#x ray fluorescence analyser

[integratedndesolution]

Integrated NDE Solution in Pune: Pioneering Positive Material Identification for Quality Control and Safety Compliance

In the modern industrial landscape, ensuring the integrity and composition of materials is crucial for maintaining quality control and safety compliance. Positive Material Identification (PMI) is an essential non-destructive method used to verify the chemical composition of materials. Integrated NDE Solution in Pune offers comprehensive PMI services, utilizing advanced technologies such as X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) analyzers and Optical Emission Spectroscopy (OES). This article delves into the intricacies of PMI, its benefits, and the cutting-edge services provided by Integrated NDE Solution.

Understanding Positive Material Identification

Positive Material Identification (PMI) is a non-destructive testing method used to verify the alloy composition of materials. PMI ensures that the materials used in manufacturing processes meet the specified chemical composition, thereby maintaining product quality and safety standards. This verification process is crucial for industries where material composition directly impacts performance, reliability, and safety, such as aerospace, oil and gas, power generation, and pharmaceuticals.

Importance of Positive Material Identification

Quality Control: Ensures that materials conform to the required specifications, maintaining the integrity and quality of the final product.

Safety Compliance: Verifies that materials meet industry safety standards, reducing the risk of failures and accidents.

Material Verification: Confirms the correct alloy composition of materials, preventing mix-ups and ensuring proper material usage.

Regulatory Compliance: Helps industries adhere to stringent regulatory requirements and standards.

Cost Savings: Prevents costly material failures and recalls by ensuring the correct material is used from the start.

How Positive Material Identification Works

Positive Material Identification is typically conducted using two main technologies: X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) and Optical Emission Spectroscopy (OES).

X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Analyzers

XRF analyzers use X-rays to excite the atoms in a sample, causing them to emit secondary (fluorescent) X-rays. These fluorescent X-rays are characteristic of the elements present in the sample, allowing for a semi-quantitative chemical analysis. The key steps in the XRF process are:

Preparation: The surface of the material is cleaned to ensure accurate readings.

Excitation: The XRF device directs X-rays at the material, exciting the atoms within the sample.

Detection: The device detects the emitted fluorescent X-rays and measures their energy levels.

Analysis: The energy levels correspond to specific elements, allowing for the identification of the material's composition.

Optical Emission Spectroscopy (OES)

OES involves exciting the atoms in a sample using a high-energy spark or arc, causing them to emit light. The emitted light is then analyzed to determine the material's composition. The key steps in the OES process are:

Preparation: The surface of the material is cleaned and sometimes ground to create a flat, uniform surface.

Excitation: The OES device generates a spark or arc that excites the atoms in the material.

Detection: The emitted light is collected and passed through a spectrometer.

Analysis: The spectrometer measures the wavelengths of the emitted light, which correspond to specific elements, allowing for precise material identification.

Benefits of Positive Material Identification

Non-Destructive: PMI does not damage or alter the material being tested.

Accurate: Provides precise and reliable identification of alloy composition.

Quick and Efficient: Delivers immediate results, enabling rapid decision-making.

Versatile: Applicable to a wide range of materials, including metals and alloys.

Portable: PMI equipment is often portable, allowing for on-site testing.

Integrated NDE Solution in Pune: Leaders in Positive Material Identification

Integrated NDE Solution in Pune is a leader in non-destructive testing, offering a broad spectrum of services, including Positive Material Identification. Their expertise, state-of-the-art equipment, and commitment to quality make them a trusted partner for industries requiring reliable material verification.

Comprehensive NDT Services Offered

Positive Material Identification (PMI)

Remote Visual Inspection (RVI)

Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)

Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

Radiographic Testing (RT)

Liquid Penetrant Testing (LPT)

Eddy Current Testing (ECT)

Portable Hardness Testing

Ferrite Testing

Industries Served

Integrated NDE Solution in Pune caters to a diverse array of industries, including:

Aerospace: Ensuring the safety and reliability of aircraft components.

Automotive: Inspecting critical parts to prevent failures.

Construction: Verifying the integrity of structural components.

Oil and Gas: Ensuring the reliability of pipelines and equipment.

Power Generation: Maintaining the integrity of infrastructure components.

Pharmaceuticals: Verifying the composition of materials used in drug manufacturing.

Positive Material Identification in Action

Case Study: Oil and Gas Pipeline Inspection

In the oil and gas industry, the reliability of pipelines is crucial. Integrated NDE Solution was approached by a leading oil and gas company to conduct PMI on pipeline materials. Using advanced XRF analyzers, the team verified the alloy composition of the pipeline materials, ensuring they met the specified standards for corrosion resistance and mechanical strength. The inspection helped prevent potential failures and ensured the safety and reliability of the pipeline network.

Case Study: Aerospace Component Verification

A major aerospace manufacturer required PMI for critical components used in aircraft engines. Integrated NDE Solution employed both XRF and OES technologies to verify the alloy composition of the components. The precise identification confirmed that the materials met the stringent specifications required for aerospace applications, ensuring the safety and performance of the aircraft engines.

Advanced Positive Material Identification Equipment

Integrated NDE Solution in Pune utilizes the latest PMI equipment to ensure the highest level of accuracy and reliability in their inspections. Some of the advanced equipment includes:

Handheld XRF Analyzers: Portable devices that provide rapid, on-site analysis of alloy composition.

Stationary XRF Analyzers: High-precision instruments used for detailed laboratory analysis.

Mobile OES Units: Portable units that offer precise material identification in the field.

Stationary OES Systems: Advanced systems used for comprehensive laboratory analysis of materials.

The Role of Certified Technicians

The effectiveness of Positive Material Identification largely depends on the expertise of the technicians conducting the tests. Integrated NDE Solution in Pune employs certified technicians who undergo rigorous training and continuous professional development. Their skills and knowledge ensure that clients receive the highest quality of service.

Commitment to Quality and Safety

Integrated NDE Solution in Pune is dedicated to maintaining the highest standards of quality and safety. They adhere to international standards and best practices, ensuring that all inspections are performed with utmost precision and reliability. This commitment to excellence has earned them a stellar reputation in the industry.

Customer-Centric Approach

At Integrated NDE Solution in Pune, customer satisfaction is a top priority. They work closely with clients to understand their specific needs and tailor their services accordingly. Whether it’s a small-scale inspection or a large industrial project, they provide personalized solutions that meet the highest standards of quality and reliability.

Why Choose Integrated NDE Solution in Pune?

Expertise: Extensive experience and technical know-how in NDT services.

Technology: Utilization of the latest and most advanced testing equipment.

Quality: Commitment to providing accurate and reliable results.

Customer Service: Focus on building long-term relationships through excellent service.

Compliance: Adherence to all relevant industry standards and regulations.

Conclusion

In industries where precision and reliability are non-negotiable, Integrated NDE Solution in Pune stands out as a leader in non-destructive testing, particularly in Positive Material Identification. Their dedication to quality, use of advanced technology, and customer-centric approach make them the go-to choice for businesses across various sectors. By partnering with Integrated NDE Solution, companies can ensure the integrity and safety of their materials and components, safeguarding their operations and reputation.

Integrated NDE Solution in Pune continues to set the standard for excellence in non-destructive inspection. Their expertise in Positive Material Identification and other NDT services is pivotal in industries where safety and reliability are crucial. As technology advances and industries evolve, Integrated NDE Solution remains at the forefront, offering unparalleled service and support to their clients.

In conclusion, for businesses seeking the highest standards in Positive Material Identification, alloy composition verification, and comprehensive NDT services, Integrated NDE Solution in Pune is the trusted partner that delivers results. Their innovative approach, advanced technology, and unwavering commitment to quality ensure that every inspection meets the stringent requirements of today’s demanding industrial environments.

[best-testing-lab-uae]

How Diesel Testing Labs in the UAE Ensure Fuel Quality Compliance | +971 554747210

The UAE's thriving economy is heavily reliant on the transportation, logistics, and industrial sectors, all of which depend on high-quality diesel fuel. As a vital energy source, diesel must meet stringent quality standards to ensure optimal performance, safety, and environmental compliance. This is where Diesel Testing Labs in the UAE play a crucial role. These labs perform a series of comprehensive tests to assess diesel quality, ensuring compliance with both local and international standards.

In this blog, we will explore how diesel testing labs in the UAE ensure fuel quality compliance, the importance of these tests, and the impact of fuel quality on various sectors.

1. Adherence to International Standards

One of the primary ways that Diesel Testing Lab in the UAE ensure fuel quality compliance is by adhering to internationally recognized standards such as ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) and ISO (International Organization for Standardization). These standards define the required specifications for diesel fuel properties, including sulfur content, cetane number, viscosity, density, and more.

Accredited Diesel Testing Labs in the UAE conduct tests according to these standards to ensure that the diesel fuel meets the required specifications. By aligning their testing protocols with these globally accepted standards, labs help businesses comply with regulatory requirements and maintain the quality of their diesel fuel.

2. Comprehensive Fuel Analysis Using Advanced Technologies

Diesel Testing Labs in the UAE use advanced technologies to conduct comprehensive analyses of diesel fuel. This involves a series of tests to evaluate various fuel properties that can affect engine performance, emissions, and overall safety. Some of the key tests include:

Density and Specific Gravity Testing: Ensures the energy content of diesel is optimal for combustion efficiency.

Flash Point Testing: Measures the lowest temperature at which diesel can ignite, ensuring safety during storage and transportation.

Viscosity Testing: Assesses the flow properties of diesel, crucial for fuel injection and atomization.

Sulfur Content Analysis: Determines the sulfur level in diesel, ensuring compliance with Ultra-Low Sulfur Diesel (ULSD) standards to reduce emissions.

By using advanced analytical instruments such as Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), and X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), these labs can detect even trace levels of contaminants and impurities, ensuring diesel quality is within the required limits.

3. Monitoring Sulfur Levels for Environmental Compliance

Sulfur content in diesel is a significant factor affecting both engine health and environmental compliance. High sulfur levels in diesel fuel lead to the release of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) during combustion, contributing to air pollution and acid rain. To combat this, the UAE has adopted Ultra-Low Sulfur Diesel (ULSD) standards, which require diesel to have a sulfur content below 15 parts per million (ppm).

Diesel Testing Labs in the UAE use advanced methods like X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) to accurately measure sulfur content. By ensuring that the diesel fuel meets these stringent sulfur limits, labs help companies reduce their environmental footprint and comply with local environmental regulations.

4. Ensuring Optimal Combustion with Cetane Number Testing

The cetane number is a measure of the ignition quality of diesel fuel. A higher cetane number indicates better combustion properties, resulting in smoother engine operation, reduced emissions, and increased fuel efficiency. The UAE typically requires diesel fuels to have a minimum cetane number of 50 to ensure optimal engine performance.

Diesel Testing Labs determine the cetane number using specialized equipment, such as the Cetane Engine Test or Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIR). By ensuring that diesel fuels meet the required cetane number, these labs help businesses maintain engine health, reduce maintenance costs, and comply with performance standards.

5. Controlling Contaminants through Water and Sediment Testing

Water and sediment contamination in diesel fuel can cause serious problems, such as engine corrosion, fuel injector clogging, and poor combustion efficiency. Water can enter diesel fuel through condensation, leaks, or poor handling practices, while sediment may result from the degradation of storage tanks or microbial growth.

To control contaminants, Diesel Testing Labs in the UAE perform water and sediment content testing using methods like ASTM D2709. This involves centrifuging the diesel sample and measuring the volume of water and sediment separated from the fuel. By ensuring that water and sediment levels are within acceptable limits, labs help prevent engine damage, reduce maintenance costs, and ensure compliance with fuel quality standards.

6. Cold Filter Plugging Point (CFPP) and Cloud Point Testing for Cold Weather Performance

The Cold Filter Plugging Point (CFPP) and Cloud Point are critical parameters for diesel fuel, especially in regions with varying temperatures. The CFPP indicates the lowest temperature at which diesel can pass through a filter without clogging, while the Cloud Point is the temperature at which wax crystals start to form in the fuel.

Diesel Testing Labs conduct these tests to ensure that diesel fuel is suitable for use in colder conditions, preventing operational issues like clogged filters and fuel lines. By ensuring diesel meets these specifications, labs help maintain reliable performance in diverse weather conditions, ensuring safety and compliance.

7. Microbial Contamination Testing to Prevent Biofilm Formation

Microbial contamination is a significant concern for diesel fuel quality, especially in the UAE's hot and humid environment. Bacteria, fungi, and yeast can grow in diesel fuel and form biofilms, which can clog fuel filters, corrode storage tanks, and degrade fuel quality.

To prevent microbial contamination, Diesel Testing Labs in the UAE use advanced methods such as Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Bioluminescence and Microbial Culture Testing. Identifying and mitigating microbial contamination is essential for maintaining diesel fuel quality, preventing engine damage, and ensuring regulatory compliance.

8. Digital Reporting and Certification for Transparency and Compliance

Accredited Diesel Testing Labs in the UAE provide comprehensive digital reporting and certification to ensure transparency and compliance. These reports include detailed results of all tests conducted, compliance status with relevant standards, and recommendations for corrective actions if necessary.

Digital reporting allows for easy access, retrieval, and sharing of data, making it easier for companies to demonstrate compliance to regulatory authorities, stakeholders, and clients. Certification from an accredited lab is often a prerequisite for regulatory approvals and helps companies maintain a good reputation in the market.

9. Regular Diesel Quality Monitoring and Auditing

Regular monitoring and auditing are essential for maintaining diesel fuel quality compliance. Diesel Testing Labs offer periodic sampling and testing services to ensure continuous compliance with fuel quality standards. This proactive approach helps companies detect and address any issues before they become significant problems.

Regular diesel quality monitoring also supports predictive maintenance strategies, reducing the likelihood of costly engine breakdowns and ensuring uninterrupted operations. For companies in the UAE's critical sectors like transportation, logistics, and maritime, regular diesel quality monitoring is crucial for maintaining operational efficiency and compliance.

10. Collaboration with Regulatory Bodies and Industry Stakeholders

Diesel Testing Labs in the UAE work closely with regulatory bodies, such as the Emirates Authority for Standardization and Metrology (ESMA), to stay updated on the latest regulations and standards. They also collaborate with industry stakeholders to develop and implement best practices for diesel quality control.

By fostering collaboration and communication, Diesel Testing Labs ensure that all parties are aligned in their efforts to maintain fuel quality compliance, protect the environment, and promote safe and efficient operations.

Conclusion

Diesel Testing Labs in the UAE play an indispensable role in ensuring fuel quality compliance by adhering to international standards, conducting comprehensive fuel analyses, and leveraging advanced technologies. From monitoring sulfur levels and cetane numbers to controlling contaminants and preventing microbial growth, these labs help businesses maintain diesel fuel quality, comply with regulations, and operate efficiently.

For companies in the UAE's transportation, logistics, construction, and industrial sectors, partnering with an accredited Diesel Testing Lab is essential for ensuring fuel quality, optimizing engine performance, reducing emissions, and protecting their investment in equipment and operations.

[authenticityinsights]

Official Authentics: Your Trusted Partner in Memorabilia Verification

In an industry often plagued by counterfeits and forgeries, ensuring the authenticity of collectibles is crucial. Official Authentics.com based in Switzerland, has established itself as a trusted authority in memorabilia authentication. Their mission is to protect collectors by offering comprehensive and precise authentication services.

Official Authentics employs a meticulous, multi-step process that combines expert visual inspections with advanced scientific analyses. Their team of specialists uses state-of-the-art techniques such as carbon dating, X-ray fluorescence, and infrared spectroscopy to verify the authenticity of each item. Additionally, thorough provenance research is conducted to trace the history and ownership of the memorabilia, further ensuring its legitimacy.

[dutcotennantllc]

The Significance of Metal Testing: Ensuring Quality and Safety

Metals are the backbone of many industries, serving as the building blocks for countless applications, from construction and manufacturing to aerospace and healthcare. The reliability and quality of these materials are paramount, as they directly impact the performance, durability, and safety of products and structures. 

Ensuring the quality of metals involves a comprehensive process known as metal testing. We at Dutco Tennant LLC, are noted as a trusted name for supplying industrial equipment which also includes providing the necessary tools and solutions for efficient metal testing.

In this comprehensive blog, we shall cover the importance of metal testing process and the need for high-quality metal testing equipment.

What is Metal Testing?

Metal testing is a comprehensive process that assesses the properties and characteristics of different metals and alloys. It involves a range of techniques, from examining the composition and structure of metals to analysing their mechanical properties and determining their ability to withstand environmental conditions.

If you ever wonder why metal testing is so significant? Well, then let's delve deeper into its relevance and importance in various industries.

Quality Assurance

One of the primary purposes of metal testing is to ensure the quality of materials. Substandard or inconsistent metal can lead to structural failures, which can be catastrophic in critical applications such as aerospace, automotive, and construction. By rigorously testing metals, manufacturers can verify that the materials meet specified quality standards, ensuring product reliability and performance.

Material Selection

Selecting the right metal or alloy for a particular application is crucial. The choice of material can significantly affect the end product's durability and safety. Metal testing helps in determining the suitability of a specific metal for a given purpose, considering factors such as strength, corrosion resistance, and heat resistance. This informed selection enhances the longevity and safety of the final product.

Safety and Compliance

In industries like aerospace and automotive, safety is of utmost importance. Metal testing is a key component of safety protocols, ensuring that critical components can withstand extreme conditions, stress, and fatigue. It also ensures compliance with industry standards and regulations, which are designed to protect public safety.

Cost Reduction

Frequent equipment breakdowns or failures due to subpar materials can be costly in terms of repairs, downtime, and reputation. By investing in metal testing, companies can reduce these costs in the long run. Quality assurance through testing minimises the risk of unexpected failures, resulting in substantial savings.

Research and Development

For research and development efforts, understanding the properties of new materials and alloys is essential. Metal testing provides valuable data that researchers can use to develop innovative materials with improved performance characteristics. This is especially significant in industries like aerospace and healthcare, where lightweight yet robust materials are in high demand.

The Metal Testing Process

Metal testing encompasses a variety of techniques and methods, including:

Chemical Analysis: This involves determining the composition of a metal or alloy, including the presence of specific elements and impurities. It's essential for verifying the material's compliance with industry standards. Techniques like X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy are commonly used for chemical analysis.

Mechanical Testing: This category includes tests for strength, hardness, ductility, and more. These tests evaluate how a metal will perform under different loads and conditions.

Tensile Testing: This test measures a material's resistance to a stretching force. It helps determine the yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and elongation of the material.

Hardness Testing: Hardness tests, such as the Brinell, Rockwell, and Vickers tests, measure a material's resistance to penetration or indentation.

Charpy and Izod Impact Tests: These tests assess a material's toughness and ability to withstand sudden impact or shock.

Fatigue Testing: Fatigue tests assess a material's performance under cyclic loading and help determine its fatigue life.

Non-Destructive Testing: Techniques like ultrasonic testing, radiography, and magnetic particle testing allow the evaluation of a material's integrity without damaging the test piece. This is particularly important in industries where preserving the integrity of a component is essential.

Ultrasonic Testing (UT): UT uses high-frequency sound waves to detect internal flaws, voids, and cracks in metals.

Magnetic Particle Testing (MT): MT uses magnetic fields and magnetic particles to identify surface and near-surface defects in ferrous materials.

Dye Penetrant Testing (PT): PT uses a coloured liquid to identify surface defects like cracks and porosity in metals.

Radiographic Testing (RT): RT employs X-rays or gamma rays to examine the internal structure of metal parts.

Metallurgical Analysis: Examining the microstructure of metals can reveal important information about their properties, such as grain size, phase composition, and the presence of defects. This involves preparing thin sections of metal samples, polishing them, and examining them under a microscope to understand the microstructure, grain size, and inclusion content of the metal.

Corrosion Testing: Assessing a metal's resistance to corrosion is crucial, especially in industries where exposure to harsh environmental conditions is common. Common methods include salt spray testing, humidity testing, and electrochemical corrosion tests.

Heat Treatment Testing: This verifies that metals have been subjected to the correct heat treatment processes, such as annealing, tempering, or quenching, to achieve the desired material properties.

Dutco Tennant LLC: Your Trusted Partner in Metal Testing

When it comes to procuring high-quality metal testing equipment, Dutco Tennant LLC is a name you can trust. As a renowned supplier and distributor of industrial equipment, we have a vast range of products and solutions to support the metal testing process.

Dutco serves as a bridge between metal tester distributors and end-users, ensuring that industries have access to advanced metal testing equipment. Our comprehensive catalogue includes a wide range of metal testing equipment from leading manufacturers.

Our team of experts can guide you in choosing the right metal testing equipment, based on your specific requirements. Whether you need to perform chemical analysis, mechanical testing, or non-destructive testing, we have the tools and expertise to meet your needs.

Conclusion

The significance of metal testing cannot be overstated in industries that rely on the quality and performance of metals. It is a crucial process for ensuring the safety, reliability, and compliance of materials used in various applications. 

For those seeking reliable and high-quality metal testing equipment, Dutco Tennant LLC stands as a dependable partner. With our vast expertise and a comprehensive range of metal testing solutions, we are the go-to source for all your metal testing needs.

[larimar-amber-art]

BLUE AMBER AND LARIMAR DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

18.10.2023.20:26, Cathy Jonathan cjonathan@gia.edu

Dear LARIMAR & AMBER ART.

Larimar is the trade name for blue pectolite, which has been used as a gem material for several decades. GIA first reported on Larimar in 1986 in our journal Gems & Gemology, and we published an extensive article on this material in 1989. The following article citations will provide more information about Larimar.

“Gem news: pectolite,” by Emmanuel Fritsch, Gems & Gemology, 1986 Fall; v. 22, n. 3; p. 187-177. Abstract: Pectolite is known under the trade name "Larimar."

“Blue pectolite from the Dominican Republic,” by Robert E. Woodruff and Emmanuel Fritsch, Gems & Gemology, 1989 Winter; v. 25, n. 4; p. 216-225. Abstract: "Blue pectolite from the Dominican Republic, also known by the trade name Larimar, has recently entered the U.S. market. Large quantities of this attractive ornamental stone have been found in cavities and veins of altered basalt. Most of the gemological properties are consistent with those previously reported for pectolite; the cause of color in this material is believed to be related to the presence of small amounts of Cu2+. The color appears to be stable to light, but does react to irradiation and to the heat of a jeweler's torch. It is easily separated from similar-appearing materials."--p. 216

https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-1989-blue-pectolite-woodruff

“Atlantis Trading & Larimar, a rare blue gemstone from the Caribbean,” Bangkok Gems & Jewellery, 2001 May; v. 14, n. 10; p. 60, 62. Abstract: Larimar has a hardness of 5 to 7 on the Mohs scale. The stone is more or less translucent and its color can range from azure blue with white marbling to milky greenish shade. Larimar has only been found in a mountain region in the Dominican Republic. The name Larimar was given to the stone by a Dominican man, who named the stone after his daughter LARIssa and the Spanish word for sea: MAR.

“Gem profile: Larimar,” by David Federman, Modern Jeweler, 2009 Jan; p. 17-18. Abstract: Larimar is a sky-blue pectolite found only in the Dominican Republic.

“Gemmological research on Larimar stone from Dominica,” by Yi-Hong Xie, Journal of Gems & Gemmology, 2010; v. 12, n. 2; p. 7-10. Abstract: "The gemstone which is called Larimar occurs in the Chinese jewelry market now. The gemmological characteristics, chemical compositions, X-ray powder diffraction and infrared spectrum of the Larimar sample are analysed in the paper in order to define its mineral group. The results show that the Larimar sample is mainly composed of pectolite. The ultraviolet-visible absorption spectrum of the sample suggests that the absorption characteristic of the sample is related to Cu. It is supposed that the blue colour of Larimar probably could be caused by the diffusion of Cu-bearing sulfide distributed in pectolite according to its absorption spectrum and gemmological characteristics and chemical compositions. The definition of the mineral group of Larimar could be of significance to its identification and naming."--p. 7 Chinese text with English abstract

“Gems that inspire: Larimar,” by Jeff Prine, Watch & Jewelry Review, 2010 Mar; v. 77, n. 3; p. 18-19. Abstract: Larimar is a blue pectolite found in the Dominican Republic. Characteristics are described.

“Imitation Larimar,” by Lore Kiefert and Peter Groenenboom, Gems & Gemology, 2013, vol. 49, no. 2.

https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-2013-gemnews-imitation-larimar

“Larimar,” by Sharon Elaine Thompson, Lapidary Journal Jewelry Artist, 2015 Nov; v. 69, n. 6; p. 38-39. Abstract: Larimar is a blue colored pectolite.

“What to cut: Caribbean Larimar,” by Russ Kaniuth, Rock & Gem, 2017 Jan; v. 47, n. 1; p. 54. Abstract: "Larimar is a very beautiful and distinctive-looking stone found in the Caribbean. The stone itself is actually a pectolite (calcium-sodium silicate); however, its blue, blue-green, and white hues, as well as the fact that it stems from one location, make it a one-of-a-kind stone. The difference in pectolites that gives larimar its distinctive blue coloring comes from the copper replacing the calcium. Although the stone was originally found over 100 years ago, it wasn't until Miguel Fuentes rediscovered it in the mid-1970s that it was introduced into the jewelry world. The stone's name combines part of his daughter Larissa's name (Lari-) and the Spanish word for "sea'' (mar). Larimar has a notorious love/hate reputation with lapidary artists: love of its beauty and hate for the difficulties of working with this material. Though it's a relatively hard material, it tends to fracture, chip, flake and break on you at the most inopportune times!"--p. 54

“Caribbean gold: Larimar,” Jewellery World (Australia), 2017 Jun; Abstract: Larimar, a sodium calcium silicate mineral possibly colored by copper, is described.

I hope this information will be helpful. If I can be of further assistance, please let me know.

Sincerely,

Cathy

Cathleen A. Jonathan, G.G. Senior Research Librarian Richard T. Liddicoat Gemological Library and Information Center T +1 760 603 4074 F +1 760 603 4256 E cjonathan@gia.edu

Our company Larimar & Amber Art creates unique exclusive handmade products from natural high quality larimar stone and blue amber of the Dominican Republic.

We are always the most unique exclusive creativity and the highest quality of our work and all our materials.

Welcome to the bright world of the power of magic of natural gems

LARIMAR & AMBER ART.

琥珀（こはく） Ｃ40Ｈ64Ｏ4 　数千万年の気が遠くなるような時間を超えて来た松柏類などの樹脂の化石です。　英語でアンバーＡｍｂｅｒと呼びます。‬

‪古来より琥珀は、その輝きと美しい色合い故に太陽の石、人魚の涙と呼ばれて愛されてきました。‬

‪西欧では１０年目を琥珀婚とし、１１月の誕生石でもあります。‬

‪琥珀はオーガニック・ジュエリー（有機質の宝石）と呼ばれる様に植物性有機物質ですから、濃い塩水に浮きます。 汗にも強く石鹸で洗っても大丈夫です。　更に天然の宝飾品としては最も軽いものの一つ言えますので、余り重さを感じさせないことも優れた特徴ではないかと思われます。　　夏は肌に涼しい優しさ、冬は暖かみを感じさせてくれるソフトな感触、そして軽くて豊かな量感と魅惑的な輝きは、一度身に付けたら手放せない魅力を秘めています。‬

‪琥珀の色彩とその表情は千差万別ですから一つとして同じものはこの世に存在しません。　なかでも、幻の琥珀として、以前より注目されているのが、海のような神秘的な輝きを放つ ドミニカの青色琥珀（ブルーアンバー） です。　ブルーアンバーは、つい十数年前発見された新しい琥珀です。‬

‪ブルーアンバーは黒い布などの上で太陽光線にかざすとそれまで茶色に見えていたものが、突然、胸が踊る様な素晴らしい青色の蛍光色を発し輝き始めます。　自然の太陽光線と同じ分光分布（スペクトラム）を持つ宝石鑑定用の人工太陽灯や街路の夜間照明用の水銀灯は勿論、青のスペクトルを多く放出するＬＥＤや蛍光灯の光でも少しは青く輝きます。　更に、紫外線のブラックライトを当てると、トルコ石に似た目の覚めるような明るい青緑色を呈します。　しかしながら、白熱電球では青の光を殆ど出しませんので、青く光らないで、普通の茶黄色に見える不思議な琥珀です。‬

‪ドミニカでは琥珀資源の保存のため機械掘りは禁止されており、人力に頼らねばなりません。　琥珀が眠っている地層までスコップとツルハシで横に坑道を掘ったり、ピットと言う深い縦穴を掘って採掘しています。　　現在、ブルーアンバーの産出量は一週間に僅か２〜３Ｋｇ、この中で良質のものは１Ｋｇ程度で、　最高級品のネイビーブルーアンバーは数百グラムのみと言われております。　　この様にブルーアンバーの産出は限定されているため大変に希少価値があります。‬

‪ブルーアンバーがなぜ青く輝くのか、その仕組みは未だ明らかではありません。　その中に銅等の不純物が包含されていて、そのイオンの色ではないか、また原子内の電子の状態に多少の不整が起こっているために特定の波長の光が吸収されて色が見えてくる等とも諸説がありますが定かではありません。　ブルーアンバーを研磨していますと、温泉の硫化水素の匂いがしますので、火山活動と何らかの関係があったものと思われます。‬

‪ミヤンマー（旧ビルマ）の青色琥珀（ブルーアンバー）や赤色琥珀（レッドアンバー） はバーマイトBurmiteと呼ばれ、黄、茶、赤、紫、青色と多彩です。 時代は日本の久慈琥珀と同じ、約８０００万年から１億１０００万年前の白亜層から産出します。 中でもブルーアンバーはやや赤色或いは紫色掛かった青色です。‬

‪インドネシアのスマトラ島の青色琥珀（ブルーアンバー） は２年位前に、石炭層の中ら発見されたもので、茶、赤、紫、青色等と多彩で、ブルーアンバーはドミニカ産のブルーアンバーより青いものがあります。 ‬

‪メキシコの赤琥珀（レッドアンバー） は黒に近い赤色から透明で淡い赤色まで色々あります。 昔、イタリアのシシリー島で採れた赤琥珀（現在、枯渇し採れません。）に似ています。‬

‪虹色琥珀（レインボーアンバー）は数年前、メキシコの赤琥珀を研磨中に、偶然、発見した希少な真紅の琥珀です。‬

‪白熱電球や蛍光灯の下でも赤色をしていますが、太陽光線や道路端の水銀灯或いは今流行のＬＥＤの光で部分的に素晴しい緑色や青色の蛍光色を帯びて輝きます。‬

‪元々は紅い琥珀ですが、黒い布などの上で太陽光線に当てますと、ある時はブルー、またある時は、グリーン、イエローと、様々な彩りを持つことから、特に青や緑の輝きが際立って良いものを 虹色琥珀（レインボーアンバー） と私が名付けました。 赤琥珀１０個の内１個程しか出て来ませんので希少性が高く高価格になります。メキシコ琥珀も、ドミニカ琥珀と同様、全て天然のままの、いわゆる熱処理をしない自然な琥珀です。‬

‪ブルーアンバーもレインボー・アンバーも約２，５００万年前の、日本のケヤキに似た、琥珀の木（アルガロボ、Ａｌｇａｒｒｏｂｏ）の樹脂で、ドミニカではこの木の子孫ガ現在も生存しています。そのブルーアンバーやレインボー・アンバーを、都会的なセンスと、日本一の品揃えで、今回お届けいたします。‬

‪バルト海やドミニカの琥珀は、地質学的な研究の結果、今から２，０００万年から４，０００万年前の琥珀の木の樹脂から生まれたものです。　　因みに、日本の秋田・新潟地方の石油ガス田が、地質年代で言いますと、いわゆる新生代第三紀の地層に賦存しております事から、同じ様な年齢です。‬

‪その他、太古のロマンを秘めたたタイムカプセルと言われる 花・葉っぱ・虫入り琥珀 など、他では見られない種々の琥珀を取り揃えてお待ちしております。‬

‪様々な模様と色調の琥珀、時を超えた美しい輝きをお楽しみ下さい。‬

‪本物志向のあなたに、何時もお守りとしてお傍に、そして御家族の末代までの家宝として伝えて下さい。‬

‪（保存方法）‬

‪悠久のロマンとファンタジィを秘め、時を超えて神秘的に輝き続ける魅惑の琥珀も、本来は松脂の様な樹脂ですから簡単に燃えます。‬

‪琥珀は地下に何千万年も眠っていた位ですから酸やアルカリに対して大変丈夫で、汗や脂をとる為に石鹸水で洗っても大丈夫です。 そして綺麗な柔らかい布やタオルでふいて下さい。 但し、若い琥珀のコーパルはアルコールや除光液に溶け、白く曇ります。‬

‪琥珀の弱点は、人間の皮膚と同じで、乾燥に弱いことです。 直射日光に何日も長時間晒しますと、表面に小さなひび割れが発生することがあります。　特にドミニカの虫入り琥珀は、何年も使用しないときは、水で湿らせて、ポリ袋に入れて置いた方が良いと思います。‬

‪また、琥珀の硬さは指の爪より少し硬い位ですので、砂などの硬いもので傷つきますから、気を付けて下さい。傷付いた琥珀は再研磨で元の様になりますので、ご安心下さい。　もし軽い傷が付いた場合には、＃１０００番程度のサンドペーパーで傷を取り、その後自動車のワックスで磨きますと簡単に直ります。‬

‪ペンダント・トップのバチカンなど、Ｋ１８或いはシルバーのパーツの磨きには通常、街中の宝飾品店などでも買えると思いますが、商品名：ポリマール（研磨用つや出し布）を使います。　但し、琥珀やメガネは磨かないで下さい、曇ってしまい、後でバフ（仕上げの研磨）を掛ける必要が出てきます。　金や銀メッキなどでは、メッキがはがれて仕舞いますので要注意です

Amber (Amber) C40H64O4 It is a fossilized resin of pine trees and other species that has survived over tens of millions of years. It is called Amber in English.

Since ancient times, amber has been loved as the stone of the sun and mermaid's tears because of its brightness and beautiful colors.

In Western Europe, the 10th year is considered amber marriage, and it is also the birthstone for November.

Amber is called organic jewelry because it is a plant-based organic material, so it floats in strong salt water. It is resistant to sweat and can be washed with soap. Furthermore, it is one of the lightest natural jewelry, so it is considered to be an excellent feature that it does not feel too heavy. It has a cool and gentle feel on your skin in the summer, a soft touch that warms your skin in the winter, and a light, rich volume and enchanting shine that you won't want to let go of once you wear it.

Amber has a wide variety of colors and expressions, so no two pieces are the same in this world. Among these, his Dominican blue amber, which has a mysterious sea-like shine, has been attracting attention as a phantom amber. Blue amber is a new type of amber that was discovered just over ten years ago.

When Blue Amber is placed on a black cloth and held up to sunlight, what previously appeared to be brown will suddenly begin to glow with a stunning blue fluorescent color that will make your heart dance. Not only artificial solar lamps for jewelry appraisal, which have the same spectral distribution (spectrum) as natural sunlight, and mercury lamps for street lighting at night, but also LED and fluorescent lamps, which emit a large amount of the blue spectrum, will give a slight blue glow. . Furthermore, when exposed to ultraviolet black light, it takes on a striking bright blue-green color similar to turquoise. However, incandescent light bulbs emit almost no blue light, so it is a mysterious amber that does not glow blue and looks like a normal brown-yellow color.

Mechanical digging is prohibited in Dominica in order to preserve amber resources, and mining must be done manually. Mining is done by digging horizontal tunnels with shovels and pickaxes, or by digging deep vertical holes called pits, to reach the strata where amber lies. Currently, the production amount of blue amber is only 2 to 3 kg per week, of which only about 1 kg is of good quality, and the highest quality navy blue amber is said to be only a few hundred grams. In this way, the production of blue amber is limited, making it extremely rare and valuable.

The mechanism behind why blue amber shines blue is still unclear. It may contain impurities such as copper, and the color may be due to the ion's color, or there may be some irregularity in the state of the electrons within the atom, which absorbs light of a specific wavelength and causes the color to appear. There are various theories that it will come, but it is not certain. When I was polishing blue umber, I could smell the hydrogen sulfide from the hot springs, so I think it had something to do with volcanic activity.

Blue amber and red amber from Myanmar (formerly Burma) are called Burmite and come in a variety of colors: yellow, brown, red, purple, and blue. It is produced from the chalk layer that dates from about 80 to 110 million years ago, the same age as Kuji amber in Japan. Among them, Blue Amber is a blue color with a slight red or purple tint.

Blue amber from Sumatra, Indonesia was discovered in a coal seam about two years ago, and comes in a variety of colors, including brown, red, purple, and blue. Blue amber is the same as blue amber from Dominica. There is something bluer.

Mexican red amber comes in a variety of colors, from almost black red to transparent and pale red. It resembles the red amber that was once mined on the Italian island of Sicily (currently, it is depleted and cannot be mined).

Rainbow Amber is a rare crimson amber that I accidentally discovered several years ago while polishing red amber from Mexico.

It remains red under incandescent bulbs and fluorescent lights, but when exposed to sunlight, roadside mercury lamps, or the current trendy LED light, parts of it glow with a wonderful green or blue fluorescent color.

Originally, it is a red amber, but when exposed to sunlight on a black cloth, it sometimes takes on a variety of colors, sometimes blue, other times green, and sometimes yellow. I named the one with outstanding color rainbow amber. Only about 1 out of 10 pieces of red amber comes out, making it highly rare and expensive. Mexican amber, like Dominican amber, is completely natural amber that is not heat-treated.

Both Blue Amber and Rainbow Amber are resins from the amber tree (Algarrobo), which is similar to the Japanese zelkova tree, and which dates back approximately 25 million years, and descendants of this tree still survive in Dominica. We now offer Blue Amber and Rainbow Amber with an urban flair and the largest selection in Japan.

As a result of geological research, amber from the Baltic Sea and Dominica was created from the resin of amber trees 20 to 40 million years ago. Incidentally, the oil and gas fields in the Akita and Niigata regions of Japan are of similar age, as they are located in the so-called Tertiary Cenozoic strata in geological terms.

We also carry a variety of amber that cannot be found anywhere else, including amber with flowers, leaves, and insects, which are said to be time capsules of ancient romance.

Enjoy the timeless beauty of amber with its various patterns and tones.

For those of you who like the real thing, please keep it close to you at all times as a talisman, and pass it down as an heirloom to your family for generations to come.

Preservation method

The enchanting amber, which has an eternal romance and fantasy and continues to shine mysteriously over time, is originally a resin like pine resin, so it burns easily.

Amber has been underground for tens of millions of years, so it is extremely resistant to acids and alkalis, and can even be washed with soapy water to remove sweat and oil. Then wipe it with a clean soft cloth or towel. However, young amber copal dissolves in alcohol or nail polish remover and turns white and cloudy.

Amber's weakness is that it is susceptible to dryness, just like human skin. If exposed to direct sunlight for many days, small cracks may appear on the surface. Especially for Dominican amber with insects, if you are not going to use it for many years, I think it is better to moisten it with water and store it in a plastic bag.

Also, the hardness of amber is slightly harder than a fingernail, so please be careful as it can be scratched by hard objects such as sand. Rest assured that scratched amber can be re-polished to its original state. If there is a slight scratch, remove it with #1000 sandpaper and then polish with car wax to easily repair it.

To polish K18 or silver parts such as the Vatican pendant top, I usually use Polymer (polishing cloth), which can be purchased at jewelry stores around town. However, please do not polish amber or glasses, as they will become cloudy and will require buffing (finish polishing) later. Please be careful when using gold or silver plating as the plating will peel off.

Welcome to the bright world of the power of magic of natural gems

LARIMAR & AMBER ART.

[dipsiven]

Analyses of Pompeii victims with X-ray fluorescence suggests they died of asphyxiation – The Lifestyle Insider

[antslabin]

How Alumina Crucibles Shape Modern Science

Introduction: The Crucible of Possibilities

In the realm of scientific experiments, precision and control are paramount. Alumina crucibles, crafted from high-purity aluminium oxide, have become the go-to vessels for researchers, enabling them to manipulate materials at extreme temperatures and controlled environments. These crucibles act as miniature laboratories, offering an ideal setting for various experiments that have redefined scientific paradigms.

The Marvel of Alumina: Composition and Properties

Alumina crucibles owe their remarkable properties to their composition. Comprising nearly 100% aluminium oxide, these crucibles exhibit exceptional resistance to high temperatures, chemical corrosion, and thermal shock. This makes them perfect for applications that involve aggressive chemicals, molten metals, and rapid temperature changes. Their non-reactive nature ensures that the materials being worked upon remain uncontaminated.

Versatility in High-Temperature Reactions

At the heart of many scientific endeavours lies the need to conduct reactions at elevated temperatures. Alumina crucibles provide a safe and controlled environment for such reactions, whether it’s the synthesis of new materials, the investigation of phase transitions, or the analysis of thermal properties.

Precision Melting and Sample Analysis

The controlled melting of materials is a cornerstone of various scientific fields. Alumina crucibles facilitate accurate and consistent sample melting with their high melting point and excellent heat retention. This is vital for industries like metallurgy, where alloys with specific properties must be precisely formulated.

Crucibles in Chemical Synthesis: Catalyst Carriers

Catalysts drive numerous chemical reactions, and the effectiveness of catalysts often depends on their carriers. Alumina crucibles provide an inert, stable, and heat-resistant platform for catalysts, ensuring efficient reactions and optimal yield in chemical processes.

Growing Crystals for Technological Innovations

The growth of single crystals is pivotal in various technological advancements, from electronics to photonics. Alumina crucibles, with their ability to withstand high temperatures and create a controlled growth environment, contribute significantly to producing flawless crystals with desirable properties.

Crucial Role in Analytical Techniques

Analytical techniques like X-ray fluorescence and infrared spectroscopy require stable and reproducible sample preparation. Alumina crucibles offer a contamination-free medium for sample handling, enabling accurate analysis and reliable results.

Crucibles and Modern Material Science

The field of material science demands meticulous testing and experimentation. Alumina crucibles provide researchers with a dependable container to subject materials to various conditions, aiding in understanding their behaviour and unlocking novel material properties.

Pushing the Boundaries of Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology hinges on precision and control at the nanoscale. Alumina crucibles, with their ability to maintain integrity at high temperatures and resist reactive substances, serve as ideal vessels for synthesizing and manipulating nanomaterials.

Crucibles in Metallurgy and Alloy Development

Metallurgy relies on alloy development to create materials with tailored properties. Alumina crucibles allow researchers to precisely combine metals at controlled temperatures, creating innovative alloys for diverse applications.

Ensuring Purity: Crucibles in Spectroscopy

Spectroscopic techniques demand pure samples for accurate readings. Alumina crucibles prevent contamination, ensuring that the samples under study remain untainted, thus upholding the integrity of spectroscopic analyses.

Crucibles as Tools for Quality Control

Quality control is a cornerstone of manufacturing. Alumina crucibles play a role in various quality control processes, from ensuring consistent glass compositions to assessing the purity of metals, contributing to producing reliable and high-quality products.

Art and Science: Crucibles in Glass Making

The art of glass-making marries creativity with science. Alumina crucible aid in melting and moulding glass at precise temperatures, allowing artisans to create intricate glass pieces while embracing the scientific principles that underlie the process.

Crucibles in Space Exploration

Even in the vast expanse of space, alumina crucibles find their purpose. They are utilized to conduct experiments aboard spacecraft and rovers, providing a controlled environment to explore reactions and materials in microgravity.

Sustainability and Recycling of Crucibles

In a world focused on sustainability, even crucibles find their role in recycling processes. Alumina crucibles, known for their durability, can be recycled, contributing to reducing waste in scientific and industrial applications.

Conclusion

The unassuming alumina crucible symbolizes how seemingly small elements can immensely impact modern science. From shaping new materials to unravelling the mysteries of the universe, these vessels have proven to be indispensable tools for researchers and innovators. Their versatility, coupled with their unwavering performance under extreme conditions, cements their legacy in scientific advancements.

Read More:ceramic crucibles

[ellinapark]

XRF Analyzer Market Outlook: World Approaching Demand & Growth Prospect 2023-2028

Latest business intelligence report released on Global XRF Analyzer Market, covers different industry elements and growth inclinations that helps in predicting market forecast. The report allows complete assessment of current and future scenario scaling top to bottom investigation about the market size, % share of key and emerging segment, major development, and technological advancements. Also, the statistical survey elaborates detailed commentary on changing market dynamics that includes market growth drivers, roadblocks and challenges, future opportunities, and influencing trends to better understand XRF Analyzer market outlook. List of Key Players Profiled in the study includes market overview, business strategies, financials, Development activities, Market Share and SWOT analysis are:

Bruker (United States)

Helmut Fischer GmbH (Germany)

SPECTRO Analytical Instruments GmbH (Germany)

Rigaku Corporation (Japan)

Thermo Fisher Scientific (United States)

HORIBA (Japan)

Oxford Instruments (United Kingdom)

Skyray Instrument (United States)

Olympus (Japan)

Hitachi (Japan)

XRF is an X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy which is a non-destructive analytical technique. It is used in determining the elemental composition of materials such as glass, metals, ceramic, and other. The handheld XRF analysers works by measuring the fluorescent X-rays emitted from a sample when excited by a primary X-ray source.  It also provides seamless testing of solid and liquid material samples and offer accurate results. Moreover, it has wide range of applications in oil and gas, pharmaceuticals, metal and mining, as well as environmental research.

Key Market Trends: Growing Usage of X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometers in Tablet Formulation Processes

Opportunities: Rapid Increase in Disease Burden in Industry

Wide Range of Applications

Market Growth Drivers: Compact Design and Ease of Use of Spectrometers

Technological Advancements to Make XRF Analysers More Applicable for Health Care

Challenges: Stiff Competition Among the Major Players

The Global XRF Analyzer Market segments and Market Data Break Down by Type (Energy Dispersive XRF, Wavelength Dispersive XRF), End Users (Metal and Mining Industries, Pharmaceutical, Oil and Gas, Environmental Research, Art and Archaeology), Modularity type (Portable/ Handheld, Benchtop), Distribution channel (Direct sales, Indirect sales)

Presented By

AMA Research & Media LLP

[ilmains]

Spectro xsort

#Spectro xsort upgrade#

#Spectro xsort software#

Contact us for product information and ordering instructions. is a leading global manufacturer of electronic instruments and electromechanical products with over 15,000 colleagues at more than 150 manufacturing and sales and service operations in the United States and 30 other countries around the world.We're selling Used SPECTRO xSORT AlloyPlus Advanced Metals Analyzer at the best price US $4,350.00. From its foundation in 1979 until today, more than 40,000 analytical instruments have been delivered to customers around the world.ĪMETEK, Inc. SPECTRO’s products are known for their superior technical capabilities that deliver measurable benefits to the customer. The SPECTRO xSORT is ideally designed to handle many scrap sorting tasks encountered in the aluminum recycling industry. It presents the opportunity to add value and increase profitability in the recycling process. SPECTRO, a unit of the Materials Analysis Division of AMETEK, Inc., manufactures advanced instruments, develops the best solutions for elemental analysis in a broad range of applications, and provides exemplary customer service. The SPECTRO xSORT handheld XRF analyzer is an easy-to-use, highly reliable and accurate tool for sorting metal scrap. The optional SPECTRO Metal Database helps extend prepackaged libraries or create customized grade libraries.įor more information, visit or email SPECTRO: The SPECTRO xSORT AlloyPlus (Combi) features a top-of-the-line silicon drift detector (SDD) and provides reliable, high-productivity measurement and analysis. The SPECTRO xSORT Alloy employs an innovative silicon PIN (Si-PIN) detector and delivers grade identification of metals in seconds without extensive analysis. The new SPECTRO xSORT analyzer is available in different models. Widely used in industry and research alike, SPECTRO handheld XRF Analyzers provide quantitative elemental analysis of approximately 80 elements, ranging from Mg (magnesium) to U (uranium). Options include an integrated GPS receiver and integrated video camera.

#Spectro xsort software#

All calibrations loaded into SPECTRO xSORT are always ready for use.Īdditional features include an X-ray safety gasket to prevent backscatter radiation from light element matrix samples wireless LAN quick-change battery interface bezel with operator-defined hot keys “live” analysis results simplified software with touchscreen and the SPECTRO iCAL one-sample, one-time easy automated calibration system.

#Spectro xsort upgrade#

Built-In Protection and Calibration: A shutter that automatically closes the measurement window between analyses - to protect internal components - also functions as the sample material for unique, automatic iCAL standardization. Spectro Analytical Instruments has announced a major new upgrade of the Spectro xSort handheld X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer that is said to deliver.

Its compact, one-piece 1.64 kg (3.62 lb) design is optimized for easy use in the field, even in tight or less accessible spots.

Ease of Use: With SPECTRO xSORT, operators don’t have to switch methods between samples, or bother with helium flushes or vacuum systems.

The even more powerful SPECTRO xSORT AlloyPlus analyzes most alloys in 2 seconds, and identifies alloys based on light elements such as aluminum, magnesium, silicon, phosphorus, and sulfur in 7 seconds. The SPECTRO xSORT Alloy model delivers grade identification in seconds. The design, performance, and simple operation of the SPECTRO xSORT handheld spectrometer make it ideal for performing positive material identification (PMI) for infrastructure integrity testing at refineries, power plants, and petrochemical complexes - as well as scrap metal analysis and sorting in the recycling industry. Kleve, Germany, ApSPECTRO Analytical Instruments today announced a major new upgrade of the SPECTRO xSORT handheld X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer - delivering improved speed and precision in the analysis of light elements.

[jurassicsunsets]

The first palaeontologist on Mars

(Image: Artist’s impression of NASA’s Perseverance rover on Mars)

Today NASA’s Perseverance rover landed on Mars. I don’t usually talk astronomy on this blog, but this time it’s relevant because—as you might have read—Perseverance is more or less the first palaeontologist on Mars!

Let me explain.

(Image: Satellite topography map of Jezero Crater, the site where Perseverance landed)

The site where Perseverance is landing, Jezero Crater, is a meteor impact crater near Mars’s Equator (say that 10 times fast!). It has evidence of a delta—the geomorphic feature that occurs when running water enters a large body of water. Orbital analyses also suggest it’s filled with carbonate rock—the kind that tend to deposit at the bottom of bodies of water.

Jezero Crater is not filled with water today. But the evidence strongly suggests it once was. If we’re going to find evidence of life on Mars, this is a good place to start looking.

Microbial fossils

When you think of fossils, most people think of giant T. rex skeletons, or frozen woolly mammoths, or neanderthal skulls. Maybe you’ve been around the block a bit, and you think about corals, or plant fossils, or tiny fossil shells. But some of the most common and important fossils on Earth are even tinier. Microbial fossils are commonly made by bacteria, archaea, and the like.

(Image: A cross-section of a stromatolite fossil, showing the multiple layers)

Some of the earliest fossils on earth are called stromatolites. They occur when bacterial colonies grow together in a mat—then, over time, sediment deposits over the colony, and the bacteria form another layer on top of the previous layer. Over time, many layers can be formed.

(Image: Helium Ion Microscopy image of iron oxide filaments formed by bacteria)

Although we breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide, many microbes are not quite so restricted, and can breathe anything from sulphur to iron to methane or ammonia. When they do this, they often leave behind solid waste products, such as the above iron oxide filaments, that give away their presence. We can tell these apart from normal minerals in a number of ways, including by the relative proportions of different isotopes in them.

(Image: Schematic digram showing how molecular fossils form and are studied)

However, some of the most important fossils are molecular fossils. Living organisms produce a variety of different organic molecules; even long after the bodies of these organisms decay, those molecules can stay behind in an altered form for millions or even billions of years. If we’re looking for evidence of life on Mars, this might be our best bet.

Enter Perseverance

(Image: Diagram of Perseverance rover showing different instruments)

The Perseverance rover is overall similar in design to the Curiosity rover that landed in 2012, but there are some key differences—and most relevant here is that it’s a geological powerhouse. It’s got a number of instruments designed to carry out detailed geologic investigations:

RIMFAX is a ground-penetrating Radar unit. Like normal Radar, it works by sending radio waves into the ground; different materials affect the radio waves differently, as do transitions between different materials. This will allow us to, for the first time, study the geology of Mars below the surface to get an idea of what has been going on down there.

(Image: This is the kind of result produced by ground-penetrating radar—a rough image of the stratigraphy below the surface.)

PIXL (Planetary Instrument for X-ray Lithochemistry) shoots x-rays at samples and examines how they fluoresce in reaction. This allows for the detection of the elemental composition of a sample—helping us better understand the geology of the area, and potentially detect signatures of life. 

SuperCam is a multi-function laser spectrometer that uses four different spectroscopy methods to examine the composition of samples. They all work in similar ways—essentially, different molecules react to laser stimulation differently, and different amounts of energy are required to make different molecules vibrate. The way that these molecules react can help us identify their composition, and the hope is that this may allow us to detect molecular fossils (these methods allow us to detect molecular fossils on Earth!)

SHERLOC (Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman & Luminescence for Organics & Chemicals) is another spectroscopic instrument—this one, however, is more precise, and optimised for detecting trace biosignatures in samples. It works similar to the above, using an ultraviolet laser to scan a 7 × 7 mm zone for evidence of organic compounds. 

In addition to studying samples in situ, Perseverance will package small samples and leave them behind on Mars. A planned future mission will collect these packaged samples and launch them into space, where an orbiter will collect them and—hopefully—return them to Earth. This would be the first time that samples have ever been recovered from Mars, and would go a long way in increasing our understanding of the Martian environment and geology.

There’s no way of knowing yet what Perseverance will find—but even the fact that a robot palaeontologist is on Mars is incredibly exciting. Here’s to many years of discovery!

[bylagunabay]

Shroud of Turin

IT’S JESUS CHRIST!

(5-minute read)

𝐋𝐮𝐤𝐞 𝟐𝟑:𝟓𝟑 "𝐀𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐡𝐢𝐦 𝐝𝐨𝐰𝐧, 𝐡𝐞 𝐰𝐫𝐚𝐩𝐩𝐞𝐝 𝐡𝐢𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐧, 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐝 𝐡𝐢𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐚 𝐬𝐞𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐜𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐰𝐚𝐬 𝐡𝐞𝐰𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐧𝐞 ..."

During the September-October 1978 exhibition of the Shroud in Turin, more than three-and-a- half million people viewed the relic.

The viewing was followed by a sindonological congress of experts on October 8–13 wherein a detailed, around-the-clock, 120-hour scientific examination of the Shroud was conducted, producing more than 30,000 photographs of various kinds. The congress was conducted primarily by scientists from the United States who had brought 72 crates of equipment weighing eight tons for application of ultraviolet, visible and infrared spectrometry, X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, microscopy, thermography, pyrolysis-mass-spectrometry, laser-microprobe Raman analyses, and microchemical testing.

Known as the Shroud Turin Research Project (STURP), the U.S. group composed of 31 top scientists reported unanimously that the man on the Shroud was not painted on the cloth but that a mysterious and rapid chemical reaction selectively darkened threads of the Shroud’s linen fiber so as to make a three-dimensional negative image of a man with accurate details valid when magnified 1,000 times.

Among STURP’s findings:

a) X-ray, fluorescence and microchemistry tests on the fibers preclude the possibility of paint being used as a method for creating the image. Ultraviolet and infrared evaluations confirm these studies. The Shroud image was not painted, nor printed.

b) Both kinetics studies and fluorescence measurements support the hypothesis that the image was formed by a low-temperature process. The temperature was not high enough to change cellulose, and no char was produced. Thus, the Shroud image was not made by pressing the cloth on a heated bas-relief.

c) The Shroud's image is superficial as the color resides on the outer surface of the fibers that make up the threads of the cloth. Recent measurements on image-fibers of the Shroud confirmed that the coloration depth is extremely thin, about 200 nanometer (200 billionths of a meter, or one fifth of a thousandth of a millimeter, which corresponds to the thickness of the primary cell wall of a single linen thread).

d) The shallow coloration of the Shroud image is due to an unknown process that caused 'oxidation, dehydration and conjugation of polysaccharide structure of fibers, to produce a conjugated carbonyl group as the chromophore.'

e) The image seen at the macroscopic level is an areal density image. This means that shading is not due to a change of color, but to a change in the number of colored fibers per unit area at the microscopic level.

f) The image fading has three-dimensional information of the body encoded in it.

g) The blood stains tested positive for human blood, and there is no image beneath the blood. This means the image must have occurred after the blood flowed onto the cloth. As a consequence, the image was formed after the deposition of the corpse.

h) On the Shroud there are no signs of putrefactions, which occur at the orifices about 40 hours after death. This means that the image does not depend on the gases of putrefaction and the corpse was wrapped in the Shroud no longer than two days.

i) There is a perfect anatomical consistency of blood and serum versus wounds, including the presence of birilubin, which is invisible at the naked eye. These subliminal features require knowledge of anatomy and of forensic medicine not available before the XIX century.

Using the STURP findings, ENEA or the Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development, published a report on five years of experiments (2011-2015) conducted at its Excimer Laser Laboratory at Frascati on the "shroud-like coloring of linen fabrics by ultraviolet radiation."

ENEA scientists discovered that "the total power of VUV (Vacuum Ultra-Violet) radiations required to instantly color the surface of linen (with the image) for a human of average height, body surface area is equal to 2000 MW/cm2 X 17000 cm2 or 34 thousand billion watts, making it impractical today to reproduce the entire Shroud image using a single excimer laser, since this power cannot be produced by any VUV light source built to date (the most powerful available on the market come to several billion watts )."

[blueiscoool]

Late Roman Imperial Treasure Found in Russian Forests

An impressive hoard of ancient Roman coins that was discovered in Russia a thousand kilometres from the known borders of the Roman Empire has helped scientists better understand the region's ties to ancient civilisation. Experts from Russia and Poland told Sputnik how numismatics reveals unknown realities of the past and helps find “lost” nations.

A hoard of 140 coins discovered this autumn by archaeologists at the State Museum-Reserve “Kulikovo Field” in a forest ten kilometres from the centre of Tula is one of the most north-eastern finds of late Roman bronze coins, the experts believe. The coins were all minted at the end of the 4th and beginning of the 5th centuries. According to scientists, archaeologists and amateur treasure hunters have discovered four hoards from that period in the region in recent decades, but each of them contained no more than two dozen coins.

Guests From Afar

The name of the tribe that lived on the Upper Oka in that era has not survived. For ancient geographers, they were one of the hundreds of barbarian tribes living far from the imperial borders. Archaeologists refer to them as the Moshchiny culture, after the name of the Moshchiny village excavated on the bank of the Popolta River in the Kaluga Region.

The barbarians did not have proper money circulation at that time, historians believe. A small bronze coin may have circulated among barbarians in areas along the Roman borders, but how did it find its way to the Upper Oka, a thousand kilometres from the outskirts of the empire? Scientists argue that trade cannot explain it – such remote areas were not in the orbit of the trading interests of the ancient Romans.

Specialists suspect that the coins came from locals who were employed by the armies of the Romans and Byzantines. Since the reign of Constantine the Great in the early 4th century, barbarians were actively recruited for military service not only on the borders, but also in the interior of the Empire.

“Such mercenaries were called ‘foederati’. They were paid not only in gold but also in bronze coins. Some of the mercenaries from the Oka must have saved this bronze for when they would return to the Empire. In other words, these are not looted treasures, but rather coins left in the pockets, which we may keep after travelling”, said Alexey Vorontsov, scientific secretary of the State Museum-Reserve Kulikovo Field.

According to researchers, the treasure dates back to the beginning of the Great Migration of Peoples, which started with the Huns crossing the Don River in 375. The Goths, who were defeated by the Huns and lived in the northern Black Sea region, were previously believed to have gone west. However, scholars now believe that there is increasing evidence that some of the Goths moved east or northeast, and therefore they might be the ones who brought these coins to the Oka.

On the Trail of Ancient Finance

The entire hoard consists of small coins weighing 1-2 grams. According to experts at the Kulikovo Field Museum-Preserve, coins of this type are standard for late Roman and Byzantine “change”, minted in the millions of pieces annually. Bronze or copper coins had the smallest denomination, and the most valuable were gold solidi weighing about 4.5 grammes.

Many cities had the right to mint coins in the empire, but the general style tended to remain the same. The place of the issue was usually recorded on the reverse of the coin, that is, on the reverse side of the ruler's image. Modern numismatic techniques can help restore this information if the coin has badly deteriorated.

“Technology today allows us to detect details on coins that are invisible to the eye, examine their surface at the nanoscale and analyse them using artificial intelligence. The origin of the metal can be identified by chemical analysis using the X-ray fluorescent method or, for example, the proton-induced X-ray emission method”, said Kyrylo Myzgin, adjunct professor at the Institute of Archaeology at the University of Warsaw.

In the territories of barbarian Europe, the most common coins were not copper coins of the 4th century but silver coins – Roman denarii, mass-produced in the 1st - 3rd centuries.

Although a legionary's pay could often be less than a denarius a day, the barbarians received this silver in huge quantities as a guarantee for border security. The usual barbarian hoards contain two or three hundred coins, but there are also finds of up to nine thousand denarii, weighing several tens of kilograms of silver.

Treasure Trove as Evidence

Coins were one of the most popular commodities of antiquity due to their mobility and durability, scientists say. This and the ease they can be dated has often given historians the key to understanding past events and trends.

“Coin finds can point to political and economic realities that are not preserved in written sources. A recent example is our conjecture about the area of settlement of the ‘Boraner’, a strong but little-known 3rd-century tribe who plundered the rich Roman Trebizond in modern Turkey. An abnormally high concentration of coins minted there in the small area between the Dnieper and the Seversky Donets allowed us to find the place of residence of this tribe, apparently related to the Germans”, said Kyrylo Myzgin.

Coins in “uncivilised” cultures could become an element of jewellery or utensils with special status or magical functions. For example, a large number of Roman gold coins, minted mainly under Emperor Trajan Decius around 249-251, have recently been discovered in Ukraine and Poland; almost all of them had holes for hanging.

Historians link this phenomenon to the Romans' defeat in a battle with a barbarian coalition near the town of Abritus, located in modern-day Bulgaria, in 251. The victors claimed the treasury of the fallen emperor and at least a few thousand gold coins became commemorative amulets.

[materialsscienceandengineering]

Researchers led by TMDU fabricate a material that will aid bone healing, help medical practitioners clearly assess the full damage to bones after an injury, and clarify probable patient outcomes

Tokyo, Japan -- Bone repair wasn't generally successful until the late 1800s. Until then, there were few options to repair major bone damage. Most materials don't have the functionality of bone and don't support blood vessels growing through them. Repair materials such as clay were commonly used yet often failed. In 1892, medical practitioners started using gypsum -- calcium sulfate -- as the first effective bone substitute material. Bone repair is much more straightforward and less risky these days, but repairing large-scale bone damage remains challenging.

Medical practitioners today use octacalcium phosphate -- OCP -- as a substitute bone material. It's a precursor of bone tissue and a logical choice for bone repair. However, medical practitioners may not be able to unambiguously assess the complete extent of bone damage by X-ray analysis. This may hinder their ability to accurately predict recovery timelines and other prognoses for patients.

In a study recently published in Communications Chemistry, a team led by researchers at Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU) incorporated a fluorescent molecule -- pyromellitic acid -- into OCP. When used in clinical practice, this advanced modification to OCP will improve diagnostic analyses and predictions of therapeutic outcomes.

Read more.

[sciencespies]

Genetic Study Maps When and How Polynesians Settled the Pacific Islands

https://sciencespies.com/nature/genetic-study-maps-when-and-how-polynesians-settled-the-pacific-islands/

Genetic Study Maps When and How Polynesians Settled the Pacific Islands

Moai statues at the Rano Raraku site on Easter Island Weller / ullstein bild via Getty Images

Gazing across the sea for days on end Polynesian navigators often didn’t look for land, which was hundreds of miles away in any direction. Instead, they watched the stars, clouds, birds, waves and other features of the environment from their open canoes, using them to navigate from one unseen island to the next, repeatedly finding green specks of land in a blue sea that covers one-third of the planet. Eventually these great explorers populated the habitable islands of the vast Pacific and left future generations to wonder exactly how it happened.

The ancient voyagers left behind only faint traces for scientists to reconstruct some of humankind’s most adventurous journeys. Those things include clearly related languages on widely scattered island groups, sweet potatoes, stone tools and even, in a few places, towering human figures. Those stone monoliths have stoically stood for centuries, bearing witness to the skill of their sculptors but offering few clues to who those ancient islanders were, or how they got there. 

But in recent years it has become clear that the Polynesians left something else behind—their genes. Searching the genomes of humans on widely scattered islands and tracking changes has allowed scientists to map their epic journeys in time and space. Now, new research published today in Nature makes the intriguing suggestion that the Polynesians who erected those mysterious stone figures on islands thousands of miles apart were actually descended from the same group of explorers. “The fact that we find genetic connections between very different islands, but the factor that they have in common is the presence of this culture of megalithic statues, I think is a pretty surprising thing that genetics is helping us to discover,” says Andres Moreno-Estrada, with the National Laboratory of Genomics for Biodiversity in Mexico, an author of the new study.

Some of the same facts that made settlement of the Pacific such a challenge also created an unusual genetic history that has proven ideal for recreating Polynesian ancestries, and thus charting their voyages generally eastward across the ocean. Pacific islands are so widely scattered that humans lived on them in genetic isolation, and travel between islands by canoe was necessarily undertaken by small groups of perhaps 30 to 200 individuals, who formed a very small founding population on each new island that they reached.

Moreno-Estrada and colleagues tracked Polynesian ancestry by gathering genome wide data from 430 modern individuals in 21 key Pacific island populations from Samoa to Easter Island. Then they used computational analyses on these large numbers of modern genomes to track genetic variants down through the generations. Most rare genetic variants found in each settled island’s population weren’t carried by any of the individuals who made trips to future islands, and thus don’t appear in the genome of the new island’s population. Scientists can track the loss of these variants. And occasionally a few rare variations did move along to each new island, by chance, with an individual in that small founding population. Once on the new island those previously rare variants were soon acquired by all descendants of the small founding population and became extremely common, providing another genetic marker.

Tracking these key ancestral signals allowed the team to map human movement across the Pacific islands, and produce date estimates for settlement journeys by calculating the number of generations between genetic divergences.

“The genetic method used takes advantage of the serial bottlenecks that population experienced while settling subsequent Eastern Polynesian islands,” says Cosimo Posth, an expert in archaeogenetics at the University of Tübingen who wasn’t involved in the research. “This provides very good evidence for the order of the expansion.”

Modern genetic influences from Europeans, Africans and others exist on some islands but the team was able to use machine learning techniques to mask these pieces of the genome and compare only the Polynesian parts of the ancestry evidenced in the genetic code.

And on islands for which ancient DNA samples exist, the team compared them to modern genomes and learned that individuals living on those islands remain most closely related to ancient samples from the same island, confirming that the original population hasn’t been largely replaced by some later migration of different groups.

The findings chart a Polynesian settlement of the vast Pacific that began in the western Pacific, in Samoa. With their distinctive double canoes Polynesians then reached the Cook Islands (Rarotonga) in the ninth century, the Society Islands (Tōtaiete mā) by the 11th century and the western Austral (Tuha’a Pae) Islands and Tuāmotu Archipelago in the 12th century.

Illustrated above are distinctive monolithic sculptures crafted by the inhabitants of the Marquesas Islands (top), Mangareva (center), Raivavae (bottom left) and Rapa Nui (bottom right)

Zaira Zamudio López

Patrick Kirch, a historical anthropologist at the University of Hawai’i, Manoa, says the study is a good example of how evidence from linguistics, archaeological dating of habitation sites and artifacts and genetics are converging to paint a similar picture of Polynesian settlement. “They’re giving pretty precise estimates of colonization dates and in general those are fitting quite nicely with our new radiocarbon dating [of habitation sites] of the last 10 or 15 years,” says Kirch, who wasn’t affiliated with the research.

Most intriguingly, the authors suggest that the Tuāmotu Archipelago, a group of low-lying, sandy atolls that hasn’t yielded much in the way of archaeological sites, may have been home to populations of long-distance seafarers who went on to settle the Marquesas Islands (Te Henua ‘Enana) in the north, Raivavae in the south and Easter Island (Rapa Nui) by about 1200 A.D. On each of these extremely distant islands someone, settlers who shared the same ancestors according to the study, left behind a similar culture of remarkable stone monoliths. Those human images have stoically and mutely stood as testament to the humans who erected them—and perplexed later visitors searching for their origin.

Co-author Alexander Ioannidis, who studies genomics and population genetics at Stanford University, wasn’t even aware that Raivavae had stone figures like those on Easter Island. “We found the genetic connection first,” he says. “I was really shocked that this island we had found was genetically connected, but isn’t really well known, [and] also turns out to also have these huge statues.”

Patrick Kirch says the theory that one group of closely related Polynesians took monolith culture with them to far-flung islands over several centuries, will likely prove more controversial. Only a handful of islands host large stone monoliths but many others, like Hawaii, feature similar human images carved in wood, he notes.

“In my view it’s more a matter of carving human images, for various religious purposes or ancestor worship. So it’s a widespread cultural practice in East Polynesia, and just because some of them are in stone I don’t think we should necessarily make too much of that.”

Previous genetic research by the study’s authors concluded that Polynesians and Native Americans first met around the year 1200 in the remote South Marquesas, and the new research suggests that voyagers from the Tuāmotu Archipelago were the ones who settled those same islands during that same era.

It’s not known whether Native Americans ventured into East Polynesia, where the two groups met, or whether the settlers of South Marquesas already carried Native American genes circa 1200 because they’d first reached that distant continent. That raises the interesting possibility that Polynesians extended their eastward travels from Tuāmotu to the very end of the ocean.

The tale of Polynesian voyaging isn’t a simple linear progression in which settlers advanced across the Pacific from one island to the next. For example, they likely passed by Raivavae on their general eastward migration, and settled it some three centuries later by heading back to the west from Mangareva.

Polynesians also didn’t immediately give up long distance seafaring just because they had found and settled plentiful new islands. The study of language evolution suggests that there was considerable inter-island contact during the era when Eastern Polynesia was settled.

And some more concrete facts have also emerged as archaeologists have developed new techniques. X-ray fluorescence traces the stone tools found on numerous islands to specific query sources in the Marquesas and Austral Islands, showing that adzes and other tools were taken to far flung islands on long canoe voyages. “The archaeological evidence for inter-island contact now is very strong and people were moving around between these islands after they were settled,” Kirch says.

The question is how much those post-settlement voyages might have contributed to the genetic makeup of the individuals living on the islands today, and thus impacted the study conclusions inferred from their DNA.

The authors acknowledge that subsequent voyages between the islands occurred, but believe that in most cases they didn’t have significant impacts on genetics because of exponential population growth. When small groups of 30 to 200 individuals reached new islands stocked with nesting seabird colonies and unfished reefs, their populations likely boomed to thousands of closely related individuals sharing similar genetics. When a few double canoes later occasionally traveled thousands of ocean miles, carrying perhaps a few dozen individuals, they would likely have had little impact on the genetic frequencies of islands where they landed.

The picture drawn by Polynesian genetics doesn’t always agree perfectly with archaeological evidence. Estimates for the settlement of Marquesas, for example, are a few hundred years later than the earliest radiocarbon dating evidence of charcoal samples found at habitations in the Northern Marquesas.

For the most part, however independent lines of genetic, linguistic and archaeological evidence are generally converging to tell a similar story of what’s called the ‘short chronology’ of Eastern Polynesia. And there are more chapters to write. The Pacific is vast, and even genetic exploration of its islands and their settlers takes a lot of time and effort.

Moreno-Estrada’s team is next turning their attention to a group of islands with a high profile. “Who were the first settlers of Hawaii and where did those people come from,” he wonders. “That’s an open question we are going to explore.”

Explorers

Genetics

Indigenous Peoples

Pacific Ocean

Ships

#Nature

[wisdomrays]

TAFAKKUR: Part 404

SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES: A NOVEL PERSPECTIVE: Part 2

TEFLON

From non-stick frying pans to space suits to artificial heart valves, Teflon has found several areas of application. Its discovery resulted from an apparently ‘accidental’ observation by a young chemist, R. Plunket, working in Du Pont laboratories. On April 6, 1938, Plunket opened a tank of gaseous tetrafluoerothylene in the hope of preparing a non-toxic refrigerant from it, but no gas came out, to the surprise of Plunkett and his assistant. Plunkett could not understand this because the weight of the tank indicated that it should be full of the gaseous fluorocarbon.

Instead of discarding the tank and getting another in order to get on with his refrigerant research, Plunkett decided to satisfy his curiosity about the ‘empty tank’. Having determined that the valve was not faulty by running a wire through its opening, he sawed the tank open and looked inside. There he found a waxy white powder and, being a chemist, he realized what it must mean.

The molecules of the gaseous tetrafluoroethylene had combined with one another ‘polymerized’ to such an extent that they now formed a solid material. The waxy white powder did indeed have remarkable properties: it was more inert than sand - not affected by strong acids, bases or heat and no solvent could dissolve it - but, in contrast to sand, it was extremely slippery.

X (ROENTGEN) RAYS

Physicist W. Roentgen discovered the rays which were later to be named after him, in an unexpected and unplanned manner. Roentgen was repeating experiments by other physicists in which electricity at high voltage was discharged through air or other gases in a partially evacuated glass tube. We now know that cathode rays are actually streams of electrons being emitted from the cathode, and the impact of these electrons on the walls of the glass tubes produces the phosphorescence.

In 1892, it was demonstrated that cathode rays could penetrate thin metallic foils. Discharge tubes having thin aluminium windows allowed the cathode rays to pass out of the tube where they could be detected by the light they produced on a screen of phosphorescent material (such screens were also used to detect ultraviolet light), but they were found to travel only two or three centimetres in the air at ordinary pressure outside the evacuated tube.

Roentgen repeated some of these experiments to familiarize himself with the techniques. He then decided to see whether he could detect cathode rays issuing from an evacuated all-glass tube, that is, one with no thin aliminium window. Na one had observed cathode rays under these conditions. Roentgen thought the reason for the failure might be that strong phosphorescence of the cathode tube obscured the weak fluorescence of the detecting screen. To test this theory, he devised a black cardboard cover for the cathode tube. To determine the effectiveness of the shield, he then darkened the room and turned on the high voltage coil to energize the tube. Satisfied that his black shield did indeed cover the tube and allowed no phosphorescent light to escape, he was about to shut off the coil and turn on the room lights so that he could position the phosphorescent screen at varying short distances from the vacuum tube:

Just at that moment, he noticed a weak light shimmering from a point in the dark room more than a yard from the vacuum tube. At first, he thought there must be, after all, a light leak from the black mask around the tube, which was being reflected from a mirror in the room. However, there was no mirror. When he passed another series of charges through the cathode tube, he saw the light appear in the same location again, looking like faint green clouds moving in synchronism with the fluctuating discharges of the cathode tube. Hurriedly lighting a match, Roentgen found to his amazement that the source of the mysterious light was the little fluorescent screen that he had planned to use as a detector near the blinded cathode tube, but it was lying on the bench more than a yard from the tube.

Roentgen realized immediately that he had encountered an entirely new phenomenon. These were not cathode rays that lit up the fluorescent screen more than a yard from the tube! With feverish activity, he devoted himself single-mindedly in the next several weeks to exploring this new form of radiation. He reported his findings in a paper published in Wunburg, dated December 28, 1895, and entitled ‘A New Kind of Ray, a Preliminary Communication’. Although he described accurately most of the basic qualitative properties of the new rays in this paper, his acknowledgement that he did not yet fully understand them was indicated by the name he chose for them, X-rays. (They have also often been called Roentgen rays.)

He reported that the new rays were not affected by a magnet, as cathode rays were known to be. Not only would they penetrate more than a yard of air, in contrast to the two or three inch limit of cathode rays, but also (to quote his paper):

‘All bodies are transparent to this agent, though in very different degrees. Paper is very transparent; behind a bound book of about one thousand pages I saw the fluorescent screen light up brightly. In the same way the fluorescence appeared behind a double pack of cards. Thick blocks of wood are also transparent, pine boards two or three centimetres thick absorbing only slightly. A plate of aluminium about fifteen millimetres thick, though it enfeebled the action seriously, did not cause the fluorescence to disappear entirely. If the hand be held between the discharge tube and the screen, the darker shadow of the bones is seen within the slightly dark shadow image of the hand itself.’

He found that he could even record such skeletal images on photographic film. This property of X-rays captured the attention of the medical world immediately. In an incredibly short time X-rays were used routinely for diagnosis in hospitals throughout the world.

INSULIN

If a relative or a friend of yours has diabetes, you will probably know how important insulin is for them. As a partial remedy for most diabetics today, insulin was discovered as an answer to the prayers of hundreds of thousands of diabetics by the Most Merciful One. Perhaps, even better relief and remedy are awaiting discovery in some unexpected time or place.

In 1889, while studying the function of the pancreas in digestion, two researchers removed the pancreas from a dog. The very next day a laboratory assistant called their attention to a swarm of flies around the urine from this dog. Curious about why the flies were attracted to the urine, they analysed it and found it was loaded with sugar. Sugar in urine is a common sign of diabetes.

The researchers realized that they were seeing for the first time evidence of the experimental production of diabetes in an animal. The fact that this animal had no pancreas suggested a relationship between that organ and diabetes. The researchers subsequently proved that the pancreas produces a secretion that controls the use of sugar, and that lack of this secretion causes defects in sugar metabolism then exhibited as symptoms of diabetes.

Many attempts were made to isolate the secretion, with little success until 1921. A young Canadian medical student extracted the secretion from the pancreas of dogs. When they injected the extracts into dogs rendered diabetic by removal of their pancreases, the blood sugar levels of these dogs returned to normal or below, and the urine became sugar-free. The general condition of the dogs also improved.

Until recently, all insulin used for the treatment of human diabetes came from the pancreases of some animals. As a result of genetic engineering, based on knowing how DNA controls protein synthesis, a major pharmaceutical firm has begun to produce human insulin by using bacteria. The fact that a microscopic creature, like the bacterium can be made to work for the wellbeing of human beings is a subject worthy of study on its own.

Of course, these are by no means the only examples worth mentioning of ‘happy, chance discoveries’. Here are some more to add to the list: the discovery of molecular structure of organic compounds, saccharin and nutra-sweet (sugar substitutes, again for diabetics), ‘safety glass used in automobiles and planes, oxygen and several other chemical elements, radioactivity, astronomical discoveries like pulsars and background Big Bang radiation, many mathematical theorems, high temperature superconductors, synthetic dyes, etc., etc.

Can one really call all of these marvellous discoveries simply ‘happy, chance accidents’? I believe human conscience and reason must resist such a misconception. Surely, any person of common sense would say: ‘I am thankful to the Merciful One, who has bestowed upon us the favour of these discoveries, enabled us to benefit from them, among His innumerable other bounties’.

[dipsiven]

Analyses of Pompeii victims with X-ray fluorescence suggests they died of asphyxiation – The Lifestyle Insider