#Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation

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Grace Hopper (1906-1992)

Una medida exacta vale más que la opinión de mil expertos.

Nació como Grace Brewster Murray. Fue una de las pioneras en el desarrollo de la computadora electrónica. Fue su madre quien le heredó la pasión por las Matemáticas.

Desde temprana edad mostró interés por las máquinas y su funcionamiento. Grace estudió en dos escuelas privadas para chicas. No pudo entrar a la universidad en su primer intento al fallar una examinación de latín. El siguiente año intentó nuevamente y pudo ingresar a la carrera de Matemáticas en Vassar College. Después de graduarse, realizó investigación matemática en Yale, de donde obtuvo su grado de magíster y doctora. Recibió el grado de doctora por su tesis Nuevos tipos de criterios de irreducibilidad. 

Con el estallido de la segunda guerra mundial, Hopper quiso unirse al ejército, pero fue rechazada por su edad y peso. No obstante, logró convencer a la fuerza naval y la Universidad de Vassar de dejarla formar parte en la milicia. 

Tras convertirse en teniente, Hopper fue asignada al Proyecto de Cómputo de la Oficina de Artillería en los Laboratorios Cruft en Harvard. Desde 1944 colaboró con Aiken en la computadora Mark I, al final de la guerra se encontraba trabajando en la Mark II. 

Al culminar la guerra, Grace permaneció en Harvard como investigadora en el Laboratorio de Cómputo de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Física Aplicada. Cuando se completó la Mark II, ella formó parte del proyecto de la Mark III. 

En 1949 Hopper ingresó a la Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation, en donde trabajó en la computadora UNIVAC. También colaboró en la creación del Flow-Matic, el primer compilador de procesamiento de datos en inglés. 

A pesar de su participación en proyectos académicos, no dejó de colaborar con el ejército y se conoció por nunca permanecer trabajando en una sola cosa a la vez. No sólo desarrolló investigación y servicio militar, también fue catedrática universitaria. 

En cada una de esas facetas de su vida cosechó logros continuamente, por los cuales fue reconocida por institutos en Ciencias e Ingeniería. Fue la primera mujer en ser elegida como Miembro Distinguido de la Sociedad Británica de Computación en 1973, siendo la primera estadounidense en recibir el galardón. 

Grace Hopper, es además, probablemente, la única matemática cuyo nombre se le ha dado a un navío militar. 

[valkyries-things]

MILLY KOSS // COMPUTER PROGRAMMER

“She was an American pioneering computer programmer. The Association for Women in Computing awarded her an Ada Lovelace Award in 2000. She worked at Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation (EMCC) under Grace Hopper, programming the UNIVAC I. Her first big project was the development of what has become known as the 'Editing Generator', a sophisticated program to automatically format data for printing. Being able to create margins, headings and page numbers on the fly, Koss was the first programmer to attempt word processing. During her time at EMCC she also wrote some of the first sorting programs, and with Hopper wrote the first compiler.”

[hagleyvault]

We’re observing ENIAC day today and the people that made IT happen. The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), developed at the University of Pennsylvania’s Moore School of Electrical Engineering, was the first all electronic, programmable computer. ENIAC was formally dedicated seventy-five years ago today, on February 15, 1946.

The project was financed by the U.S. government, who wanted the technology to calculate artillery firing tables for the Army’s Ballistic Research Laboratory. It’s primary purpose after construction was in military use; one of ENIAC’s first assignments was a series of computations to determine the feasibility of the hydrogen bomb.

In the aftermath of the project, programmers Ruth Lichterman Teitelbaum and Frances Bilas Spence traveled with ENIAC to its new home at the Army’s Aberdeen Proving Ground, where they worked in training ENIAC’s new programmers.

ENIAC’s John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert resigned from the University of Pennsylvania to form the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation in order to create new computer designs for both military and commercial applications, bringing with them ENIAC project team members Betty Snyder Holberton and Jean Jennings Bartik. They had hoped to bring along programmer Kay McNulty as well; she instead chose to join Ruth Lichterman Teitelbaum at the Aberdeen Proving Ground, but later joined Mauchly in a different capacity. The two married in 1948.

In 1950, the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation was sold to Remington Rand, which later merged with Sperry Corporation to become Sperry Rand, the forerunner of today’s Unisys Corporation. ENIAC developers Arthur Burks, Jeffrey Chuan Chu, Jack Davis, Harry Huskey, Frank Mural, Thomas Kite Sharpless, and Robert F. Shaw also went on to make significant contributions to the field, including to the development of early computers like EDVAC, AVIDAC, SEAC, SWAC, UNIVAC and ORACLE.

This ca. 1947 photograph shows ENIAC with project team members, and was taken at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering. It is part of Hagley Library’s  collection of Sperry Corporation, UNIVAC Division photographs and audiovisual materials (Accession 1985.261). To view more material related to ENIAC in our Digital Archive, click here.

[soclonely]

The Clones as Women’s Contributions To Science

Because I am feeling empowered today Rex-Mary Anning: Before they were even teenagers, Anning and her younger brother discovered the first complete ichthyosaur skeleton in their local cliffs in Lyme Regis, Dorset, in 1811. She went on to discover the first complete plesiosaur and a pterosaur. Anning was tapped by scientists for her palaeontological discoveries and expertise, but was barred from official scientific circles. Echo-Grace Murray Hopper: mathematician, computer scientist and rear admiral in the U.S. Navy, Hopper led the Eckert-Mauchly Corporation team in the 1950s that created the first computer language compiler Fives- Vera Cooper Rubin: established evidence for the existence of “dark matter” and its gravitational pull,transformed the field of cosmology. Jesse-Williamina Fleming: a maid who became a Harvard astronomer, developed a classification scheme and cataloged 10,000 stars in nine years Kix-Mae Jemison: became the first African American woman astronaut, holding the title of science mission specialist. Tup-Hertha Sponer: Her work targeted the application of quantum mechanics to atomic and molecular physics. Dogma-Helen Taussig: best known for discovering the cause of “blue baby syndrome,” a birth defect of the heart that had a very high mortality rate. After Taussig developed the concept for a repair procedure, she worked with two of her colleagues at the Johns Hopkins Hospital to design a technique which has saved the lives of thousands of babies Hardcase-Chien-Shiung Wu: was recruited to the Manhattan Project, where she worked on uranium enrichment. Her work on the law of parity  in physics helped earn two male colleagues the 1957 Nobel Prize in Physics, but she did not share in the award. Coric-Barbara McClintock was the first woman to receive an unshared Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Her research demonstrated the existence of “mobile genetic elements,” also known as genetic transposition, the capacity of genes to change position on a chromosome. Bly- Shirley Jackson:  first African American woman to graduate with a Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in any field and also just the second African American woman to earn a doctorate in physics in U.S. history. She currently serves as the president of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, also making her the first African American woman to lead a top-ranked research university. 99-Klara Dan von Neumann: self-taught mathematician was a primary developer of coding for the 1940s ENIAC computer.She is not listed as an author on the paper Cody- Mary G. Ross: the first Native American  female engineer who helped propel the world into an era of space travel  Waxer and Boil-Frances Oldham Kelsey: pharmacologist and physician at the FDA, she came under pressure in the 1960s to approve thalidomide for morning sickness. Insisting that safety tests were inadequate, she refused, preventing countless birth deformities caused by the drug Wolffe- Maria Merian: Studied and recorded the life cycle of the butterfly, before that people believed they were born from the mud. Sinker and Boost-Jocelyn Bell Burnell: denied a 1974 Nobel as co-discoverer of pulsars Hunter- Maria Mitchell: during observations of the sky one night in 1847, the astronomer discovered a comet, popularly known as  “Miss Mitchell’s Comet,” Wrecker-Marie Maynard Daly: became the first African-American woman in the United States awarded a PhD in chemistry. investigated the links between cholesterol and heart disease and the effects of cigarette smoking on the lungs. Tech-Elizabeth Blackburn: won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2009 for discovering telomeres, DNA segments at the ends of chromosomes. Crosshair- Jewel Plummer Cobb: cell biologist and cancer researcher, she studied melanoma and made early advances in tissue culture as well as translational medicine

[justforbooks]

The UNIVAC I (UNIVersal Automatic Computer I) was the first general-purpose electronic digital computer design for business application produced in the United States. It was designed principally by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, the inventors of the ENIAC. Design work was started by their company, Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation (EMCC), and was completed after the company had been acquired by Remington Rand (which later became part of Sperry, now Unisys). In the years before successor models of the UNIVAC I appeared, the machine was simply known as "the UNIVAC".

The first Univac was accepted by the United States Census Bureau on March 31, 1951, and was dedicated on June 14 that year. The fifth machine (built for the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission) was used by CBS to predict the result of the 1952 presidential election. With a sample of a mere 5.5% of the voter turnout, it famously predicted an Eisenhower landslide.

The first contracts were with government agencies such as the Census Bureau, the U.S. Air Force, and the U.S. Army Map Service. Contracts were also signed by the ACNielsen Company, and the Prudential Insurance Company. Following the sale of Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation to Remington Rand, due to the cost overruns on the project, Remington Rand convinced Nielsen and Prudential to cancel their contracts.

The first sale, to the Census Bureau, was marked with a formal ceremony on March 31, 1951, at the Eckert–Mauchly Division's factory at 3747 Ridge Avenue, Philadelphia. The machine was not actually shipped until the following December, because, as the sole fully set-up model, it was needed for demonstration purposes, and the company was apprehensive about the difficulties of dismantling, transporting, and reassembling the delicate machine. As a result, the first installation was with the second computer, delivered to the Pentagon in June 1952.

Originally priced at US$159,000, the UNIVAC I rose in price until they were between $1,250,000 and $1,500,000. A total of 46 systems were eventually built and delivered.

The UNIVAC I was too expensive for most universities, and Sperry Rand, unlike companies such as IBM, was not strong enough financially to afford to give many away. However, Sperry Rand donated UNIVAC I systems to Harvard University (1956), the University of Pennsylvania (1957), and Case Institute of Technology in Cleveland, Ohio (1957). The UNIVAC I at Case was still operable in 1965 but had been supplanted by a UNIVAC 1107.

A few UNIVAC I systems stayed in service long after they were made obsolete by advancing technology. The Census Bureau used its two systems until 1963, amounting to 12 and 9 years of service, respectively. Sperry Rand itself used two systems in Buffalo, New York until 1968. The insurance company Life and Casualty of Tennessee used its system until 1970, totaling over 13 years of service.

UNIVAC I used about 5,000 vacuum tubes, weighed 16,686 pounds (8.3 short tons; 7.6 t), consumed 125 kW, and could perform about 1,905 operations per second running on a 2.25 MHz clock. The Central Complex alone (i.e. the processor and memory unit) was 4.3 m by 2.4 m by 2.6 m high. The complete system occupied more than 35.5 m² (382 ft²) of floor space.

Eckert and Mauchly were uncertain about the reliability of digital logic circuits and little was known about them at the time. The UNIVAC I was designed with parallel computation circuits and result comparison. In practice, only failing components yielded comparison faults as their circuit designs were very reliable. Tricks were used to manage the reliability of tubes. Prior to use in the machine, large lots of the predominant tube type 25L6 were burned in and carefully tested. Often half of a production lot would be thrown away. Technicians installed a tested and burned-in tube in an easily diagnosed location such as the memory recirculate amplifiers. Then, when aged further, this "golden" tube was sent to stock to be used in a difficult to diagnose logic position. It took about 30 minutes to turn on the computer as all filament power supplies were stepped up to operating value over that time, to reduce in-rush current and thermal stress on the tubes. As a result, uptimes (MTBF) of many days to weeks were obtained on the processor. The UNISERVO did not have vacuum columns but springs and strings to buffer tape from the reels to the capstan. These were a frequent source of failures.

Daily inspiration. Discover more photos at http://justforbooks.tumblr.com

[bm2ab]

Arrivals & Departures 09 December 1906 – 01 January 1992 Grace Brewster Murray Hopper

Grace Brewster Murray Hopper (née Murray) was an American computer scientist and United States Navy rear admiral. One of the first programmers of the Harvard Mark I computer, she was a pioneer of computer programming who invented one of the first linkers. Hopper was the first to devise the theory of machine-independent programming languages, and the FLOW-MATIC programming language she created using this theory was later extended to create COBOL, an early high-level programming language still in use today.

Prior to joining the Navy, Hopper earned a Ph.D. in mathematics from Yale University and was a professor of mathematics at Vassar College. Hopper attempted to enlist in the Navy during World War II but was rejected because she was 34 years old. She instead joined the Navy Reserves. Hopper began her computing career in 1944 when she worked on the Harvard Mark I team led by Howard H. Aiken. In 1949, she joined the Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation and was part of the team that developed the UNIVAC I computer. At Eckert–Mauchly she began developing the linker. She believed that a programming language based on English was possible. Her linker converted English terms into machine code understood by computers. By 1952, Hopper had finished her program linker (originally called a compiler), which was written for the A-0 System. During her wartime service, she co-authored three papers based on her work on the Harvard Mark 1.

In 1954, Eckert–Mauchly chose Hopper to lead their department for automatic programming, and she led the release of some of the first compiled languages like FLOW-MATIC. In 1959, she participated in the CODASYL consortium, which consulted Hopper to guide them in creating a machine-independent programming language. This led to the COBOL language, which was inspired by her idea of a language being based on English words. In 1966, she retired from the Naval Reserve, but in 1967 the Navy recalled her to active duty. She retired from the Navy in 1986 and found work as a consultant for the Digital Equipment Corporation, sharing her computing experiences.

The U.S. Navy Arleigh Burke-class guided-missile destroyer USS Hopper was named for her, as was the Cray XE6 "Hopper" supercomputer at NERSC. During her lifetime, Hopper was awarded 40 honorary degrees from universities across the world. A college at Yale University was renamed in her honor. In 1991, she received the National Medal of Technology. On November 22, 2016, she was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama.

[estudiantiladma]

Historia de la Computación •

3000 B.C.  ÁBACO 

Uno de los primeros dispositivos mecánicos para contar fue el ábaco, cuya historia se remonta a las antiguas civilizaciones Griega y Romana. Este dispositivo es muy sencillo, consta de cuentas ensartadas en varillas que a su vez están montadas en un marco rectangular.

1452 CALCULADORAS MECÁNICAS (1452-1716) 

El genio renacentista Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519) trazó alrededor de 1500 varios apuntes para una sumadora mecánica. Por su parte, el alemán Gottfried Wihelm Von Leibniz (1646-1716) diseñó en 1671 otra sumadora mecánica , que concluyó definitivamente en 1694, conocida como la calculadora Universal, capaz de realizar sumas, restas, divisiones y raíces cuadradas. A partir de este momento se fueron sucediendo nuevos nuevos modelos de calculadoras mecánicas, con distintas variaciones y mejoras.

 1623 RELOJ CALCULADOR

 La primera calculadora mecánica fue diseñada por Wilhelm Schickard en Alemania. Llamada "reloj calculador", la máquina incorporó los logaritmos de Napier, haciendo rodar cilindros en un albergue grande. Se comisionó un reloj calculador para Johannes Kepler, famoso matemático y astrónomo, pero fue destruido por el fuego antes de que se terminara su construcción.

 1645 CALCULADORA MECÁNICA LA PASCALINA 

La pascalina es una de las primeras calculadoras mecánicas. Fue inventada por Blaise Pascal en 1645, luego de tres años de trabajo sobre ella. Blaise Pascal la inventó para ayudar a su padre, que era contador en la Hacienda Francesa. Por ellos sus funciones se limitaban únicamente a resolver problemas de aritmética comercial. En el año 1670, el filosofo y matemático Frances Gottfried Wihelm Leibniz, perfeccionó esta máquina e invento una que podía multiplicar. 

1673 CALCULADORA DE PROPÓSITO GENERAL 

El matemático alemán Gottfried Leibniz inventa la primera calculadora de propósito general. El aparato era una partida de la pascalina; mientras opera usa un cilindro de dientes (la rueda de Leibniz) en lugar de la serie de engranajes. Aunque el aparato podía ejecutar multiplicaciones y divisiones, padeció de problemas de fiabilidad que disminuyó su utilidad. 

1752 PRIMERA TARJETA PERFORADA 

(1752-1834) El fabricante de tejidos francés Joseph-Marie Jacquard (1752-1834) ideó en 1801 un telar, todavía utilizado en la actualidad, que podía reproducir automáticamente patrones de tejidos leyendo la información codificada en patrones de agujeros perforados en tarjetas de papel rígido. Las tarjetas se perforaban estratégicamente y se acomodaban en cierta secuencia para indicar un diseño de tejido en particular. Para cambiar de diseño, basta con preparar una nueva colección de tarjetas.

1791 MAQUINA ANALÍTICA DE BABBAGE (1791-1871)

 Charles Babbage (1791-1871) visionario científico, fue el más claro precursor de Hardware computacional, hasta el punto de que se le considera el padre histórico de la computación. En 1843, Lady Ada Augusta Lovelace, colaboradora de Babbage, surgió la idea de que las tarjetas perforadas pudieran adaptarse de manera que propiciaran que el motor de Babbage repitiera ciertas operaciones. Debido a esta sugerencia algunas personas consideran a Lady Lovelace la primera programadora.

1860 TABULADORA DE HOLLERITH (1860-1911)

 Hollerith fundó la Tabulating Machine Company y vendió sus productos en todo el mundo. Por ejemplo, el primer censo llevado a cabo en Rusia (1897) se registró con el tabulador de Hollerith. En 1911, la Tabulating Machine Company se unió con otras compañías y formó la Computing -TabulatingRecording-Company.

1919 MAQUINAS ELECTROMECÁNICAS (1919-1950) 

En 1919 la Computing-Tabulating-Company anunció la aparición de la impresora/listadora. Esta innovación revolucionó la manera en que las empresas efectuaban sus operaciones. Para reflejar mejor el alcance de sus intereses comerciales, en 1924 la compañía cambió el nombre por el de International Bussines Machines Corporation (IBM). El operador de un cuarto de máquinas en una instalación de tarjetas perforadas realizaba un trabajo que demandaba mucho esfuerzo físico.

1937 COMPUTADORA ABC (1937-1942) 

Una antigua patente se invalidó en 1973 por orden de un tribunal federal, y oficialmente se le dio el crédito a John V. Atanasoff como el inventor de la computadora digital eléctrica. El Dr. de la Universidad Estatal de Iowa, desarrolló la primera computadora digital electrónica entre los años de 1937 a 1942. Llamó a su invento la computadora Atanasoff-Berry, o ABC, Clifford Berry, un estudiante graduado, fue una útil ayuda en la construcción de la computadora ABC.

1944 LA MARK-I (1944)

 En 1944 se presentó la Mark-I (o IBM ASCC), diseñada por un equipo encabezado por Howard H. Aiken, de la Universidad de Harvard, con la colaboración de IBM. Era una máquina automática eléctrica, aunque tenía componentes electromecánicos; podía realizar 5 operaciones aritméticas: suma, resta, multiplicación, división y referencia a resultados anteriores.

1945 COMPUTADORA EDVAC (1945-1948)

 En 1945, el Ingeniero y matemático húngaro John Von Neumann (1903-1957), que había trabajado con Eckert y Mauchly en la Universidad de Pennsylvania, publicó un artículo acerca del almacenamiento de programas. Hacía 1948, Von Neumann se integra en el equipo de Eckert y Mauchly. Este nuevo equipo crea la computadora EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), la primera en aplicar la idea básica de Von Neumann: permitir que en la memoria coexistan datos e instrucciones.

1946 COMPUTADORA ENIAC (1946)

 John W. Mauchly y John Persper Eckert, después de estudiar prolijamente la computadora ABC, desarrollaron en la Universidad de Pennsylvania una máquina capaz de calcular tablas de trayectoria para el ejército Estadounidense. El producto final, una computadora electrónica completamente operacional a gran escala, se terminó en 1946 y se llamó ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer: integrador numérico y calculador electrónico), construida por la segunda guerra mundial.

1951 COMPUTADORAS DE BULBOS (1951-1958)

 Las computadoras de la primera generación emplearon bulbos para procesar información. Los operadores introducían datos y los programas en un código especial por medio de tarjetas perforadas. El almacenamiento interno se lograba con un tambor que giraba rápidamente, sobre el cual un dispositivo de lectura/escritura colocaba marcas magnéticas. Esas computadoras de bulbos eran mucho más grandes y generaban más calor que los modelos contemporáneos.

1952 PROGRAMAS INTÉRPRETES (1952)

 Hasta este punto, los programas y los datos podían ser introducidos en la computadora sólo con la notación binaria, que es el único código que las computadoras entienden. En 1952 Grace Murray Hoper, (1906-1922), una oficial de la Marina de los Estados Unidos, desarrolló el primer compilador, un programa que puede traducir enunciados parecidos al inglés en un código binario comprensible para la maquina, llamado COBOL (Common Bussines-Oriented Lenguaje).

1952 CALCULADORA DE DEFENSA

 IBM 701 conocido como la "calculadora de defensa" fue anunciado al público el 29 de abril de 1952 y era la primera computadora científica comercial de IBM. El sistema utilizó tubos Williams para la memoria, consistiendo en 72 tubos con una capacidad de 1024 bits, dando una memoria total de 2048 palabras de 36 bits cada uno. Cada uno de los 72 tubos eran de 76 mm de diámetro.

1953 IBM 650

 Es una maquina que codifica tanto datos como direcciones de memoria en sistema decimal, guardando cada cifra en código biquinario. Este código guarda mediante varios bits, dos variables: una con dos posibles estados y otra con cinco posibles estados. La memoria estaba en el tambor giratorio, que proporcionaba 2000 palabras, cada una con signo y de 10 dígitos (5 caracteres por palabra). Las direcciones de estos 2000 registros iban de 0000 a 1999 (en decimal).

1962 COMPUTADORA PHILCO (1962-1980)

 En 1962, la computadora Philco 2000 Modelo 212 se eligió para su uso en el Comando de Defensa Aérea de Norteamérica, en las famosas instalaciones de Cheyenne Mountain. Tres de las máquinas fueron instaladas ese año y funcionaron hasta 1980. Las máquinas también fueron utilizadas por los laboratorios de investigación en Westinghouse Electric y General Electric. La parte aeroespacial de Philco Ford pasó a llamarse Ford Aerospace en 1976. 

1962 COMPUTADORA PERSONAL (PC)

 La primera PC es el Programa 101, producido por la empresa italiana Olivetti entre los años 1962 y 1964. Inventado por el ingeniero italiano Pier Giorgio Perotto que fue también el inventor de la tarjeta magnética. Programma 101 también fue utilizado en 1969 por la NASA para enviar el hombre a la Luna en la misión Apolo 11, en el canal de televisión estadounidense ABC para predecir las elecciones políticas de 1969 o por soldados estadounidenses para operaciones en la Guerra de Vietnam.

1964 IBM 360 

Fue el primero en usar una palabra byte para referirse a 8 bits (con 4 bytes creaba una palabra de 32 bits). Fue la primera en usar microprogramación y creó el concepto de arquitectura de familia. La familia del 360 consistió en 6 computadoras que podían hacer uso del mismo software y los mismos periféricos. El sistema también hizo popular la computación remota, con terminales conectadas a un servidor, por medio de una línea telefónica.

[estudiante23]

HISTORIA DE LA COMPUTACIÓN

ÁBACO Uno de los primeros dispositivos mecánicos para contar fue el ábaco, cuya historia se remonta a las antiguas civilizaciones Griega y Romana. Este dispositivo es muy sencillo, consta de cuentas ensartadas en varillas que a su vez están montadas en un marco rectangular 

  1452 CALCULADORAS MECÁNICAS (1452-1716) El genio renacentista Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519) trazó alrededor de 1500 varios apuntes para una sumadora mecánica. Por su parte, el alemán Gottfried Wihelm Von Leibniz (1646-1716) diseñó en 1671 otra sumadora mecánica , que concluyó definitivamente en 1694, conocida como la calculadora Universal, capaz de realizar sumas, restas, divisiones y raíces cuadradas. A partir de este momento se fueron sucediendo nuevos nuevos modelos de calculadoras mecánicas, con distintas variaciones y mejoras. 

1623 RELOJ CALCULADOR La primera calculadora mecánica fue diseñada por Wilhelm Schickard en Alemania. Llamada "reloj calculador", la máquina incorporó los logaritmos de Napier, haciendo rodar cilindros en un albergue grande. Se comisionó un reloj calculador para Johannes Kepler, famoso matemático y astrónomo, pero fue destruido por el fuego antes de que se terminara su construcción. 

1645 CALCULADORA MECÁNICA LA PASCALINA La pascalina es una de las primeras calculadoras mecánicas. Fue inventada por Blaise Pascal en 1645, luego de tres años de trabajo sobre ella. Blaise Pascal la inventó para ayudar a su padre, que era contador en la Hacienda Francesa. Por ellos sus funciones se limitaban únicamente a resolver problemas de aritmética comercial. En el año 1670, el filosofo y matemático Frances Gottfried Wihelm Leibniz, perfeccionó esta máquina e invento una que podía multiplicar.

 1673 CALCULADORA DE PROPÓSITO GENERAL ◀ ◀ ◀ ◀ • • • • • • el matemático alemán Gottfried Leibniz inventa la primera calculadora de propósito general. El aparato era una partida de la pascalina; mientras opera usa un cilindro de dientes (la rueda de Leibniz) en lugar de la serie de engranajes. Aunque el aparato podía ejecutar multiplicaciones y divisiones, padeció de problemas de fiabilidad que disminuyó su utilidad.

 1752 PRIMERA TARJETA PERFORADA (1752-1834) El fabricante de tejidos francés Joseph-Marie Jacquard (1752-1834) ideó en 1801 un telar, todavía utilizado en la actualidad, que podía reproducir automáticamente patrones de tejidos leyendo la información codificada en patrones de agujeros perforados en tarjetas de papel rígido. Las tarjetas se perforaban estratégicamente y se acomodaban en cierta secuencia para indicar un diseño de tejido en particular. Para cambiar de diseño, basta con preparar una nueva colección de tarjetas. 

1791 MAQUINA ANALÍTICA DE BABBAGE (1791-1871) Charles Babbage (1791-1871) visionario científico, fue el más claro precursor de Hardware computacional, hasta el punto de que se le considera el padre histórico de la computación. En 1843, Lady Ada Augusta Lovelace, colaboradora de Babbage, surgió la idea de que las tarjetas perforadas pudieran adaptarse de manera que propiciaran que el motor de Babbage repitiera ciertas operaciones. Debido a esta sugerencia algunas personas consideran a Lady Lovelace la primera programadora. 

1860 TABULADORA DE HOLLERITH (1860-1911) Hollerith fundó la Tabulating Machine Company y vendió sus productos en todo el mundo. Por ejemplo, el primer censo llevado a cabo en Rusia (1897) se registró con el tabulador de Hollerith. En 1911, la Tabulating Machine Company se unió con otras compañías y formó la Computing -TabulatingRecording-Company. 

1919 MAQUINAS ELECTROMECÁNICAS (1919-1950) En 1919 la Computing-Tabulating-Company anunció la aparición de la impresora/listadora. Esta innovación revolucionó la manera en que las empresas efectuaban sus operaciones. Para reflejar mejor el alcance de sus intereses comerciales, en 1924 la compañía cambió el nombre por el de International Bussines Machines Corporation (IBM). El operador de un cuarto de máquinas en una instalación de tarjetas perforadas realizaba un trabajo que demandaba mucho esfuerzo físico. 

1937 COMPUTADORA ABC (1937-1942) Una antigua patente se invalidó en 1973 por orden de un tribunal federal, y oficialmente se le dio el crédito a John V. Atanasoff como el inventor de la computadora digital eléctrica. El Dr. de la ◀ ◀ ◀ ◀ ◀ ◀  • • • • • Universidad Estatal de Iowa, desarrolló la primera computadora digital electrónica entre los años de 1937 a 1942. Llamó a su invento la computadora Atanasoff-Berry, o ABC, Clifford Berry, un estudiante graduado, fue una útil ayuda en la construcción de la computadora ABC. 

 1944 LA MARK-I (1944) En 1944 se presentó la Mark-I (o IBM ASCC), diseñada por un equipo encabezado por Howard H. Aiken, de la Universidad de Harvard, con la colaboración de IBM. Era una máquina automática eléctrica, aunque tenía componentes electromecánicos; podía realizar 5 operaciones aritméticas: suma, resta, multiplicación, división y referencia a resultados anteriores. 

1945 COMPUTADORA EDVAC (1945-1948) En 1945, el Ingeniero y matemático húngaro John Von Neumann (1903-1957), que había trabajado con Eckert y Mauchly en la Universidad de Pennsylvania, publicó un artículo acerca del almacenamiento de programas. Hacía 1948, Von Neumann se integra en el equipo de Eckert y Mauchly. Este nuevo equipo crea la computadora EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), la primera en aplicar la idea básica de Von Neumann: permitir que en la memoria coexistan datos e instrucciones. 

1946 COMPUTADORA ENIAC (1946) John W. Mauchly y John Persper Eckert, después de estudiar prolijamente la computadora ABC, desarrollaron en la Universidad de Pennsylvania una máquina capaz de calcular tablas de trayectoria para el ejército Estadounidense. El producto final, una computadora electrónica completamente operacional a gran escala, se terminó en 1946 y se llamó ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer: integrador numérico y calculador electrónico), construida por la segunda guerra mundial. 

1951 COMPUTADORAS DE BULBOS (1951-1958) Las computadoras de la primera generación emplearon bulbos para procesar información. Los operadores introducían datos y los programas en un código especial por medio de tarjetas perforadas. El almacenamiento interno se lograba con un tambor que giraba rápidamente, sobre el cual un dispositivo de lectura/escritura colocaba marcas magnéticas. Esas computadoras de bulbos eran mucho más grandes y generaban más calor que los modelos contemporáneos.

 1952 PROGRAMAS INTÉRPRETES (1952) Hasta este punto, los programas y los datos podían ser introducidos en la computadora sólo con la notación binaria, que es el único código que las computadoras entienden. En 1952 Grace Murray (1906-1922), una oficial de la Marina de los Estados Unidos, desarrolló el primer compilador, un programa que puede traducir enunciados parecidos al inglés en un código binario comprensible para la maquina, llamado COBOL (Common Bussines-Oriented Lenguaje).

 1952 CALCULADORA DE DEFENSA IBM 701 conocido como la "calculadora de defensa" fue anunciado al público el 29 de abril de 1952 y era la primera computadora científica comercial de IBM. El sistema utilizó tubos Williams para la memoria, consistiendo en 72 tubos con una capacidad de 1024 bits, dando una memoria total de 2048 palabras de 36 bits cada uno. Cada uno de los 72 tubos eran de 76 mm de diámetro. 1953 IBM 650 Es una maquina que codifica tanto datos como direcciones de memoria en sistema decimal, guardando cada cifra en código biquinario. Este código guarda mediante varios bits, dos variables: una con dos posibles estados y otra con cinco posibles estados. La memoria estaba en el tambor giratorio, que proporcionaba 2000 palabras, cada una con signo y de 10 dígitos (5 caracteres por palabra). Las direcciones de estos 2000 registros iban de 0000 a 1999 (en decimal).

 1962 COMPUTADORA PHILCO (1962-1980) En 1962, la computadora Philco 2000 Modelo 212 se eligió para su uso en el Comando de Defensa Aérea de Norteamérica, en las famosas instalaciones de Cheyenne Mountain. Tres de las máquinas fueron instaladas ese año y funcionaron hasta 1980. Las máquinas también fueron utilizadas por los laboratorios de investigación en Westinghouse Electric y General Electric. La parte aeroespacial de Philco Ford pasó a llamarse Ford Aerospace en 1976.

 1962 COMPUTADORA PERSONAL (PC) La primera PC es el Programa 101, producido por la empresa italiana Olivetti entre los años 1962 y 1964. Inventado por el ingeniero italiano Pier Giorgio Perotto que fue también el inventor de la tarjeta magnética. Programma 101 también fue utilizado en 1969 por la NASA para enviar el hombre a la Luna en la misión Apolo 11, en el canal de televisión estadounidense ABC para predecir las elecciones políticas de 1969 o por soldados estadounidenses para operaciones en la Guerra de Vietnam. 1964 IBM 360 Fue el primero en usar una palabra byte para referirse a 8 bits (con 4 bytes creaba una palabra de 32 bits). Fue la primera en usar microprogramación y creó el concepto de arquitectura de familia. La familia del 360 consistió en 6 computadoras que podían hacer uso del mismo software y los  mismos periféricos. El sistema también hizo popular la computación remota, con terminales conectadas a un servidor, por medio de una línea telefónica. 3000 

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We’re posting this photograph from June, 1957 today in recognition of the 114th anniversary of the birth of Dr. Grace Hopper, both for her groundbreaking work in computer programming and for her service as a mentor to others in the field.

One of the ways that a knowledge of history helps us to think more critically about present-day issues is to help us reconsider questions in useful and illuminating ways. For example, when we hear a debate surrounding the question of why there are significantly fewer female than male programmers, and we know that this was not always the case, we can reframe the question in more helpful and insightful terms: “When and for what reason did we see a large decrease in the number of women in tech?”

Hopper’s career as a computer scientist and programmer began in 1944, after she left her teaching position as an associate professor of mathematics at Vassar to enlist in the United States Naval Reserve (Women’s Reserve) during World War II, a decision that would eventually earn her the rank of Rear Admiral. In 1944, she was assigned to the Harvard University Mark I computer programming team. Hopper remained at the Harvard Computation Lab until 1949, when she accepted a senior mathematician position at the Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation, joining the team developing the UNIVAC I. She would eventually become the company’s first director of automatic programming and a strong proponent of the idea that programmers could develop machine-independent programming languages. She became the first person to develop a compiler for programming languages and her department would release some of the first compiler-based programming languages. Their combined work in using and popularizing these tools led directly to the development of COBOL (thus earning Hopper the nickname “Grandma COBOL”). Throughout the 1940s and 1950s, the often tedious and detail-oriented behind the scenes work of programming was frequently considered to be women’s work. By the 1960s, approximately 40% of the working computer programmers in the United States were women, but few were hired to occupy leadership positions and nearly all were paid less than their male coworkers. Despite having created the widely cited 500-page comprehensive manual for the Harvard Mark I, Hopper was not once specifically credited in the manual for her authorship or her programming contributions. By the time of her death in 1992, however, she had achieved recognition for her work in the form of many honors, including the 1962 Data Processing Management Association Man of the Year award (now the Distinguished Information Sciences Award) and the 1991 National Medal of Technology; she was also the first American and the first woman of any nationality to be made a Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society and held forty various honorary degrees from universities worldwide. This photograph is from our collection of Sperry Corporation, UNIVAC Division photographs and audiovisual materials (Accession 1985.261). To view more items from this collection online, visit its page in our Digital Archive by clicking here. To view a digital collection of photos and other materials documenting Grace Hopper and other women computer programmers, click here.

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300+ TOP BROADCAST Objective Questions and Answers

BROADCAST Multiple Choice Questions :-

1. The acronym FM stands for A. frequency modes B. filter modulation C. frequency modulation D. filter methodology E. future mediocrity ANS:- C 2. According to studies, the quarter of the hour with the largest listening audience is A. 0 - 15 min B. 15 - 30 min C. 30 - 45 min D. 45 - 60 min ANS:- A 3. Which scientist is credited with the discovery the existence of radio waves A. Thomas Edison B. Heinrich Hertz C. Ben Franklin D. Guglielmo Marconi E. Albert Einstein ANS:-B 4. Which inventor conducted the first radio transmission in the year 1895 A. Thomas Edison B. Heinrich Hertz C. Ben Franklin D. Guglielmo Marconi E. Albert Einstein ANS:-D 5. Which single event resulted in global acceptance of 24 hour mandatory use of radio for shipping communications A. The 'War of the Worlds' broadcast B. The attack on Pearl Harbor C. The crash of the Hindenburg Zeppelin D. The sinking of the S.S. Titanic E. Hitler's invasion of Poland ANS:-D 6. Morse Code is what form of radio transmission A. AM (Amplitude modulation) B. FM (Frequency Modulation) C. PDM (Pulse Duration Modulation) D. PCS (Personal Communications Services) E. PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) ANS:-C 7. FM broadcasts are assigned what radio frequencies by the FCC A. 540 kHz - 1630 kHz B. 88 MHz - 174 MHz C. 300 MHz - 3000 MHz D. 1850 MHz - 1990 MHz E. 7.25 gHz - 8.4 gHz ANS:-B 8. Line of sight propagation is defined as A. A signal traveling directly from the transmitter antenna to the receiver antenna B. The 'dead area' within the skip zone C. A signal refracted, or bent back to the earth by the ionosphere D. A signal traveling along the ground following the curve of the earth E. None of the above ANS:-A 9. The term 'Picket Fencing' is used to describe A. Slats of wood that divide one receiver from another B. The actuality of direct and reflecting waves first canceling then reinforcing each other, causing fluttering of the transmission C. The actuality of direct and reflecting waves canceling each other, but not reinforcing, thus causing fluttering of the transmission D. None of the above E. All of the above (Your Answer) ANS:-B 10. At night, AM transmissions can be received from great distances because A. There are fewer stations broadcasting B. There is less traffic on the roads to cause interference C. The dissipation of the 'D' layer of the ionosphere D. All of the above E. None of the above ANS:-C

BROADCAST MCQs 11. The type of cable used to send a program from the broadcast amplifier to the transmission antenna is called A. XLR B. TRS C. RCA D. Coaxial E. TT/Batham ANS:-D 12. Satellite transmissions work on what kind of signal A. AM B. FM C. UHF D. VHF E. PCM ANS:-E 13. Lavaliere mics are used widely in TV broadcasting because A. They are unidirectional and reject ambient noise B. They are dynamic and add no bed noise C. They are small and nonintrusive to the video camera's view D. They are unidirectional and reject ambient noise and they are dynamic and add no bed noise E. All of the above ANS:-C 14. Omnidirectional mics are used in field recordings for A. Capturing ambiance B. They are impervieous to the proximity effect. C. Capturing more than one source at a time D. All of the above E. None of the above ANS:-D 15. An obstacle of using hand operated 'booms' or 'fish pole' stands is A. they are illegal in many states B. The operator's arms may tire from long use C. They're expensive D. Mic can interfere with the camera view if it drops into frame E. The operator's arms may tire from long use AND the mic can interfere with the camera view if it drops into frame ANS:-E 16. Miking sporting events requires sound pickups from what sources A. Announcers B. The crowd C. The action D. All of the above E. None of the above ANS:-D 17. The process of temporarily lowering the volume of a recording (or any source) in order to speak over it is called A. A quick fade B. A drop out C. A donut D. A hole E. None of the above ANS:-C 18. What two factors determine sky-wave propagation between two points? A. the frequency in use B. the level of humidity in the air C. the level of ionization D. the level of humidity in the air & the level of ionization E. the frequency in use & the level of ionization ANS:-E 19. The highest frequency at which the ionosphere bends radio waves back to Earth is called A. air B. non-conductive materials C. space D. all of the above E. none of the above ANS:- D 20. VSWR is a measure of an impedance mismatch between A. the antenna and the receiver B. the transmission line and its load C. the compressor and the oscillator D. the antenna and the receiver & the transmission line and its load E. all of the above ANS:- B 21. The optimum standing wave ratio is A. 1:1 B. 2:1 C. 3:1 D. 4:1 E. 5:1 ANS:- A 22. a 'cart' is used in broadcast productions for A. P.S.A.'s B. sound effects C. commercials D. all of the above E. none of the above ANS:- D 23. The largest amount of broadcasting air time is dedicated to A. sit-coms B. news C. commercials D. dramas E. sporting events ANS:- B 24. A downward 45 degree angle of a D.J.'s vocal mic is used to A. help reduce sibilance B. help reduce plosives C. help reduce ambient noise D. help reduce phase problems from reflected waves E. help reduce sibilance & help reduce ambient noise ANS:- B 25. 'Split-Channel' mixers are used primarily for: A. Film production B. T.V. production C. Music production D. Radio production E. Radio and T.V. broadcasts ANS:- E 26. DARS brodcast systems use hybrid transmitters known as: A. ICBM Systems B. POTS Systems C. ISDN Systems D. Phased Array Systems E. IBOC Systems ANS:- E 27. What frequencies are allocated by the FCC for commercial AM transmitions? A. 88Mghz-175Mghz B. 275Khz-1750Khz C. 106Mghz-1250Mghz D. 540Khz-1630Khz E. 160Khz-1900Khz ANS:-D 28. The communication system used between principal production crew members and the talent is called... A. IFB: Interruptable Foldback System B. SA: Studio Address System C. PL: Private Line System D. SMS: Studio Monitor System E. CMS: Crew Monitor System ANS:- A 29. XM and Sirius use what type of transmission systems? A. AM B. FM C. DARS D. S-DARS E. IBOC ANS:- D 30. The primary purpose of radio is to convey information from one place to another through A. air B. non-conductive materials C. space D. all of the above E. none of the above ANS:- D 31. Sometimes a radio manager, seeing a weakness in a rival station, will: A. Adopt that station's format, hoping to do it better and lure away listeners B. Exploit the weakness through an aggressive negative-advertising campaign C. Avoid using the same music format, fearing that it may be inherently weak D. Try to develop a network of spies within the rival station to make it weaker E. None of the above ANS:- A 32. Media corporations are said to be seeking synergy when they: A. Replace their accounting firms with in-house auditors B. Break ground for broadcast stations in new locations C. Sell off stations to avoid violating FCC ownership rules D. Get into carriage battles with local cable systems E. Acquire companies that can work together in creative ways ANS:- E 33. The TV program credited with (or blamed for) making profitability mandatory in news is: A. PBS' McNeil-Lehrer News Hour B. CBS' 60 Minutes C. CNN's Anderson Cooper 360 D. ABC's 20-20 E. CNBC's The News with Brian Williams ANS:- B 34. Networks and their affiliates have argued over how much a network has to pay a station in: A. Licensing fees B. Barter minutes C. Compensation (comp.) D. Accounting credits E. Advertising funds ANS:- C 35. One major breakthrough in the development of the personal computer was the addition of icons and visual links to replace text-based commands in the computer's operating system. This innovation was called: A. Pulse Code Modulation B. Quantization C. Graphic User Interface (GUI) D. Sampling E. Data Storage ANS:- C BROADCAST Objective type Questions with Answers 37. The number of local TV stations in the country from which newscasts flow is about: A. 600 B. 800 C. 1,000 D. 300 E. None of the Above ANS:- B 38. In order to describe the speed of bits flowing in data streams, engineers refer to "bit rates," which are measured in: A. Frequencies B. Cycles C. Hertz D. Bits per Second (bps) E. Bytes (kilo, mega, giga) ANS:- D 39. The term "bit" is formed by compressing two terms; they are: A. Binary, Digit B. Binary, Terminal C. Basic, Intelligence D. Broadcast, Digital E. None of the above ANS:- A 40. On average, TV-news salaries are very low, starting at little more than: A. $18,000 a year B. $700 a week C. $20,000 a year D. $1,500 a month E. $25,000 a year ANS:- C 41. The Swedish engineer whose design was to rethink analogous waves of energy in terms of dots and dashes was: A. Harry Nyquist B. Claude Shannon C. Warren Weaver D. John Mauchly E. J. Presper Eckert ANS:- A 42. Overall, the largest sector of U.S. broadcast journalism today is: A. Public-Radio News B. Syndicated Radio News C. Network TV News D. Local TV news E. Local Radio News ANS:- D 43. The only true broadcasters in the U.S. system are: A. Fiber-Optics Webs B. Broadcast Networks C. Cable Systems D. Local Stations E. Internet Sites ANS:- D 44. One tool that many radio stations use to analyze the timing and competitiveness of their programs is the: A. Music Chart B. Hot Clock C. Playlist D. Computer E. Newsletter ANS:- B 45. A fundamental change from the 1970's is that big-time television today no longer has: A. News divisions as "loss leaders" B. African-American correspondents C. Assignment desks D. Labor unions E. Foreign bureaus ANS:- A 46. The broadcast industry rests on a three-legged stool of these economic factors: A. Station, Station Group, Network B. Broadcaster, Producer, Advertiser C. Revenue, Payroll, Profit D. Researcher, Producer, Marketer E. Broadcaster, Audience, Advertiser ANS:- E 47. This part of the personal computer is important because it translates software applications for the CPU. A. Operating System (OS) B. Storage Memory C. Random Access Memory (RAM) D. Floppy Disk Drive E. Mouse ANS:- A 48. In the basic transaction in commercial broadcasting, A. Consumers buy programs directly from networks B. Advertisers sell their products to audiences C. Advertisers buy shows from production companies D. Networks buy programs from affiliated stations E. Broadcasters sell their audiences to advertisers ANS:- E 49. Unlike most countries, the United States began early to allow broadcasting to operate as: A. A national treasure B. Private enterprise C. An arm of government D. The chief entertainer E. None of the above ANS:- B 50. If a TV network broadcasts a female-oriented sitcom when its top rival is airing a pro football game, that's usually called: A. Evasive Action B. Audience Raiding C. Hammocking D. Block Tentpoling E. Counterprogramming ANS:- E 51. Which advertising medium has the advantage of low costs, flexibility, and effectiveness? A. Radio B. Television C. CD-ROMs D. Video ANS:-A 52. What advertising medium typically runs for four to six minutes and is used to showcase a property to prospects before they visit? A. Radio B. Television C. CD-ROMs D. Video ANS:-D 53. What type of advertisement is most successful when it is visual, grabs attention, and has an identity all of its own? A. Radio B. Television C. CD-ROMs D. Video ANS:-B 54. Broadcast faxing is: A. an excellent saturation medium that can enhance a message with visuals. B. used to get a message to a number of prospects at the same time. C. a system in which the hospitality firm gives selected travel intermediaries or other target markets a special fax number they may call to receive its latest information at any time. D. a high-quality presence that can quickly provide new information to consumers. ANS:- B 55. Which of the following is an advantage of Internet advertising? A. High saturation B. Long shelf life C. Quick updates D. Highly targeted ANS:- C 56. Video brochures have a higher storage capacity than CD-ROMs. A. True B. False ANS:-B 57. Travel services on the Internet serve as an online directory of properties. A. True B. False ANS:-A 58. Television advertising is expensive as hotels must pay for both airtime and production. A. True B. False ANS:-A 59. It is important to determine audience demographics and develop targeted ads when advertising on television. A. True B. False ANS:- A 60. The Internet is an inherently interactive medium, so it isn’t necessary for a property Website to build in interactivity. A. True B. False ANS:- B 61. __________ is the measurement of the opening in a lens of a camera that allows a specific amount of light to be let in . A. composition B. aperture C. diffusion D. focal length ANS:- B 62. _______ is the term for removing and dismantling sets after a production. A. cleanup B. strike C. break down D. load out ANS:- C 63. What do the letters C.C.D stand for? A. charge coupled device B. crispy creme donuts C. charge current distribution D. common cathode disc ANS:- A 64. Dimmer is part of a camera . A. True B. False ANS:- B 65. Switcher is part of lighting. A. True B. False ANS:- B 66. F-Stop can be found on the camera. A. True B. False ANS:- A 67. Match cuts are found in editing. A. True B. False ANS:- A 68. What is the correct kelvin temperature of indoor videography? A. 5600 Degrees B. 7200 Degrees C. 1200 Degrees D. 3200 Degrees ANS:- D 69. What is the correct exterior kelvin temperature for daytime exterior videography? A. 5600 Degrees B. 3200 Degrees C. 7200 Degrees D. 1200 Degrees ANS:- A 70. What does RGB signify? A. Rig, Ballast, Grid B. Right, Bright, Great C. Ring, Bing, Gring D. Red, Blue, Green ANS:- D BROADCAST Questions and Answers pdf Download Read the full article

[bm2ab]

Arrivals & Departures - 09 December 1906 Celebrate Grace Brewster Murray Hopper Day!

Grace Brewster Murray Hopper (née Murray December 9, 1906 – January 1, 1992) was an American computer scientist and United States Navy rear admiral. One of the first programmers of the Harvard Mark I computer, she was a pioneer of computer programming who invented one of the first linkers. She popularized the idea of machine-independent programming languages, which led to the development of COBOL, an early high-level programming language still in use today.

Prior to joining the Navy, Hopper earned a Ph.D. in mathematics from Yale University and was a professor of mathematics at Vassar College. Hopper attempted to enlist in the Navy during World War II but was rejected because she was 34 years old. She instead joined the Navy Reserves. Hopper began her computing career in 1944 when she worked on the Harvard Mark I team led by Howard H. Aiken. In 1949, she joined the Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation and was part of the team that developed the UNIVAC I computer. At Eckert–Mauchly she began developing the compiler. She believed that a programming language based on English was possible. Her compiler converted English terms into machine code understood by computers. By 1952, Hopper had finished her program linker (originally called a compiler), which was written for the A-0 System. During her wartime service, she co-authored three papers based on her work on the Harvard Mark 1.

In 1954, Eckert–Mauchly chose Hopper to lead their department for automatic programming, and she led the release of some of the first compiled languages like FLOW-MATIC. In 1959, she participated in the CODASYL consortium, which consulted Hopper to guide them in creating a machine-independent programming language. This led to the COBOL language, which was inspired by her idea of a language being based on English words. In 1966, she retired from the Naval Reserve, but in 1967 the Navy recalled her to active duty. She retired from the Navy in 1986 and found work as a consultant for the Digital Equipment Corporation, sharing her computing experiences.

The U.S. Navy Arleigh Burke-class guided-missile destroyer USS Hopper was named for her, as was the Cray XE6 "Hopper" supercomputer at NERSC. During her lifetime, Hopper was awarded 40 honorary degrees from universities across the world. A college at Yale University was renamed in her honor. In 1991, she received the National Medal of Technology. On November 22, 2016, she was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama.

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Evening everyone, So sorry for last night no trivia time happened as I was in the middle of a plumbing disaster, Water everywhere an panic had struck lol. All sorted today so a great relief, Its Trivia Time so D.Y.K what happened on 9th October?. . Now this would of been handy to use last night I could of called for assistance! In 1876 The First Phone Call Was Made Over Outdoor Wires Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Watson demonstrated the first two-way phone call over outdoor wires. Bell and Watson made their call between the cities of Boston and Cambridge. . In 1947 BINAC Computer Was to Be Built, A contract was signed to develop the BINAC. The "BINary Automatic Computer" was the only computer ever built by the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Co., founded by ENIAC pioneers J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly. The company became a division of Remington Rand Corp. before completing its next project, the UNIVAC. The first electronic digital computer with a stored-program capability to be completed in the United States, the BINAC had a capacity of 512 words. At a price of $278,000, the BINAC improved on the ENIAC primarily by improving speed and power with only 700 vacuum tubes instead of 18,000. . Well if you was reading this in 1998 Then You would need this next post, We all remember the modem, right? Dial into the internet through an ISP? Some of you may still have that technology, but if you have dealt with modems for a while, you remember Hayes. The Hayes corporation was pretty big back in the day – giving your Apple II connectivity to the world. Well, that is until 1998 when it’s course ran out. Stocks went from $12 a share, down to almost nothing. Hayes had no choice but to file for bankruptcy. Zoom Technologies (now called (Zoom Telephonics) bought the company out in 1999. . Thanks for reading please join me again tomorrow for more. . . #TerrierByteIT #Wifeidge #computerhistory #computer #technology #history #computerscience #tech #computerhistorymuseum #computers #retro #vintage #retrotech #trivia #oldtechnology #techhistory #technologyhistory #computinghistory #oldcomputer #oldschool #informationtechnology #thisdayinhistory #internethistory #historyoftechnology https://www.instagram.com/p/BoueJTZlyeQ/?utm_source=ig_tumblr_share&igshid=y5mgb3n3hpij

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HISTORIA DEL COMPUTADOR

Las computadoras de la primera Generación emplearon bulbos para procesar información. Los operadores ingresaban los datos y programas en código especial por medio de tarjetas perforadas. El almacenamiento interno se lograba con un tambor que giraba rápidamente, sobre el cual un dispositivo de lectura/escritura colocaba marcas magnéticas. Esas computadoras de bulbos eran mucho más grandes y generaban más calor que los modelos contemporáneos. Eckert y Mauchly contribuyeron al desarrollo de computadoras de la Primera Generación formando una compañía privada y construyendo UNIVAC I, que el Comité del censo utilizó para evaluar el censo de 1950. La IBM tenía el monopolio de los equipos de procesamiento de datos a base de tarjetas perforadas y estaba teniendo un gran auge en productos como rebanadores de carne, básculas para comestibles, relojes y otros artículos; sin embargo no había logrado el contrato para el Censo de 1950. Comenzó entonces a construir computadoras electrónicas y su primera entrada fue con la IBM 701 en 1953. Después de un lento pero excitante comienzo la IBM 701 se convirtió en un producto comercialmente viable. Sin embargo en 1954 fue introducido el modelo IBM 650, el cual es la razón por la que IBM disfruta hoy de una gran parte del mercado de las computadoras. La administración de la IBM asumió un gran riesgo y estimó una venta de 50 computadoras. Este número era mayor que la cantidad de computadoras instaladas en esa época en E.U. De hecho la IBM instaló 1000 computadoras. El resto es historia. Aunque caras y de uso limitado las computadoras fueron aceptadas rápidamente por las Compañías privadas y de Gobierno. A la mitad de los años 50 IBM y Remington Rand se consolidaban como líderes en la fabricación de computadoras. Segunda Generación (1959-1964) Transistor Compatibilidad Limitada: El invento del transistor hizo posible una nueva Generación de computadoras, más rápidas, más pequeñas y con menores necesidades de ventilación. Sin embargo el costo seguía siendo una porción significativa del presupuesto de una Compañía. Las computadoras de la segunda generación también utilizaban redes de núcleos magnéticos en lugar de tambores giratorios para el almacenamiento primario. Estos núcleos contenían pequeños anillos de material magnético, enlazados entre sí, en los cuales podían almacenarse datos e instrucciones. Los programas de computadoras también mejoraron. El COBOL desarrollado durante la 1era generación estaba ya disponible comercialmente. Los programas escritos para una computadora podían transferirse a otra con un mínimo esfuerzo. El escribir un programa ya no requería entender plenamente el hardware de la computación. Las computadoras de la 2da Generación eran sustancialmente más pequeñas y rápidas que las de bulbos, y se usaban para nuevas aplicaciones, como en los sistemas para reservación en líneas aéreas, control de tráfico aéreo y simulaciones para uso general. Las empresas comenzaron a aplicar las computadoras a tareas de almacenamiento de registros, como manejo de inventarios, nómina y contabilidad. La marina de E.U. utilizó las computadoras de la Segunda Generación para crear el primer simulador de vuelo. (Whirlwind I). HoneyWell se colocó como el primer competidor durante la segunda generación de computadoras. Burroughs, Univac, NCR, CDC, HoneyWell, los más grandes competidores de IBM durante los 60s se conocieron como el grupo BUNCH.

Tercera Generación (1964-1971) Circuitos Integrados, Compatibilidad con Equipo Mayor, Multiprogramación, Minicomputadora: Las computadoras de la tercera generación emergieron con el desarrollo de los circuitos integrados (pastillas de silicio) en las cuales se colocan miles de componentes electrónicos, en una integración en miniatura. Las computadoras nuevamente se hicieron más pequeñas, más rápidas, desprendían menos calor y eran energéticamente más eficientes. Antes del advenimiento de los circuitos integrados, las computadoras estaban diseñadas para aplicaciones matemáticas o de negocios, pero no para las dos cosas. Los circuitos integrados permitieron a los fabricantes de computadoras incrementar la flexibilidad de los programas, y estandarizar sus modelos. La IBM 360 una de las primeras computadoras comerciales que usó circuitos integrados, podía realizar tanto análisis numéricos como administración ó procesamiento de archivos. Los clientes podían escalar sus sistemas 360 a modelos IBM de mayor tamaño y podían todavía correr sus programas actuales. Las computadoras trabajaban a tal velocidad que proporcionaban la capacidad de correr más de un programa de manera simultánea (multiprogramación). Por ejemplo la computadora podía estar calculando la nomina y aceptando pedidos al mismo tiempo. Minicomputadoras, Con la introducción del modelo 360 IBM acaparó el 70% del mercado, para evitar competir directamente con IBM la empresa Digital Equipment Corporation DEC redirigió sus esfuerzos hacia computadoras pequeñas. Mucho menos costosas de comprar y de operar que las computadoras grandes, las mini computadoras se desarrollaron durante la segunda generación pero alcanzaron su mayor auge entre 1960 y 1970. Cuarta Generación (1971 a la fecha) Microprocesador, Chips de memoria, Microminiaturización: Dos mejoras en la tecnología de las computadoras marcan el inicio de la cuarta generación: el reemplazo de las memorias con núcleos magnéticos, por las de chips de silicio y la colocación de Muchos más componentes en un Chip: producto de la microminiaturización de los circuitos electrónicos. El tamaño reducido del microprocesador y de chips hizo posible la creación de las computadoras personales (PC Personal Computer). Hoy en día las tecnologías LSI (Integración a gran escala) y VLSI (integración a muy gran escala) permiten que cientos de miles de componentes electrónicos se almacenen en un chip. Usando VLSI, un fabricante puede hacer que una computadora pequeña rivalice con una computadora de la primera generación que ocupaba un cuarto completo.

El ordenador: en codigo binario 1 significa encendido y 0 apagado e igualmente falso y verdadero el codigo binario es lo unico que el ordenador conoce el ordenador tiene la capacidada de modelar moleculas esto ayuda a los cientificos a hacer experimentos antes de realizar la prueba los primeros ordenadores digitales electronicos se craron para ayudar a ganar una guerra mundial durante la segunda guerra mundial se producian muchas armas y tenian que producir muchas tablas de disparo crearon el proyecto eniang luego crearon el univac cli: linea de interfaz de comando

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December 8 – technical history

1931 – US Patent No. 1,835,031 for a “concentric conducting system” was awarded to Lloyd Espenschied of Kew Gardens, New York, and Herman A. Affel of Ridgewood, New jersey and assigned to the American Telephone & Telegraph Co. Coaxial Cable had been patented.

1947 – The Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corp. Is Incorporated

The Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation is incorporated. After a dispute with the…

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1951  UNIVAC

UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) is a line of electronic digital stored-program computers starting with the products of the Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation. Later the name was applied to a division of the Remington Rand company and successor organizations.

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HISTORY OF NEW MEDIA

New Media is a product and a service that provides information, entertainment and satisfaction to the users through using of computers, mobile phones and internet. To know more about what media really is, the kinds of media and when it was created, here are the lists and its brief description of the history of new media:  

EDSAC (1948) this was an early British Computer known as  Clectronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC).

UNIVAC (1951) or known as  Universal Automatic Computer,  this is the name of a line of electronic digital stored-program computers starting with the products of the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation.

IBM 701 (1953) this was the  first electronic computers called 701 in the industry and the  first Commercial Scientific Computer.

MAINFRAME COMPUTER (1960)  referred to as "big iron"  are computers used primarily by large organizations for critical applications and bulk data processing.

PACKARD (1968)  Packard Bell is a Dutch-based computer manufacturing subsidiary of Acers.

ARPANET (1969)  was considered as the predecessor of the internet. It was a large area- wide network created by the US military.

APPLE 1 (1976) also known later as the Apple I, or Apple-1, is a desktop computer released by the Apple Computer Company.

LAPTOP (1980)  often called a notebook or "notebook computer", is a small, portable personal computer with a "clamshell". Laptops are folded shut for transportation, and thus are suitable for mobile use.

MOSAIC BROWSER (1993)  is a discontinued early web browser. It has been credited with popularizing the World Wide Web.

FIRST SMARTPHONES (1994) was called as Personal Communicator.

WWW (1994) or known as World Wide Web  It is an information system on the Internet that allows documents to be connected to other documents by hypertext links, enabling the user to search for information by moving from one document to another.

PHILIPPINES, INTERNET (1994)  finally th Philippines was formally connected to the internet using the PLDT network center in Makati City.

YAHOO! (1995)  is a web services provider, wholly owned by Verizon Communications through Oath Inc founded by Jerry Young.

GOOGLE (1998) is an American multinational technology company specializing in Internet-related services and products. These include online advertising technologies, search, cloud computing, software, and hardware.

LIVEJOURNAL, BLOGS (1999) it is a Russian (originally American) social networking service where users can keep a blog, journal or diary.

FRIENDSTER (2002) was a social gaming site based in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. It was originally a social networking service website.

LINKEDIN (2003) is a business- and employment-oriented social networking service that operates via websites and mobile apps.

SKYPE (2003)  is an instant messaging app that provides online text message and video chat services. It can transmit messages thru chat and video and exchange digital documents such as images, texts and videos.

FACEBOOK (2004)  is an American for-profit corporation and an online social media and social networking service based in Menlo Park, California.It was launched by Mark Zuckerberg.

YOUTUBE (2005) is an American video-sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California.

TWITTER (2006) is an online news and social networking service where users post and interact with messages, "tweets", restricted to 140 characters. Registered users can post tweets, but those who are unregistered can only read them.

NETBOOK (2008) is a generic name given to a category of small, lightweight, legacy-free, and inexpensive laptop computers that were introduced in 2007.

PINTEREST (2010)  is a web and mobile application startup that operates a software system designed to discover information on the World Wide Web it mainly utilizing images and on a shorter scale, GIFs and videos.

INSTAGRAM (2010) is a mobile, desktop, and Internet-based photo-sharing application and service that allows users to share pictures and videos either publicly or privately.