kali temples in northern and southern end of this area. The one in the north was for Chitreswari Devi in Chitpur inside the forest on the bank of Bhagirathi. Legends tell that the dacoit-leader Chitreshwar established this Goddess and named her after own name – announcing own notoriety reflected by the Goddesses’ look. His Goddess Chitreswari looked as ferocious as Vargbhima of Tamluk, Kali of Kalighat or Yashoreswari worshipped by Pratapaditya. People believed that Chitreswar gained his power from some secret Tantric practice. He set out for his looting action leading own team every time after performing a special Puja in this temple. The indispensable offering of the Puja was human sacrifice. After the sacrifice, he asked for the Goddess’s blessings placing red hibiscus and other flowers and leaves from wood-apple trees (considered sacred leaves) at the idol’s feet. That offering’s staying on her feet for some time was considered to be the sign of her consent to their future heinous activities.

This temple is now far from the river that changed its course in the meantime. The other Goddess in the south end of the area was Kali in Kalighat. Pilgrims used to walk down to Kalighat through the long pilgrim’s road forming a large group after visiting the Goddess Chitreswari. Walking alone almost ensured death by tigers, snakes or dacoits on the way. Dacoits used to throw the dead bodies of pilgrims in the dense forests or canals after looting them. Killing the victims was part of looting process those days.

Chitreswar terrorized not only these three villages, but all the localities on the banks of the river. Local people called this De facto ruler of this area Chite dakat.

He used to lead a large gang of almost 500 people including thyangare – looters who killed before looting, stick fighters, sword-fighters, archers etc. Numerous pirates operating in this area used to work under him. His dominance was extended over neighbouring districts like Howrah, Hoogly, Nadia and Bardwan which fell within 200 kilometer radius from Calcutta.

The gang included people from different communities from different regions – some from Bihar, some from Odisha, some were Gypsies and some Mohammedan. They were so well organised that catching hold of them became difficult for the administrators. Whenever they anticipated the threat of being caught, they fled to some remote village in Chandernagore, Hoogly or Burdwan – making all the efforts to catch them futile.

Chite dakat was extraordinarily desperate who seldom left his own forest fortress. He used to perform Puja in his own temple reciting own chants. None had an idea what exactly the chants were.

The defiant Chite looted the merchandise ships of East India Company between Kolkata and Murshidabad. Govindapur was, in fact famous as business hub of cotton and cotton yarn. Ships loaded with cotton yarn were frequently attacked by his gang. They invariably killed the sailors after looking the cargo. Another group controlled by him was into looting small cargo boats carrying salt from Hijli using same Modus operandi. River transport was the main option for carrying goods those days. Ships and boats en route between Kolkata, Murshidabad and Dhaka were being looted so often that not only common people, also traders had to be extremely cautious while travelling. The gang of Chite earned infamy for being even more ferocious than Portuguese pirates.

At some point of time, East India Company realized the necessity of finding a solution for this. Chite became irresistible also as burglar invading wealthy people’s mansions. The Brobdingnagian size of his gang and the inaccessibility of his abode in the dense forest was main obstacle for Company.

Chakrapani Datta, a commander of Bengal Nawab’s army had ancestral home in Chitpur. The Kayastha* nobleman was gallant fighter. He stayed either in Gaud or Murshidabad, capital of Bengal at that time. Once he came to visit Chitreswari temple along with his family members. The dacoits dared attacking this wealthy administrator’s group too. Chakrapani Datta, like all other influential aristocrat, travelled well-armed. Also the local villagers came forward to help his family. Chitreswar could not succeed. But the Nawab’s commander took an oath to demolish the dacoit gang after this incident. He began consulting with officials of Bengal Nawab and East India Company regarding this.

Chitpore Nabaratna Kali temple in 1798 – destroyed in natural disaster.

It was the new moon night of a Saturday – the auspicious day for traditional criminals. The dacoit’s team met in the temple’s courtyard.

The auspicious time for worshipers was in the middle of the night. The night was silent; not even the trees in forest dared to break the silence it seemed. Only the sound of some wild tigers roaring somewhere far from there was announcing the existence of life in the earth. The Puja was being performed by two priests – one Tantrik and the other – Chitreswar himself. They collected all necessary materials for this Tantric form of worship – only the human body was left. The ferocious long haired Goddess, standing on the corpse, wearing human skulls and holding sacrificial axe seemed to be waiting for human blood. Where to find the human offering? The Tantrik priest smeared in red sandal paste continued muttering prayers while counting the conch-shell garland.

A young handsome Brahmin was walking alone towards Kalighat at that time. He missed the group of pilgrims he was supposed to come along. The dacoits hunting for a man did not miss the chance of catching him. He was brought before the Idol. The wild idol in the violent ambiance frightened the young man. He requested them – “Don’t kill me, I am a Brahmin* – only child of my widowed mother.”

The barbarous gang-leader yelled at him – “The Goddess calls you. You have nothing to be scared!” Gang members dragged the man towards the sacrificial post. The Brahmin found no other way but to scream for help as loud as possible and forcibly making himself free. Fortunately, he was strong enough to push those brutal yet drunk dacoits. Calling for help he began running towards the Pilgrim’s road. The gang chased him, but failed to catch him. Another large group of pilgrims was coming towards the temple following the same route. This group went to Kalighat at first and then started for Chitreswari temple. They lost their way in the dense forest and found the it again late in the evening. The prey was miraculously rescued.

Chitreswari’s puja was disrupted that night. Even the offering was missed. Did this frighten Chitreshwar?

Chitreswar was preparing for the Puja once again after the Brahmin youth ran away. Other gang members were guarding the place. All on a sudden, the combined force of the Nawab and Company attacked them. They surrounded the temple from all corners of the forest, making it impossible for the dacoits to flee. The leader too tried to, but could not succeed. He was convicted and sentenced to death to law of those days. People believed catching him was possible because he could not complete the ritual of human sacrifice that night. A properly completed Puja of the Goddess Chitreswari would keep him irresistible as ever.

The temple and Goddess were abandoned for sometime after Chitreswar was caught. People started worshipping her again at a later point of time. From the same clan emerged Raghu Dakat – another infamous dacoit who operated after a few decades.

(illustrations from Wikimedia commons)

* Kayastha – Hindu upper caste – was mainly engaged in administrative and legal jobs at royal courts in Pre-British Bengal.

*Here we see conflicting religious practices in the name of Hindu rituals. Brahmin, as a caste was on the one hand considered to be of higher quality and that’s why killing a person of Brahmin origin was considered to be a sin as per puranic tradition. People believed that a killer of Brahmin would be sent some treacherous hell after his death. On contrary, young Brahmin male, preferably a handsome one without any scar or defect in the body was considered to be best sacrificial offer to God according to Tantrik tradition.

tagged folktales, hindu goddess, kali, legends, west bengal

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and-then-there-were-n0ne · 5 years ago

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Capitalism played a decisive role not only in the rise of modern science, but also in the emergence of European imperialism. And it was European imperialism that created the capitalist credit system in the first place. Of course, credit was not invented in modern Europe. It existed in almost all agricultural societies, and in the early modern period the emergence of European capitalism was closely linked to economic developments in Asia. Remember, too, that until the late eighteenth century, Asia was the world’s economic powerhouse, meaning that Europeans had far less capital at their disposal than the Chinese, Muslims or Indians.

However, in the sociopolitical systems of China, India and the Muslim world, credit played only a secondary role. Merchants and bankers in the markets of Istanbul, Isfahan, Delhi and Beijing may have thought along capitalist lines, but the kings and generals in the palaces and forts tended to despise merchants and mercantile thinking. Most non-European empires of the early modern era were established by great conquerors such as Nurhaci and Nader Shah, or by bureaucratic and military elites as in the Qing and Ottoman empires. Financing wars through taxes and plunder (without making fine distinctions between the two), they owed little to credit systems, and they cared even less about the interests of bankers and investors.

In Europe, on the other hand, kings and generals gradually adopted the mercantile way of thinking, until merchants and bankers became the ruling elite. The European conquest of the world was increasingly financed through credit rather than taxes, and was increasingly directed by capitalists whose main ambition was to receive maximum returns on their investments. The empires built by bankers and merchants in frock coats and top hats defeated the empires built by kings and noblemen in gold clothes and shining armour. The mercantile empires were simply much shrewder in financing their conquests. Nobody wants to pay taxes, but everyone is happy to invest.

In 1484 Christopher Columbus approached the king of Portugal with the proposal that he finance a fleet that would sail westward to find a new trade route to East Asia. Such explorations were a very risky and costly business. A lot of money was needed in order to build ships, buy supplies, and pay sailors and soldiers – and there was no guarantee that the investment would yield a return. The king of Portugal declined.

Like a present-day start-up entrepreneur, Columbus did not give up. He pitched his idea to other potential investors in Italy, France, England, and again in Portugal. Each time he was rejected. He then tried his luck with Ferdinand and Isabella, rulers of newly united Spain. He took on some experienced lobbyists, and with their help he managed to convince Queen Isabella to invest. As every school-child knows, Isabella hit the jackpot. Columbus’ discoveries enabled the Spaniards to conquer America, where they established gold and silver mines as well as sugar and tobacco plantations that enriched the Spanish kings, bankers and merchants beyond their wildest dreams.

A hundred years later, princes and bankers were willing to extend far more credit to Columbus’ successors, and they had more capital at their disposal, thanks to the treasures reaped from America. Equally important, princes and bankers had far more trust in the potential of exploration, and were more willing to part with their money. This was the magic circle of imperial capitalism: credit financed new discoveries; discoveries led to colonies; colonies provided profits; profits built trust; and trust translated into more credit. Nurhaci and Nader Shah ran out of fuel after a few thousand kilometres. Capitalist entrepreneurs only increased their financial momentum from conquest to conquest.

But these expeditions remained chancy affairs, so credit markets nevertheless remained quite cautious. Many expeditions returned to Europe empty-handed, having discovered nothing of value. The English, for instance, wasted a lot of capital in fruitless attempts to discover a north-western passage to Asia through the Arctic. Many other expeditions didn’t return at all. Ships hit icebergs, foundered in tropical storms, or fell victim to pirates.

In order to increase the number of potential investors and reduce the risk they incurred, Europeans turned to limited liability joint-stock companies. Instead of a single investor betting all his money on a single rickety ship, the joint-stock company collected money from a large number of investors, each risking only a small portion of his capital. The risks were thereby curtailed, but no cap was placed on the profits. Even a small investment in the right ship could turn you into a millionaire.

Decade by decade, western Europe witnessed the development of a sophisticated financial system that could raise large amounts of credit on short notice and put it at the disposal of private entrepreneurs and governments. This system could finance explorations and conquests far more efficiently than any kingdom or empire. The new-found power of credit can be seen in the bitter struggle between Spain and the Netherlands.

In the sixteenth century, Spain was the most powerful state in Europe, holding sway over a vast global empire. It ruled much of Europe, huge chunks of North and South America, the Philippine Islands, and a string of bases along the coasts of Africa and Asia. Every year, fleets heavy with American and Asian treasures returned to the ports of Seville and Cadiz. The Netherlands was a small and windy swamp, devoid of natural resources, a small corner of the king of Spain’s dominions.

In 1568 the Dutch, who were mainly Protestant, revolted against their Catholic Spanish overlord. At first the rebels seemed to play the role of Don Quixote, courageously tilting at invincible windmills. Yet within eighty years the Dutch had not only secured their independence from Spain, but had managed to replace the Spaniards and their Portuguese allies as masters of the ocean highways, build a global Dutch empire, and become the richest state in Europe.

The secret of Dutch success was credit. The Dutch burghers, who had little taste for combat on land, hired mercenary armies to fight the Spanish for them. The Dutch themselves meanwhile took to the sea in ever-larger fleets. Mercenary armies and cannon-brandishing fleets cost a fortune, but the Dutch were able to finance their military expeditions more easily than the mighty Spanish Empire because they secured the trust of the burgeoning European financial system at a time when the Spanish king was carelessly eroding its trust in him. Financiers extended the Dutch enough credit to set up armies and fleets, and these armies and fleets gave the Dutch control of world trade routes, which in turn yielded handsome profits. The profits allowed the Dutch to repay the loans, which strengthened the trust of the financiers. Amsterdam was fast becoming not only one of the most important ports of Europe, but also the continent’s financial Mecca.

How exactly did the Dutch win the trust of the financial system? Firstly, they were sticklers about repaying their loans on time and in full, making the extension of credit less risky for lenders. Secondly, their country’s judicial system enjoyed independence and protected private rights – in particular private property rights. Capital trickles away from dictatorial states that fail to defend private individuals and their property. Instead, it flows into states upholding the rule of law and private property.

Imagine that you are the son of a solid family of German financiers. Your father sees an opportunity to expand the business by opening branches in major European cities. He sends you to Amsterdam and your younger brother to Madrid, giving you each 10,000 gold coins to invest. Your brother lends his start-up capital at interest to the king of Spain, who needs it to raise an army to fight the king of France. You decide to lend yours to a Dutch merchant, who wants to invest in scrubland on the southern end of a desolate island called Manhattan, certain that property values there will skyrocket as the Hudson River turns into a major trade artery. Both loans are to be repaid within a year.

The year passes. The Dutch merchant sells the land he’s bought at a handsome markup and repays your money with the interest he promised. Your father is pleased. But your little brother in Madrid is getting nervous. The war with France ended well for the king of Spain, but he has now embroiled himself in a conflict with the Turks. He needs every penny to finance the new war, and thinks this is far more important than repaying old debts. Your brother sends letters to the palace and asks friends with connections at court to intercede, but to no avail. Not only has your brother not earned the promised interest – he’s lost the principal. Your father is not pleased.

Now, to make matters worse, the king sends a treasury official to your brother to tell him, in no uncertain terms, that he expects to receive another loan of the same size, forthwith. Your brother has no money to lend. He writes home to Dad, trying to persuade him that this time the king will come through. The paterfamilias has a soft spot for his youngest, and agrees with a heavy heart. Another 10,000 gold coins disappear into the Spanish treasury, never to be seen again. Meanwhile in Amsterdam, things are looking bright. You make more and more loans to enterprising Dutch merchants, who repay them promptly and in full. But your luck does not hold indefinitely. One of your usual clients has a hunch that wooden clogs are going to be the next fashion craze in Paris, and asks you for a loan to set up a footwear emporium in the French capital. You lend him the money, but unfortunately the clogs don’t catch on with the French ladies, and the disgruntled merchant refuses to repay the loan.

Your father is furious, and tells both of you it is time to unleash the lawyers. Your brother files suit in Madrid against the Spanish monarch, while you file suit in Amsterdam against the erstwhile wooden-shoe wizard. In Spain, the law courts are subservient to the king – the judges serve at his pleasure and fear punishment if they do not do his will. In the Netherlands, the courts are a separate branch of government, not dependent on the country’s burghers and princes. The court in Madrid throws out your brother’s suit, while the court in Amsterdam finds in your favour and puts a lien on the clog-merchant’s assets to force him to pay up. Your father has learned his lesson. Better to do business with merchants than with kings, and better to do it in Holland than in Madrid.

And your brother’s travails are not over. The king of Spain desperately needs more money to pay his army. He’s sure that your father has cash to spare. So he brings trumped-up treason charges against your brother. If he doesn’t come up with 20,000 gold coins forthwith, he’ll get cast into a dungeon and rot there until he dies.

Your father has had enough. He pays the ransom for his beloved son, but swears never to do business in Spain again. He closes his Madrid branch and relocates your brother to Rotterdam. Two branches in Holland now look like a really good idea. He hears that even Spanish capitalists are smuggling their fortunes out of their country. They, too, realise that if they want to keep their money and use it to gain more wealth, they are better off investing it where the rule of law prevails and where private property is respected – in the Netherlands, for example.

In such ways did the king of Spain squander the trust of investors at the same time that Dutch merchants gained their confidence. And it was the Dutch merchants – not the Dutch state – who built the Dutch Empire. The king of Spain kept on trying to finance and maintain his conquests by raising unpopular taxes from a disgruntled populace. The Dutch merchants financed conquest by getting loans, and increasingly also by selling shares in their companies that entitled their holders to receive a portion of the company’s profits. Cautious investors who would never have given their money to the king of Spain, and who would have thought twice before extending credit to the Dutch government, happily invested fortunes in the Dutch joint-stock companies that were the mainstay of the new empire.

If you thought a company was going to make a big profit but it had already sold all its shares, you could buy some from people who owned them, probably for a higher price than they originally paid. If you bought shares and later discovered that the company was in dire straits, you could try to unload your stock for a lower price. The resulting trade in company shares led to the establishment in most major European cities of stock exchanges, places where the shares of companies were traded.

The most famous Dutch joint-stock company, the Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or VOC for short, was chartered in 1602, just as the Dutch were throwing off Spanish rule and the boom of Spanish artillery could still be heard not far from Amsterdam’s ramparts. VOC used the money it raised from selling shares to build ships, send them to Asia, and bring back Chinese, Indian and Indonesian goods. It also financed military actions taken by company ships against competitors and pirates. Eventually VOC money financed the conquest of Indonesia.

Indonesia is the world’s biggest archipelago. Its thousands upon thousands of islands were ruled in the early seventeenth century by hundreds of kingdoms, principalities, sultanates and tribes. When VOC merchants first arrived in Indonesia in 1603, their aims were strictly commercial. However, in order to secure their commercial interests and maximise the profits of the shareholders, VOC merchants began to fight against local potentates who charged inflated tariffs, as well as against European competitors. VOC armed its merchant ships with cannons; it recruited European, Japanese, Indian and Indonesian mercenaries; and it built forts and conducted full-scale battles and sieges. This enterprise may sound a little strange to us, but in the early modern age it was common for private companies to hire not only soldiers, but also generals and admirals, cannons and ships, and even entire off-the-shelf armies. The international community took this for granted and didn’t raise an eyebrow when a private company established an empire.

Island after island fell to VOC mercenaries and a large part of Indonesia became a VOC colony. VOC ruled Indonesia for close to 200 years. Only in 1800 did the Dutch state assume control of Indonesia, making it a Dutch national colony for the following 150 years. Today some people warn that twenty-first-century corporations are accumulating too much power. Early modern history shows just how far that can go if businesses are allowed to pursue their self-interest unchecked.

While VOC operated in the Indian Ocean, the Dutch West Indies Company, or WIC, plied the Atlantic. In order to control trade on the important Hudson River, WIC built a settlement called New Amsterdam on an island at the river’s mouth. The colony was threatened by Native-Americans and repeatedly attacked by the British, who eventually captured it in 1664. The British changed its name to New York. The remains of the wall built by WIC to defend its colony against Native-Americans and British are today paved over by the world’s most famous street – Wall Street.

As the seventeenth century wound to an end, complacency and costly continental wars caused the Dutch to lose not only New York, but also their place as Europe’s financial and imperial engine. The vacancy was hotly contested by France and Britain. At first France seemed to be in a far stronger position. It was bigger than Britain, richer, more populous, and it possessed a larger and more experienced army. Yet Britain managed to win the trust of the financial system whereas France proved itself unworthy. The behaviour of the French crown was particularly notorious during what was called the Mississippi Bubble, the largest financial crisis of eighteenth-century Europe. That story also begins with an empire-building joint-stock company.

In 1717 the Mississippi Company, chartered in France, set out to colonise the lower Mississippi valley, establishing the city of New Orleans in the process. To finance its ambitious plans, the company, which had good connections at the court of King Louis XV, sold shares on the Paris stock exchange. John Law, the company’s director, was also the governor of the central bank of France. Furthermore, the king had appointed him controller-general of finances, an office roughly equivalent to that of a modern finance minister. In 1717 the lower Mississippi valley offered few attractions besides swamps and alligators, yet the Mississippi Company spread tales of fabulous riches and boundless opportunities. French aristocrats, businessmen and the stolid members of the urban bourgeoisie fell for these fantasies, and Mississippi share prices skyrocketed. Initially, shares were offered at 500 livres apiece. On 1 August 1719, shares traded at 2,750 livres. By 30 August, they were worth 4,100 livres, and on 4 September, they reached 5,000 livres. On 2 December the price of a Mississippi share crossed the threshold of 10,000 livres. Euphoria swept the streets of Paris. People sold all their possessions and took huge loans in order to buy Mississippi shares. Everybody believed they’d discovered the easy way to riches.

A few days later, the panic began. Some speculators realised that the share prices were totally unrealistic and unsustainable. They figured that they had better sell while stock prices were at their peak. As the supply of shares available rose, their price declined. When other investors saw the price going down, they also wanted to get out quick. The stock price plummeted further, setting off an avalanche. In order to stabilise prices, the central bank of France – at the direction of its governor, John Law – bought up Mississippi shares, but it could not do so for ever. Eventually it ran out of money. When this happened, the controller-general of finances, the same John Law, authorised the printing of more money in order to buy additional shares. This placed the entire French financial system inside the bubble. And not even this financial wizardry could save the day. The price of Mississippi shares dropped from 10,000 livres back to 1,000 livres, and then collapsed completely, and the shares lost every sou of their worth. By now, the central bank and the royal treasury owned a huge amount of worthless stock and had no money. The big speculators emerged largely unscathed – they had sold in time. Small investors lost everything, and many committed suicide.

The Mississippi Bubble was one of history’s most spectacular financial crashes. The royal French financial system never recuperated fully from the blow. The way in which the Mississippi Company used its political clout to manipulate share prices and fuel the buying frenzy caused the public to lose faith in the French banking system and in the financial wisdom of the French king. Louis XV found it more and more difficult to raise credit. This became one of the chief reasons that the overseas French Empire fell into British hands. While the British could borrow money easily and at low-interest rates, France had difficulties securing loans, and had to pay high interest on them. In order to finance his growing debts, the king of France borrowed more and more money at higher and higher interest rates. Eventually, in the 1780s, Louis XVI, who had ascended to the throne on his grandfather’s death, realised that half his annual budget was tied to servicing the interest on his loans, and that he was heading towards bankruptcy. Reluctantly, in 1789, Louis XVI convened the Estates General, the French parliament that had not met for a century and a half, in order to find a solution to the crisis. Thus began the French Revolution.

While the French overseas empire was crumbling, the British Empire was expanding rapidly. Like the Dutch Empire before it, the British Empire was established and run largely by private joint-stock companies based in the London stock exchange. The first English settlements in North America were established in the early seventeenth century by joint-stock companies such as the London Company, the Plymouth Company, the Dorchester Company and the Massachusetts Company.

The Indian subcontinent too was conquered not by the British state, but by the mercenary army of the British East India Company. This company outperformed even the VOC. From its headquarters in Leadenhall Street, London, it ruled a mighty Indian empire for about a century, maintaining a huge military force of up to 350,000 soldiers, considerably outnumbering the armed forces of the British monarchy. Only in 1858 did the British crown nationalize India along with the company’s private army. Napoleon made fun of the British, calling them a nation of shopkeepers. Yet these shopkeepers defeated Napoleon himself, and their empire was the largest the world has ever seen.

- Yuval Noah Harari, Columbus Searches for an Investor in Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind

#yuval noah harari #columbus searches for an investor #sapiens #sapiens: a brief history of humankind #capitalism

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hellowordpar · 4 years ago

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delshlangcnsl · 5 years ago

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Delsh offers the world’s most accurate localization services to the global clients that are also the fastest in speed. We're interpreters, analyzers and voice craftsmen specializing in video game localization. We'll ensure your computer game makes the progress it merits in different societies.

To make progress with a Video game in other languages, you don't simply need to translate the contents, you need to experience a comprehensive limitation process, comprising of adjusting the item so it's genuinely acknowledged in another nation with an alternate culture. That is the reason our particular interpreters are local speakers living in the objective nation. That way we can be certain they know all the social shows important to limit a computer game.

The most commonly requested languages are from English to the FIGS languages (French, Italian, German and Spanish). As a multilingual video game localization company in Delhi, India, we work with multiple languages using English as a bridge language into Castilian Spanish, Spanish, British English, German, French, Canadian, Italian, Portuguese or Brazilian Portuguese, Mandarin or Cantonese, Japanese, Korean, Dutch, Russian, Arabic and many more!

Why choose Delsh for your Game Localization Services?

These are 5 reasons why you should choose us for all your game localization needs:

Native-language/Bilingual translators - Reliable translation services; we have a team of native-language translators having native level proficiency to provide 100% accurate translations.

We have a team of passionate gaming professionals with a knack of localizing games - With a productive team of gaming professionals, we provide you with unique and best quality of localized materials.

Always On time - We always try to keep ahead of schedule and deliver our completed task on time with full efficiency and accuracy.

Competitive prices - We create value for money projects based on client needs without any compromise on quality.

100% satisfaction guaranteed - The game market has become global and the demand for game localization service is increasing gradually.

We offer localization and translation services for different languages. For free quote write us about the languages and describe your task and needs at [email protected].

#Game Localization Services #Game Localization Services in India #Game Localization Services in Delhi #Game Localization #Game Localization Company in India #Game Localization Company in Delhi

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annatfentonn-blog · 6 years ago

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What Is The Diploma Certificate Translation Service? And Why Is It Needed?

To get a diploma from a renowned institution is mainly the first step towards creating a new and bright career. These certificates work as evidence of your qualifications and specializations. This, in turn, assists you to apply for future studies or for a job. But, these certificates (in your native language) may not satisfy your purpose, unless and until they are converted into the target language. All the officials working in the institution or organization may not know the language of the certificates. Thus, in order to make things smoother, translation is essential.

The Need for Diploma Certificate Translation

Through translation, you’ll get access to a number of advantages that will assist you at present and in the near future as well. If you are wishing to settle abroad, either temporarily or permanently, you may require an effective translation of your academic degrees to –

Apply for a job

Show it as proof of your age, identity, and other purposes

Apply for further studies

So, talking in simple words, converting certificates in the target language is your ultimate need, if you are planning to visit a foreign nation for any specific reason. The certificate language should match with that spoken in a foreign country, so as to facilitate effective communication with the concerned authorities.

Types of Diploma Certificates it Translates

The Quick Diploma Certificate Translation Services in Delhi supported by a talented and skilled team of translators who are completely experienced in converting all types of degrees and diplomas in a number of different language combinations and file formats. Some of them are mentioned below: Bachelor of science, Law Degrees and Diplomas, Diploma in Archives and keeping, master of Fine arts, garment technology diploma, and so on.

The USP of the translation is quality, because of which they have been successful in creating a renowned name in the translation field. So, if you are finding for quality translation solutions, then it is true to say that the company is the ideal destination, where you can be supervised with getting accurate translations within time and budget.

Render Diploma Certificate Translation in the Following Languages

Besides the quality factor, language is taken as the biggest plus point. Hence, the service renderer commits complete language support to you, as far as translation is taken. They have the potential and skill to convert your certificates in as many languages as you want. Like-Assamese, Bengali, Konkani, Telugu, English, French, Spanish, Dutch, Bodo, Oriya, Hindi, and many others.

Also Read : What Benefits Does The Marriage Certificate Translation Give To The People?

#translation #tips #Business #online marketing #TranslationTips #benefits #resources #need

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wordparinternational · 4 years ago

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Voiceover Services at WordPar

What is Voiceover

Voice over refers to the background narration provided by a voice talent to explain what is going on on screen. Stand-alone voiceovers for podcasts and audiobooks and radio broadcasts do not have an accompanying video. Word Par International is among the Best voice over companies in Bangalore and offer a wide range of voice over services, some of which are defined and explained below.

Kinds of Voice over

Voiceovers have various forms that can be grouped in different ways.

Educational and Corporate Presentations

Voiceovers are used in describing the visuals and concepts in documentaries. These are of different kinds. These could be scientific subjects, wild-life films, issues of sociological interest.

Similarly, voiceover is required in e-learning modules. The visuals on-screen require a narration by a “teacher” who introduces and explains concepts. Animations and on-screen text and visuals are accompanied by voice narration. Power point presentations for training and teaching also require voice narration to go along with the visuals.

E-learning localization includes not only voiceover services but also integration and synchronisation of on-screen display and animation. More information about the role of voiceover in e-learning localization can be found at https://www.wordpar.com/e-learning-localization/.

Film and Entertainment

Some films too have narrations, and some require a different voice for the actor. Voiceovers will narrate the background and connection between scenes, time lapses or as per the requirement of the scripts. The hub of Bollywood’s production engages many voiceover artistes in different languages. We help you find the right artiste to provide the best voice over services in Mumbai and Pune. We can also provide professional voice talents in the USA and Europe too, in order to meet the diverse linguistic requirements for voiceover in Hollywood and the entertainment industry in general.

Kinds of Voices and Voice Talents

There are all kinds of professional voices to suit the various demands of the accompanying visuals (or not). Animated films require cartoon voices. Children’s roles require kids’ voices. Documentaries ask for formal and professional voice talents, both male and female. Audio plays may call for teenaged and young adult voices, while podcasts may require vibrant, casual, energetic voices. For an eclectic group of best voice over talents, we provide suitable solutions. For more information about our talent pool, voice-styles and other details, visit our page https://www.wordpar.com/voiceover/.

Voiceover for All Languages under One Roof

Furthermore, voice talents may be required not just in English but in various European languages such as German, French, Italian, Spanish, Danish, Dutch, Swedish, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Czech, Hungarian and Romanian voice overs. Name the language and the artistes are available at WordPar International.

The best Indian Languages Translator voice over artistes are available at Word Par all under one roof. Asian languages such as Chinese voice over, Vietnamese, Malaysian, Indonesian are made available to you, be it voiceover service in Hyderabad or excellent voice talents in Delhi. Location is not a limitation and our network of voice over artistes provides you the best voice overs in every location.

Finding a Reliable Voiceover Partner

With the diverse array of voiceover types and the multitude of voiceover languages in each category, it’s challenging to find all possible combinations. WordPar International offers voiceover for all mainstream languages with variance in gender and age, all under one single roof.

Depending on the requirement of language, gender, age and style, we provide our clients a few voice samples to choose from. Clients get a wide range for selection to match the professional requirement. We select and present from among the best voice over talents to keep up our quality and save our clients their time. More information about our voiceover project management can be read here: https://www.wordpar.com/voice-over-and-voice-narration/.

Our voice over artistes have professional studios, latest software and adequate equipment to provide the most professional voice overs, and to make us among the most leading voice over service providers in India.

#Voiceover company In Bangalore #Voiceover services In Hyderabad #Voiceover artists In Pune & Mumbai #E-learning Localization USA

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anshintertradeindia-blog · 8 years ago

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delshlangcnsl · 5 years ago

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Professional Translation Services at Delsh Business Consultancy in Delhi

Translation of languages is one of the basic requirements in any zone today. Delsh Business Consultancy offers the world’s most accurate translation services to the global clients that are also the fastest in speed. Often, it is seen that the companies fail to render quality and precision in translation due to pricing rates, in making haste for the project delivery. We commit to deliver the world’s fastest translation services with complete surety of quality in it. Being a reputed translation services provider, we follow a well-organized translation procedure, so that the translations are delivered well within the specified time frame. Also, this streamlined process ensures that we offer the highest degree of quality and accurateness within the translation project.

At Delsh, A certified translator is an individual who is verified by the government to carry out conversion of documents. Certified translation is not always necessitated but it is compulsory when the translation is about legal documents. Legal language is sensitive and understanding them appropriately will allow lesser errors. So it is important to utilize an ensured office as it is suggested that the change of records requires a powerful order over language, it is difficult to discover and confirm such a specialist or an organization.

We at Delsh have best of native language translators who are capable of translating the documents to any language required.

· German

· Spanish

· Chinese

· Japanese

· Arabic

· French

· Russian

· Korean

· Hindi

· Italian

· Turkish

· Portuguese

· Gujarati

· Punjabi

· Tamil

· Polish

· Vietnamese

· Dutch

· Thai

· Bengali

· Kannada

· Persian

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· Greek

· Mandarin

· Hebrew

· Finnish

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· English

What is Legal Translation Services at Delsh

The legal official enlisted people master, legitimate interpreters that take every necessary step of deciphering the report who are ensured in regard to the Indian Notaries Act. The change is a very fragile work. The people doing it are broad with the legitimate original copy and they guarantee that the change doesn't re-examine the elucidation of the report, such slip-ups could have implications. This could be required for legal executive causes or for verification or apostille causes too.

A few of the legal documents that we render service for are listed below:

· Power of Attorney

· Court documentation

· Patent and trademark filings

· Affidavits

· Contract

· Court documentation and few others

Delsh not only translate language Delsh transform your business in the world of words.

Technical Translation Services in Delhi

· Tender Documents

· Technical brochures

· CAD Drawings

· User Guides

· Software and Hardware UI

· Patents and so on

Medical Translation Services in Delhi

· Patient Information

· Medical Prescriptions

· Patient Diagnosis Sheets/Reports

· Handwritten Medical Information

· Clinical Protocols and trial agreements

· Discharge Summary and many others

Academic Translation Services in Delhi

· Exam Results

· Academic Thesis

· Resumes & CVs

· Syllabus translation

· Presentations Translations (Hard copies / PPT)

· Reports (Project, Dissertation) and few more

Business Translation Services in Delhi

· Business document

· Business plans

· Annual Reports

· Employment contracts

· Agreements and Contracts

· Insurance and others

Literary Translation Services in Delhi

· Lyrics

· Poems

· Songs

· Blogs

· Brochures

· Script,etc

Financial Translation Services in Delhi

· Financial Models

· Balance Sheets

· Financial Reports

· Insight Documents

· Bank Statements

· Insurance and few others

The best translation services at Delsh Business Consultancy are reasonable and are performed by the experts. To get to know the best translation price, reach out to our executives at [email protected].

#Business Translation Services in Delhi #Translation Services in Delhi #Translation Services in India #Translation Company in Delhi #Translation Company in India #Translation Agency in Delhi #Translation Agency in India #Translation Agency #Translation Firm in Delhi

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