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Episode 7: First Rank

Image credit: Biswarup Ganguly, under CC BY 3.0.

The following is the transcript for the seventh episode of On the River of History.

For the link to the actual podcast, go here. (Beginning with Part 1)

Part 1

Greetings everyone and welcome to episode 7 of On the River of History. I’m your host, Joan Turmelle, historian in residence.

When the Swedish naturalist Carl von Linné (perhaps more familiar under his Latinized name, Carolus Linnaeus) took up the self-motivated task of classifying all of the then known organisms on the Earth, he placed humanity in an order he called Primates, meaning “first rank”. This gave the implication of a grand position in the system of nature, or Systema Naturae, which was the Latin title of his work. It was Linnaeus who gave the world our species name, Homo sapiens, and the 10th Edition of his book was recognized by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature in 1999 as the starting point of the official scientific naming system for animal life. Thus, our species name, and the group name Primates, is here to stay. Humanity was not alone in Linnaeus’ mammalian order, for they shared space with 32 other animals, including monkeys and lemurs (as well as bats). To Linnaeus, primates were united by cutting fore-teeth, solitary tusks on each side of the jaw, two pectoral teats, four feet (of which two are hands), usually flattened oval nails, and a diet of fruits and sometimes ‘animal food’. When critics questioned him for the sheer audacity of grouping the species that begat Shakespeare and Louis the 14th with the likes of lower animals such as baboons and capuchins, Linnaeus returned with a very basic retort:

But I seek from you and from the whole world a generic difference between man and simian that follows from the principles of Natural History. I absolutely know of none. If only someone might tell me a single one! If I would have called man a simian or vice versa, I would have brought together all the theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to have by virtue of the law of the discipline.

In the 260 years since the name Primates was coined, the work of countless biologists, paleontologists, and anthropologists has confirmed our relationship to these other, furrier creatures. While the outline and structure of the primate group has changed (for one, we don’t include bats anymore, they’re not close relatives at all), the basic idea behind it remains the same. Primates all share a suite of traits, including opposable thumbs for ease at collecting food or branches, forward facing eyes that allow stereoscopic or 3D vision, a large braincase compared to the size of the body, flattened nails rather than sharp claws, among others. This group is also united by genetics, and DNA sequencing has allowed us to better understand how all the different members of the group are related to each other. And, of course, the fossil record has supplied us with an ever-growing catalog of great remains, from the earliest primates to the rise of humans. Even though we’ve just spent the last episode bringing the history of the world up to 2.58 million years ago, we need to backtrack, so I can tell you the story of the primates and of the first peoples.

We return to the recovering world of the Paleocene Epoch, 63 million years ago, following the great mass extinction what wiped out 75% of all life on Earth. The planet is covered by tropical forests. By this point, primates were represented, like most of the other placental mammal groups, by small, scurrying animals that sought refuge in trees or along the ground. The closest relatives of these were the plesiadapiforms, who resembled squirrels or treeshrews, with long snouts, clawed digits, and continuously-growing incisor teeth. We know that this group wasn’t ancestral to the primates because most members of the group lack premolar or canine teeth, which are features that all primates share. Plesiadapiforms took the niches that modern primates as well as rodents share today, so when those groups had evolved by the end of the epoch, 57 million years ago, they couldn’t compete with them and died out.

True primates were established somewhere in southern Asia (the earliest fossils have been found there) alongside their euarchontoglire relatives the rodents, rabbits, treeshrews, and colugos. Soon after, they diverged into two lineages. One of these is the strepsirrhines or the wet-nosed primates, because they retain a rhinarium: the wet and leathery tip of the snout that you often find in dogs, cats, and many other mammals. This group is represented today by the lemurs of Madagascar, the lorises of southern Asia, and the galagos or bushbabies of Africa. However, in the Paleocene and Eocene, their range extended much more than this: after having evolved in Asia, they spread out in opposite directions, with some members going to Europe, others crossing into North America, and some extending south into Africa. As the world was still warm, wet, and forested, these primates thrived as they feasted on insects and other small invertebrates. It was around 54 million years ago that the lemurs arrived in Madagascar from Africa, possibly by rafts of floating vegetation that ran off the east African coast following a storm. It sounds ridiculous, but considering recent footage of tsunamis and how they transport large quantities of debris, it is not improbable. Following the cooling of the planet after the Eocene and the shrinking of the tropical forests, most of the strepsirrhines died out across Africa and Asia (and all of them perished in North America and Europe), leaving only the ancestors of the living species today.

The other great lineage of primates to emerge was the haplorrhines, or the dry-nosed primates: because they lost their rhinarium and their snout in place of a smooth and naked nose above a separate upper lip sported on a flattened face. They also developed a change in their skull morphology where the eye-socket became covered by a thin layer of bone along the backside. This is in contrast with lemurs and their relatives who only have a thin bone called a postorbital bar that borders the eye at its side: other mammals lack this altogether. Like the strepsirrhines, haplorrhines originated in Asia and spread out from there, this time colonizing Europe and Africa only. The earliest members of the group resembled tarsiers, which are small, large-eyed, nocturnal, insectivorous primates that reside in the rainforests of southeast Asia, though in the past they were very common, ranging as far as China. Incidentally, the tarsier lineage makes up one of two descent groups from the common ancestor of the haplorrhines, the other being the anthropoids or monkeys.

Monkeys developed many distinct traits from the other haplorrhines, and their group split from the tarsier line roughly 40 million years ago in Asia. Whereas their common ancestor (as well as the common ancestor of all primates) sported sensory whiskers along the front of the snout, monkeys lost that trait as they developed their eyesight to sport full-color vision. This proved to be a beneficial adaptation, as monkeys began to rely on colorful fruits as a major food source instead of insects, though they also seem to have eaten seeds and nuts as well. There were also key changes to the reproductive system: monkeys reduced their number of nipples down to one pair and their penis was no longer mainly attached to the body and instead hung down. Over time, monkeys grew larger in size and expanded into Africa, where one lineage eventually colonized South America by 25 million years ago, perhaps by the same process that could have delivered the caviomorph rodents (a floating raft of vegetation). These were the platyrrhines, who have earned the common name “new world monkeys”, and include capuchins, marmosets, howlers, and squirrel monkeys. These monkeys are distinguished by a flattened nose with nostrils that stick out sideways, whereas other monkeys have a more curved nose with downward-facing nostrils. Most iconic is the prehensile tail that many platyrrhines use like a fifth limb for grasping onto tree-branches: no other primates have this trait.

Back in the “Old World”, the other lineage of monkeys, the catarrhines, were facing environmental pressures in Eurasia as the climate began to cool, and it was around the start of the Oligocene that they mostly died out there. In Africa, however, they were thriving, and they diversified into a few groups. These monkeys mostly ate leaves and fruits, and they were very adept climbers in the trees. Eventually, the climate started warming again during the Miocene around 20-17 million years ago and many catarrhines returned to Eurasia as far as southeast Asia. Earlier in Africa, roughly 28 million years ago, one lineage of monkeys started growing in size as they broadened their chests and increased their brain case. Their tail vertebrate reduced in number until no visible tail was present at all. The joints of their shoulders, also, were more relaxed and mobile than their ancestors, meaning that they could move their arms much more freely around their body. This gave them the ability to brachiate, or hang from tree branches by their arms and swing across the trees. These were the first hominoids: the apes.

When we think about human evolution, we often think about the concept of “human nature” and what traits and behaviors stem from our common ancestry with the other primates. Perhaps put more philosophically, what does it mean to be human? This subject has spawned some of the biggest discussions and debates in the history of our species, and this very curiosity seems to have deep roots, with many world societies across time devoting time to this. If we want to talk about the fundamental characteristics of the human species and what unites and distinguishes us from our relatives, we have to look at this topic holistically. It is not enough to simply tackle this subject from a purely genetic or cultural or environmental standpoint: all of these fields, and more, have to be taken into consideration. This is because there is not one shared aspect of all societies or any one gene that makes us human, all of these factors are working together, intimately, to shape our species. Anthropologist Elizabeth Brumfiel has made a valuable point about this: human biology, human psychology, and human behavior are all context dependent. This enormous biological and behavioral flexibility—the ability to adopt different physiological, perceptual, and behavioral repertoires—has enabled humans to survive across the extremes of climate and habitat, from the frozen tundra to the burning desert. Our environment has shaped our being, and our being has shaped the environment. There is a lot of argument between anthropologists and other researchers about this, so it is important to keep that in mind as we move forward. The more we learn, the more our understanding shifts or changes altogether. I might even return to this podcast many years from now and say “wow, we had this all wrong!”

Part 2

As a whole, primates have a larger brain case to body ratio than most other mammals, save for groups like elephants, toothed whales, pack-hunting canids, and hyenas. Bigger brains have often been hypothesized by biologists as tying closely to problem-solving, or how organisms acquire the resources they need in a challenging environment. Incidentally, these mammalian lineages are all social species, living in community groups of many individuals, and this too has been tied to large brains that allow for the processing needed for large group-living (though this correlation is controversial in that neuroscience – the study of the brain – is still uncovering new information). Primates are K-selected species and thus bare only a handful (sometimes just one) offspring that they spent much of their time nurturing, which includes educating the young on how to survive and interact with others. As such, primate childhood is remarkably longer than most mammals. While a young mouse or shrew may spend around 21-25 days with its mother, a chimpanzee can spend 9 years alongside its mother, and even then still remain nearby since, being primates, chimps live in large family groups. Alone, a primate is a vulnerable animal, lacking any means of defending itself from predators, save for a sharp bite or a powerful swing of the arm. But because primates live together, they can rely on each other for backup. When a group moves, one or two members may be on the lookout for dangers, while the others remain close by. When something is spotted, the primate can call and alert the others to the threat, and everyone can get to safety in the trees or even fight back if necessary. These behaviors are not universal among all primates, but they’re common enough throughout several lineages to give assurance that our distant ancestors could have had them too.

But what about uniquely human traits? What made our ancestors stand out from the other primates? That is a bit tricky to say, because since the dawn of scientific study, people gave many answers of varying quality. For many, humanity is special because of theological explanations: we were made special and separate from the animal kingdom, or even the natural world, by a divine force. However, such reasons are not appropriate here because supernatural matters are just that, outside of nature. Even if there was something supernatural about the world, we couldn’t use science to learn about it because scientific methods are based on and apply to natural principles. Not to mention the fact that all supernatural belief systems today are often tied to specific cultural practices and biases that are themselves products of the people who made them, and therefore not applicable to humanity as a whole.

For more naturalistic arguments, people have provided specific traits of the human body or specific behaviors that humans engage in that other organisms just don’t. Yet, on closer inspection, what we often think is human is actually present (if not common) among other animals. The use of tools was commonly applied to the humans, until it was learned that chimpanzees and other species use tools as well. In 1860s England two naturalists, Thomas Henry Huxley and Sir Richard Owen, sparked a grand debate. Owen argued that humans were unique among primates in having a specific part of the brain called the hippocampus minor (what we now call the calvar avis) that no other ape or monkey has. Huxley argued on the contrary, and it was later revealed that other primates indeed share this same feature of the brain, and that Owen has purposely suppressed that information for ideological reasons. In a significantly older (and more humorous) example, when asked “what is a man”, the Greek philosopher Plato simply stated that man is a featherless biped. This made sense, considering that birds walk solely on their hindlimbs but have feathers, while humans do not. However, this quickly backfired when a contemporary philosopher Diogenes presented a chicken with all its feathers plucked out and proclaimed, “here is Plato’s man”. If we want to understand human uniqueness, we need to do better. And, over the years, there has been enough insight to give us a good picture of our origins and how humans stood out among their cousins.

To begin our coverage of human evolution, let’s return to the story of primates. After evolving in Africa, apes were able to extend their range, and between 18 and 10 million years ago, apes ranged across Africa, Europe, and Asia. They had been among the most common and diverse of primates during that time, even out-competing many of the other monkeys that shared the world with them. The environment during this period was perfect for these primates. Lush tropical forests covered many parts of Africa and Eurasia, full of fruits and leaves. Over a hundred different types developed, well-suited to the humid forests. There was Dryopithecus: very similar to living chimpanzees, though it walked on the palms of its hands rather than on the knuckles. Little Pliobates: looking like one of the southeast Asian gibbons, but the structure of its arms prevented the kind of brachiation that gibbons do. Sivapithecus: with a curved face that reveals its close relationship to the ancestors of orangutans. And then, perhaps most spectacular of all, was Gigantopithecus. Paleontologists have only found a series of jaws and teeth, but these alone have told us so much. These were the largest apes that ever lived, reaching a standing height of perhaps 10 feet, but subsisting on little more than fruit and bamboo.

But then, following the massive environmental changes that occurred around the close of the Miocene epoch around 6 million years ago, the comfortable lands of the apes began to disappear. The tropical, humid forests that they relied on receded and in their place were extensive grasslands and a series of open-woodlands. Most of the apes could not adapt to this new world and they died out throughout their range. With their various niches available, the monkeys that previously occupied only minor roles in their ecosystems could now diversify into a great menagerie of forms. Some became folivores, and changed the anatomy of their guts to better process leaves – descendants of these include the colobus monkeys and langurs. Others developed cheek-pouches for storing food like fruits, nuts, and seeds – these include the macaques and guenons. Some members of the latter group left their arboreal existence for a more terrestrial lifestyle in the grasslands, reducing their tails and becoming quadrupedal, evolving into baboons.

The apes that did survive this extinction event went on to occupy specialized positions in the remaining tropical forests of central Africa and southern Asia, evolving into the first gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, and chimps. There was one other ape that managed to flourish in the new environments. Around 12-7 million years ago, two lineages of apes split apart from each other: one line developed into the genus Pan, which survives today as the bonobo and the chimpanzee; the other developed into the ancestors of humans. These hominins (meaning “of the tribe of humans” in Latin) would have looked very different from any chimpanzee as they had acquired many traits that made them distinct from their closest relatives.

The open-woodland habitats that hominins first inhabited would have offered abundant resources as far as food is concerned. This environment would undergo dry and wet seasons, meaning that a few months could mean the difference between full bellies and starvation. No doubt this would have been a scary place, especially with predatory animals like big cats, hyenas, and large eagles able to see their prey clearer (without dense jungle in the way). In these types of ecosystems, it helps to be a generalist (able to adjust to most living conditions). Indeed, many researchers have come to understand that the ancestral human body is the most generalized of all apes. The earliest hominin fossils add support to this. They include members of three genera: Sahelanthropus (7.43-6.38 million years ago), Orrorin (6.14-5.2 million years ago), and Ardipithecus (6.7-4.26 million years ago). With the little evidence they left behind, we can see apes with relatively unspecialized body plans. For example, the bones of Ardipithecus’ hand reveal a simple palmate walking pattern and the ability to grasp tree branches, not unlike the apes of earlier times. However, these apes show a number of distinct features that showcase their relationship to the ancestors of humans. Many features of their skeletons – the position of the foramen magnum (the hole where the spine attaches) at the base of the skull, the shape of the pelvis and limbs, the firm heel of the foot – demonstrate that these apes were already utilizing bipedal locomotion.

All apes are capable of walking on their hindlimbs, but humans are unique in that they are habitually bipedal (walking on two legs all of the time). Why? In these mosaic environments, a generalized body plan allowed for hominins to use both bipedal and quadrupedal locomotion in order to survive. Some of these hominins may have expanded their range outward onto the grasslands where there was less competition from others, and there they could find more food or at least other woodlands to travel to. It helps to see where you are going, as grasslands are often covered with tall, dense grasses and have large carnivores lurking about. And in a hot and dry environment, the need to move efficiently and conserve energy is critical (humans use 75% less energy moving upright than a chimpanzee uses on all fours). Perhaps this is why hominins became fully bipedal. We still cannot be sure about the intricacies of this transition – there are other hypotheses – but the fossil evidence tells us that this change did occur over a long period. You may have heard of the aquatic ape hypothesis: that hominins developed bipedality (among other features) in an aquatic environment. This is a bit of a fringe idea, not supported by most researchers and is actually contradicted by other geologic, environmental, and physiological data.

Africa continued to dry up, and the open-woodland forests started shrinking, only to be replaced by more savanna. The fossil record indicates that an evolutionary radiation of hominins (among other African faunas) occurred during this time, able to adapt to the over-expanding grasslands: these were the australopithecines: the name is a combination of Latin and Greek words meaning “southern apes”. A number of species developed between 4.02-2.2 million years ago all across eastern and southern Africa, each with its own unique characteristics and, certainly, its own behaviors.

One of the most recognized of this group was Praeanthropus afarensis which lived between 3.89-2.9 million years ago, made famous by a number of widely-publicized finds over the last few decades. For example, there is the Ethiopian specimen found by American anthropologist Donald Johanson and his team in 1973. The find was remarkable: roughly 40% of its bones were located – this doesn’t sound like much, but it was one of the better finds of early hominins during those years. They nicknamed the find Lucy, inspired by the party they threw following its discovery, during which the Beatles song “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds” was playing on a loop. Since that time, hundreds of remains have been unearthed, including individuals of many age ranges: males, females, young and old. What these finds reveal was a savannah- and open woodland- living hominin that used its sharp canine teeth to strip away the hardened coverings of stems, fruits, and vegetables to get at the goods inside. A set of preserved footprints from 3.6 million years ago has been attributed to this species and shows three afarensis: two differently-sized individuals moving side-by-side and a third that seems to have been stepping inside the tracks of the larger one in the front. Given that the footprints were preserved in volcanic ash from a nearby eruption of the Sadiman mountain, and seeing how the smaller tracks show an aberrant movement compared to its companion, it seems that these afarensis individuals were escaping the eruption, perhaps with the larger individual pulling the smaller one along. Regardless of just why and by whom the tracks were made, they reveal that Praeanthropus afarensis was walking bipedally with a fully upright stance than earlier hominins.

Emerging a little later at 3.3-1.9 million years ago was Australopithecus africanus, from southern Africa. This species was, incidentally, the earliest of the australopithecines found (in 1924), and lent valuable evidence for its describer, Raymond Dart, that the human lineage emerged in Africa and not Asia as had been the convention. Like the Lucy specimen, we’ve found many more fossils from this species. The face was slightly flatter than afarensis, and the skull was a little bulkier, indicating a shift towards even tougher plant foods than its predecessors. One fossil skull from a young 2- or 3-year old individual, dubbed the Taung Child after the town where it was found (and the fossil that Raymond Dart studied. incidentally), bears puncture marks inside its eye-sockets and around its skull. These are tell-tale signs of the work done by an eagle, predatory birds that often hunt and kill primates today.

There was one great lineage of australopithecines, the genus Paranthropus (which lived 2.73 million to 870,000 years ago), that specialized their diet towards grasses. Their jaws and teeth became enlarged and they sported a large sagittal crest on top of their skulls that supported the powerful chewing muscles needed to process these plants. Overall, their skulls were more robust than other australopithecines and given their heavily grass-based diet, they could very well have sported enormous guts – though, we lack many fossils beyond the skull to test that idea. In essence, these were grazing hominins – the horses and cattle of the australopithecines, though a more apt comparison may be with gorillas, who also sport great sagittal crests for processing tough plant foods.

Part 3

Among all of these australopithecines emerged the first members of the genus Homo, by 2.8 million years ago. What set apart Homo from the other hominins was a number of anatomical features, including a recognizable increase in brain size. In studying brain dimensions, paleoanthropologists rely on cranial capacity: the volume of space inside the brain-case. Whereas australopithecines averaged around 23-38 cubic inches, the earliest members of Homo had a cranial capacity of 34-49 cubic inches. There was also a lack of sexual dimorphism, with males and females averaging about the same height and width, as opposed to australopithecines and other apes where the sexes show great distinctions in size. For example, male Praeanthropus afarensis reached heights 50% taller than females. It is usually with this genus that paleoanthropologists and other researchers recognize these hominins as ‘humans’, and I will be referring to these ancestors of ours with that name from now on.

In time the climate continued to change. The cooling and drying of the world’s regions accelerated and reached its peak at the end of the Pliocene epoch. It is here where we enter the Quaternary Period, which began 2.58 million years ago and continues to the present day. This period has only two epochs, the first is known as the Pleistocene, and encompasses the great ice ages that we briefly discussed in the last episode.

I mentioned tool-use earlier and how many different animals use tools for everyday problem-solving. The biggest distinction between tool-use in humans and tool-use in chimpanzees and other animals is that we have the ability to actually visualize tools, not just use them. Some species, like crows and chimps, can slightly modify sticks and stems for specific purposes, like fishing for a food source. However, humans have the ability to look at any one object and “see” the desired shape they require, and then go about changing the object to suit that need. Though there is evidence of their use as far as 3.6 to 3.4 million years ago, the first stone tools found in the archaeological record date back to 3.3 MYA. This is the Lomekwian toolkit, named after the site where the remains were found. These rocks show evidence of clear knapping (shaping stone by striking it). We do not know why these tools were made, but we recognize that chimpanzees and other primates use stone tools to crack open nuts and other hard foods, so perhaps they were an extension of this strategy. In this case, the stones would have been shaped for the purpose of doing that job, as opposed to chimpanzees who search for stones of the right shape. Given their age, Lomekwian tools would have been created by australopithecines.

The next toolkit to appear in the archaeological record is the Oldowan, which dates from 2.6 to 1.7 million years ago. The name derives, yet again, from the site where they were first found, the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. This stone tool technology shows a much more varied use: cutting, scrapping, sharpening, striking. There are many sites from this period that show that these stone tools were used to help get at animal carcasses. A good, sharp cutting tool can easily tear a hide to get at the meat. It has been suggested by some anthropologists, including Agustín Fuentes, that this change in diet would only have been permitted by very good teamwork. These family groups of early humans would not have been actively hunting after the kinds of large-bodied prey that we see their Oldowan tools associated with. Analysis of the marks on the bones of these carcasses tells a different story. It seems that early humans were observing the kills of predatory mammals like lions, leopards, and hyenas, and later moving towards those mostly-skinned skeletons to scavenge the remains. This mode of behavior then seems to have shifted around 2 million years ago, when the remains of kill sites show that these humans were actively scaring away these carnivorans and then using the tools to cut away as much flesh as they can before the animals return to take back their meal. At that point, the humans would have carried their spoils to a safer place where they could consume them. This has been termed “power scavenging”, and it was one of the baby steps that led to a great revolution in human diet.

The earliest species of Homo, like Homo habilis (2.6-1.65 million years ago) and Homo rudolfensis (2.09-1.78 million years ago), were still very much like australopithecines in size and appearance, save for their markedly larger brains, lighter build, and more carnivorous diets. Early humans had very flattened faces, more so than the australopithecines, who still retained the outward projecting or prognathic jaws. However, there was a notable brow-ridge along the bottom of the forehead, which would have given these humans a distinct appearance.

Up until this point in time, humans had been confined to the African continent, but there were inklings that they were starting to spread out beyond their ancestral homeland. Around 2.1 million years ago, early members of the genus Homo were living in Asia. In the town of Dmanisi in Georgia, remains have been found of many members of our genus, dating to 1.85 million years ago. What is remarkable about these fossils is that they all have very distinct skull shapes, suggesting a wide variation in body forms for this singular population. These remains have been controversially named Homo georgicus, suggesting that all this variation was found among one species. This is not farfetched in the slightest, seeing as variation among individuals is a hallmark of species and of natural selection. Plus, there is great variation among the bones of humans around the world today, and there is no denying that they all belong to the same species. That said, many researchers who examined these fossils argued that had they been found in separate localities and dated to different times, they all would have been classifying as different species. And indeed, some studies seem to have found evidence that all the individuals at Dmanisi represent different species of humans.

This controversy stems from a much larger discussion that occurs in paleoanthropology, that being the distinction between the “lumpers” – those who look at diversity within a single species – and “splitters” – who see diversity as representing multiple, sometimes co-existing species. Beyond the often stringent arguments regarding how to know what a species is (which is another complex subject for another day), there is a bit of personal gain plaguing this discussion, as many researchers in the “splitter” category are motivated to find a new species of human and give their own name for it. The process of scientific investigation, however, has no room for personal quarrels, and it is where the evidence leads that researchers much recognize and accept. In the case of the Dmanisi fossils, some paleoanthropologists in the “lumper” category argue that the name Homo georgicus is not valid, and that these fossils belong to another, already named species called Homo erectus (which I’ll discuss in a little bit) and that this early human species simply encompassed an enormous range of anatomical diversity. At the end of the day, we currently have no real way of knowing the status of the Dmanisi fossils, and we’ll have to wait for more and better fossils to help shed light on these remains. One thing to note is that one of the skulls seems to represent an elderly individual that has lost nearly all of their teeth, and survived despite that. The most likely explanation for this was that they were being fed and cared for by other members of the group. This is evidence of a form of compassion that is not seen in any other living primate species.

Despite this, the Georgian fossils are most important in that they reveal that humans were expanding their ranges outside Africa and settling in new environments. Recent comparative anatomical studies have revealed that some of these members of the early Homo group made it as far as southeast Asia. On the island of Flores, today belonging to Indonesia, there are several fossils and stone tools that reveal that groups of humans became isolated on the island before 700,000 years ago. This was Homo floresiensis, who only grew as tall as 3.7 feet and weighed 55 pounds as adults. This implies that these humans experienced island dwarfism: this is an evolutionary phenomenon where species of animals become isolated on islands and gradually adapt their bodies towards a much reduced size. This means that they do not require as much food to eat and therefore there is no self-imposed threat to resources. Other animal fossils on Flores show island dwarfism too, with the native elephants standing several feet shorter than their mainland relatives. Also in play was island gigantism, where island animals gain a larger body size in response to an abundance of resources. This means that Homo floresiensis shared its island with enormous storks that stood almost 6 feet tall and giant rats some 45 inches long from snout to tail.

Homo floresiensis made stone tools that resemble the Oldowan technology, and researchers have looked at the microwear or microscopic markings on the stones and revealed that these little humans hunted after small animals and cut up woody-stemmed plants. They seem to have refuged in caves, safe from the dangerous animals that lived in the rainforests, including Komodo dragons that would have easily made a meal of one of these people. Homo floresiensis was not a particularly good runner, as evidenced by the shortened and broad legs of their skeletons. This species would had to have remained close together during hunting, certainly keeping watch of any dangers and working together to escape threats. Homo floresiensis seems to have survived on the island of Flores until around 60-50,000 years ago.

Part 4

Later members of the genus Homo increased in overall height and brain-size, reaching as high as 6 feet and sporting a cranial capacity of between 37 and 79 cubic inches. Throughout these species, there is evidence of much more complex forms of behavior and the emergence of elemental cultures. Evolving in Africa 2.27 million years ago was Homo ergaster, which ranged throughout the continent. Populations of this human moved out of Africa in another great wave of expansion, and followed along the similar paths that the earlier Homo species took and reached China and southeast Asia. It was these non-African groups that gave rise to Homo erectus around 1.85 million years ago; the famous Java Man and Peking Man fossils belong to that species. Some paleoanthropologists who advocate “lumping” see Homo ergaster as belonging to the species Homo erectus. In any case, large and slender bodied humans, with lengthy limbs and even lengthier legs had evolved. They still had large brow-ridges, but started to look very much like our own species.

For one, the shape and length of their legs indicated that these humans were specialized for long-distance walking and running. In Homo ergaster and Homo erectus do we see the development of the modern foot, with all toes connected and compacted into one pad. Without a big, outward-facing toe to get in the way, the body could be better balanced on two feet. Longer legs enabled these humans to make longer strides, furthering energy-saving. Coupled with this, we also have genetic evidence that suggests that by around 1.2 million years ago, the fur on the body reduced significantly, the skin became darker, and sweat glands began to form across the body. This package of trait-changes had large benefits. A lack of thick fur and subsequent exposure of (almost) nude skin allows the body to cool better under the hot sun. Having sweat glands all over the body further aids in this process (sweat glands remove heat through evaporation). Dark-pigmented skin – a trait found among all humans in tropical climates – acts as a thermoregulatory tool, blocking ultraviolet radiation from entering the body (restricting hair to the head also helps with this). There are clear environmental reasons for all these new traits, but why the need to run?

Besides the obvious need to escape fast-moving predators, Homo ergaster and Homo erectus appears to have been running after its food. They were no longer power-scavenging, but actively hunting with weapons. Archaeologists have associated these humans with the Acheulian stone toolkit (1.76 million to 200,000 years ago). This toolkit is much larger than the older Oldowan tools: new additions include large handaxes, made by knapping a stone along all sides until the desired shape emerges. The symmetric shape of these tools reveals a possible capacity for aesthetic appreciation, an extension of the metal capabilities that allowed the earliest hominins to picture finished tools before they constructed them. Much speculation has emerged as to what these stone axes were actually used for, and indeed, more have been found than would possibly have been used, but they at least appear to be multipurpose. If anything, the toolkit as-a-whole included implements for killing and cutting up prey animals, including the earliest known evidence for spears. Evidence shows that large mammals make up part of the diet of Homo erectus. While many such mammals, like antelope, horses, and deer, are clearly faster, humans can actually match their total distance per day. There is a difference between sprinting and endurance running. A prey animal will run with all its might from a predator, in this case Homo erectus, but after a while it will need to rest. With endurance running, a human can keep the same pace because it is not putting all its energy into moving. It may be significantly slower, but given enough time, it will still manage to catch up to an animal that will have eventually collapsed from heat exhaustion, allowing for the kill via the thrust of a spear. Some modern forager peoples still hunt in this way, so we have been able to compare their lives with those of early humans that faced similar environmental pressures. Comparing the lives of modern peoples with those of the past is tricky: keep in mind that though these studies provide valuable insights, they are not direct evidence of prehistoric behaviors. Forager groups are people of the present day, not the past.

Homo erectus may have also been one of the first hominins to utilize fire, but there is much controversy in this field of study. For one, we know that living apes (particularly chimpanzees) recognize and do not fear wildfires, seeing them as a means of obtaining food: they will follow the movement of a fire and go after the burnt animals and plants. Secondly, there is a big different between recognizing what fire is, following wildfires, borrowing fire, and making it. Even though the earliest sites for hominin use-of-fire go back at least 1.6 million years ago (associated with Homo erectus), there is nothing to suggest that earlier species did not use fire in some way. It seems more likely that the use and eventual learning of how to make fire was a gradual process. The ability to cook food is certainly a very helpful strategy. Simple observations have shown that cooking helps soften and decontaminate food, as well as increase a food’s vital nutrients – it is essentially pre-digestion. Perhaps cooking helped foster new changes in both physiology and psychology. For example, we have discovered that Homo erectus and related forms around this time had developed key structures of the brain called frontal opercula associated with motor processing and more complex social behaviors. There was, thus, more to the increase in brain-size than meets the eye.

And what about speech? When did humans begin talking to each other with languages? This is a very controversial topic and there is no consensus as to the evolution of speech and language, so let’s just take a look at what we know and see where the evidence could lead us. Communication – the exchange of information with others – clearly extends back into our primate heritage. Language – the symbolic code that facilitates communication, verbally or non-verbally – is a bit trickier to pinpoint. It has been argued by many researchers that several organisms, including dolphins, have languages, but there is a lack of concrete evidence for this. What does neuropsychology have to say? There are key areas of the brain that aid with the facilitation of speech and language, like Broca’s Area (which controls the regions of the mouth, throat, and lungs that produce speech) and Wernicke’s Area (which deals with speech comprehension). Physiologically, the low position of our larynx has allowed humans to produce a wider range of sounds than other primates can. So all we’d have to do is look at what fossil remains we have for early humans and see when these important features show up. As far as brain casts are concerned, we see a human-like Broca’s & Wernicke’s Area in Homo habilis & Homo erectus, as opposed to the more ancestral brains of australopithecines. Interestingly, the shape of the base of the skulls in mammals shows a correlation to larynx position. What we find is that a low-oriented larynx shows up in Homo erectus, but it isn’t until around 300,000 years ago that we see the right curvature in the base of the skull, suggesting that a larynx that allows a fully-fledged suite of symbolic speech had appeared. This corresponds with the earliest Homo sapiens and their kin. That’s about the best we can do for now: explanations for the evolution of these traits are, at best, informed speculation. We can be confident, however, that when clear evidence of symbolism, including expressions of culture, appear in the archaeological record, we know that early humans must be communicating with each other using languages of a type that we’ll never hear.

All of this new information would have dramatically changed the family-group dynamic of early humans. Learning how to knap and shape stone tools would have been information that was shared and passed down generation by generation. This collective learning, as it is called, would have been facilitated by experienced individuals who understood the intricacies of making the proper stone tools. Young children could have been directly taught by these teachers, or simply observed them and tried it out themselves. Among other primates today, like chimpanzees, the young are often close-by watching their parents or other members of the group when they gather and use tools, learning for themselves how to undertake the task. And over time, new ways of making the tools can arise from these individuals, adding much needed improvements and revisions, and these can be taken up by the rest of the community.

Another key change was in the way that the young were raised. Based on the analysis of the best pelvic bones we have for hominins, anthropologist Robert Martin has argued that childbirth would have become very difficult by the time of Homo ergaster. This would have been due to the gradual transition towards bipedality (which altered the shape of hominin pelvises) and the expansion of the size of the brain which meant that mothers faced extreme pain and pressure trying to pass their infants through the vagina. If left alone, there was a strong possibility of death by childbirth, which is why Robert Martin has proposed that the practice of midwifing – assisting a mother in labor – would have to have been in practice at this time. There is also evidence of a shift in childhood among later Homo species, with the length of time for development growing. This meant that, for at most the first 5 years of life, young humans would have been staying by their mother’s side for much longer, nursing and bonding until they were of the age to assist with other members of their family group. Like other primates, there would have been many members of these family groups assisting in the care of the infants, allowing the mothers to participate in hunts, tool-making, and other problem-solving activities.

All of these shared experiences, of working together to survive the odds, of bringing up the next generation, and of assuring that their children have all the skills they need to function in their communities, are all hallmarks of humanity. It is perhaps reassuring that it is these most basic and most precious of human social behaviors that have been around for millions of years.

And with that, we must lay anchor to our river journey. In the next episode, the story of human evolution continues. We visit a world caught in the grips of the ice ages and various human species struggle to survive the extreme shifts of temperatures as they expand across Africa and Eurasia. We meet two of our closest human relatives, the neanderthals and denisovans, and see what sorts of cultures they created, hundreds of thousands of years ago.

That’s the end of this episode of On the River of History. If you enjoyed listening in and are interested in hearing more, you can visit my new website at www.podcasts.com, just search for ‘On the River of History’. This podcast is also available on iTunes, just search for it by name. A transcript of today’s episode is available for the hearing-impaired or for those who just want to read along: the link is in the description. And, if you like what I do, you’re welcome to stop by my Twitter @KilldeerCheer. You can also support this podcast by becoming a patron, at www.patreon.com/JTurmelle: any and all donations are greatly appreciated and will help continue this podcast. Thank you all for listening and never forget: the story of the world is your story too.

#Transcripts #On the River of History

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africacalling · 8 years ago

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From Swaziland to Mozambique

We have travelled quite some distance since I last wrote. We left the beautiful Lesotho due to heavy rain making it impossible to get to the places we wanted to see. We decided to enter back into South Africa, have a one night pit stop in Clarens, a beautiful little town (even had a room for the night for £20 to get things dry). Then we began the 8 hour trip to get back on to the South African coast. Illovo was our first stop, we stayed for one night in a little camp site and then moved down the coast a couple of km to Kerradine where we camped for 3 nights at the Petora Hotel, we were able to use all the facilities and the beach was right on our door step. Each day the monkeys would come and put on a show using the trees and shrubs as a gymnasium to swing from and chase each other. We met a nice couple, Mike and Denise who gave us some tips for the trip ahead and warned us of the cyclone due to hit Mozambique.

From here we headed north of Durban to Ballito, we camped at the Dolphin Resort making this home for a week. A sea town with a bit of hustle and bustle, a few bars and restaurants and most importantly, somewhere for Chris to watch the rugby. We met a lovely Dutch family Jiske and Jurrianne travelling with their 2 children Hugo and Sophie age 3 (very adorable may I add). The day they arrived we experienced one of the maddest thunder storms I had ever been in. The lightning lit up the sky in shades of purple and pink while the thunder roared and crashed above us. For shelter we had the awning from their motor home and decided we would drink wine and flying fish to get us through. A few hours and many laughs later, the storm passed and we were able to safely retreat back into our tent. The heavy rain continued for a few more days and so we stayed stationary. We were in the tail end of cyclone Dineo which hit Tofo region in Mozambique pretty bad. Soon enough we would see the destruction that it caused.

We travelled with the Jiske and Jurianne for another 5 days heading north to St Lucia and Hluhluwe before travelling into Swaziland. We were able to do a really great self drive in the iSimangaliso wetland park. We saw lots of Giraffe, elephants, buffalo, antelope and zebra. On our way back to Sugar loaf camp in st Lucia we crossed over the river and to our amazement were able to catch hippos having their daily swim down the river. Thankfully we were viewing them from the safety of the bridge and not ground level. Hippos are one of the most underestimated animals of all time. They are notoriously quick on their feet and know to attack humans frequently.

After iSimangaliso we headed to Hluhluwe where we camped at the Bushbaby Lodge. We relaxed in the pool and then the following morning made an early start to the game reserve. Once again we were able to get up close to elephants, giraffe, zebra, wilder beast, buffalo, many antelope and we must not forget the rhinos. I was amazed by the sheer size of them, some of them weighing up to 3 tons! Another successful day at a game reserve and we decided we would make the border run to Swaziland. I don’t think we had really accounted for how long it would take to get there... Finally at 10pm we found our destination, Milwane Nature reserve.

Waking in the morning we were able to take in the beauty of Milwane. Zebra, Warthog and Duiker roamed free. The trees surrounding us were tall reaching up into the sky, offering plenty of shade to get respite from the sun. We went on a hike around the reserve in the hope to spot crocodile in the lake. It wasn’t until we were leaving that we were able to see a crocodile off for his morning swim.

Heading north we made our way to Maguga dam, one of the largest in Swaziland the infrastructure was quite impressive, despite the rain the dam was still only at 20%. We camped for our last night with the Dutch at the Maguga lodge. The whole area to our selves overlooking the dam was a perfect setting. We held a little party for Chris’ pre birthday night, even had a cake and balloons courtesy of Jiske. The only thing that was quite was concerning was the sign stating to be aware of the hippos and crocodiles!! Needless to say I was hyper sensitive to all the sounds around me that night.

The day of Chris’ birthday we went white water rafting in the Great Usutu River. There had been a lot of heavy rainfall and so the river was full. The safety speech at the beginning was enough to make me want to turn back and get on the bus, but it was Chris’ birthday and so I thought I should really face my fears and give it a go. The first couple of hours were really fun; we rafted down a working wear and got into sync with our paddling. I don’t think any amount of paddling would have prepared us for the rapids that would face us in the afternoon. The guides had decided to not show us the rapid before we went down in the fear that I would say I didn’t want to do it. We tipped over the edge and were faced with waves of water crashing into us. Two brits on an inflatable croc... this wasn’t going to end well. We negotiated the second wave and it sent us sideways, crashing into a large rock that we got stuck on. The force of the water sent us flying out of the croc, trying to get orientated I surface from the water and shout for Chris to help me. The guides are laughing finding it all very amusing, they drag me back to the river bank where I am able to get my breath. Chris had managed to swim himself in and decided he needed another go down the rapids. This time he went with a guide and again they get over the first wave and then the boat gets tipped vertically and out they come, floating down the river. Thank goodness for helmets and a life jacket is all I can say. I am thinking that has to be the worst one, but then later that afternoon we had to take climb with our croc over rocks to bypass a raging waterfall, the rain is coming down and the rocks are slippery. The guides make it look so easy, jumping across the rocks with our croc on his head as if we goat clinging to the mountain. Myself and Chris however, are sliding all over the place. The final large rapid of the day and there is a torrent of water raging down there. Keep straight, come on keep straight we can do this, and then we hit another rock, and get spun sideways. I luckily manage to stay in the boat but Chris comes flying out again. He resurfaces and to make matters worse I go over his head with the croc. Get me off this croc, I have decided that grade IV water rafting is not for me and I will leave it for the adrenaline hunters. Needless to say that night we treated ourselves to a room in the hostel to recover from the day.

The next day a much more relaxing day, we went to Hilwane Royal National Park, we stayed in a beautiful traditional rondavelle. We booked onto the sunset safari ride and at 4pm off we went. Within 10 mins we come across 6 rhinos grazing, we are able to get so close, all I can think is please don’t charge. Their giant horns protruding into the sky, they really are beautiful. We travel around the park for another hour and just as we are about to go back we get to see what everyone has been waiting for...lions, not just one but three. They are napping and hiding in the tall grass so we are able to just see them but still we have seen lions.

For now it’s goodbye to Swaziland and onwards to our adventure in Mozambique. We are prepared for the border we have everything that we could possibly need, they are particularly fussy at the border and on the roads so you need to have all your paperwork in order and the car in good condition. We cross with no problems, a few runners trying to earn some money but we head straight to immigration and get through within thirty mins. Our first night to break it up we stay on Macanetta Island at Tan ‘n’ Biki, then onwards to Priar do Bilene. Palmerio Complexo would be our home for 3 nights. It was a great place to get into the swing of Mozambique life and also bulk buy the famous tipo tinto rum (6 bottles for £14). We experienced quite heavy rain while we were there; thankfully we had the gazebo for cover.

Next stop Chidengule, 160km up the road. There is only one main road heading to the north of Mozambique and so as long as you keep the ocean to your right, you can’t go wrong. Again we have some more rain in Chidengule so we only camp for two nights at the sunset lodge. Onwards and upwards to Tofo, which is where I am now. As I sit and write this I am sat looking at the turquoise ocean, golden sands and blue skies. The rain has ended.

We have been in Tofo for 13 days all ready, the break here is just what we need to refuel the batteries. Camping is so cheap, £3.50 a night so we can’t go wrong. Tofo is only just recovering from the cyclone that hit. As you drive around you still see so much damage, houses that have had the roofs blown off, straw houses that have been flattened. Giant trees that have fallen from the extreme wind and rubbish is everywhere. People are still working so hard to get things back in shape. Tofo is paradise and brings a lot of tourism to Mozambique so people need to work quickly. Thankfully the locals aren’t forgotten, there has been a lot of community projects and fundraising to help people rebuild their homes and lives. We donated a load of vegetables and rice to a school to help feed 800 children. About one week into our stay we are warned that more heavy rain and strong winds are coming. We take down the gazebo and prepare for the 50kmph winds. The sea becomes wild and waves double in size. All of the rubbish the initial cyclone took into the ocean gets spat back out on to the shore; the once beautiful beach is covered in plastic and debris. Operation clear up begins, Chris and me decide that we will get the rakes from the caretaker and clear the beach, slowly more people join and before we know we have a team and within two to three hours the beach is looking much more appealing. Less plastic in the sea = happy fish.

In a couple of days we are heading to Vilankulos where we will explore the Bazarutu Island. I won’t wait so long to write next time. To be continued....

Love Marie and Chris

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kerricapazario · 5 years ago

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Plomer Street - The Early Years

Running around and playing all day is what I remember the most of this house. I was born in 1988, we lived here until I was 7 years old.

I shared a room with my little sister, Jessica. All my oldest sibling’s friends nicknamed her the ‘cute one’. i wonder what that made me; I can only expect annoying.

My mother worked from home in our adapted garage, more commonly known as “The Artroom”. She had a colleague named Jacqui who always had weirdly long fingernails, a long dyed dark red hard in a bun and smoked like a trooper. She and my mother pained polystyrene cutouts which has been stencilled from a projector on the wall. This artwork ranged from Micky Mouse to Hairspray adverts. The Artroom was always filled with messed paint and glitter all over the carpet and Jessica and I were always locked out so that we “didn’t hurt ourselves”.

We had a maid named Maria - I LOVED HER!! Maids in South African do everything from making sure we were dressed for school in the morning to making us dinner at night. I don’t remember much about Maria except when she left us. I think she was fired - not sure why, but I was running up the road behind her crying and begging her not to go. Maid’s always lived in quarters on our property. This was the SA way. But they were below us in terms of status, which is sad and something I only realised once I’d left South Africa not even a decade ago.

Jessica and I shared a room, Samantha, my older sister (5 years older) had the room to the right of ours and my parents had the main room which had an en suite. Justin lived with us too, he is my mother’s son but my brother and my dad’s son for all intents and purposes. He slept in, what I think now, would have been the office or study. The door wasn’t a normal one, it staggered across and clicked as opposed to closing as normal. I don’t remember much of him staying with us, but I was young and when I was 5 he was already 16.

Samantha and I want to a school that was a 5 minute walk up the road, called ParkRand Primary. We had horrible looking uniforms that were made up of yellow button up t-shirts with short sleeves and a navy blue sleeveless dress that went over it. My mother always used to put pig tails in my hair as much as I would cry for her not to, I used to walk around at school holding the two tails together in order for it to change my appearance.

My first class was Grade 1 and I vaguely remember my first day. My mother took the usual first day photo’s and I felt very proud to finally be on my way to ‘big school’. Sam went to the same school, she would have been in Standard 4.

Samantha was blonde and popular and we always had a number of boys and girls outside our house coming to visit. These are the ones who dubbed Jessica with her nickname.

I looked up to Sam in many ways and wanted to hang around her and her friends. Understandably, she never wanted me around. I get it, it’s the same way I looked at Jex. But Jessica and I did a lot of things together and were treated more as twins. We are only 2 and a half years apart and did everything together. When describing their 3 girls, it was always, “Samantha and the girls” which annoyed me. Why were we always what sounded like Samantha’s back up dances? Why couldn’t it be, Kerri and the girls? I suppose it doesn’t have the same ring to it.

So yes, Jex and I were brought up like twins. We had a bunk bed, we wore the same clothes, bathed together every night and received birthday presents on each other’s birthdays up until about the age of 10.

In retrospect, Jessica was very cute. She had beautiful blonde mousey hair and chubby little cheeks much like her daughter now.

My dad worked a traditional office job and was gone early in the morning and came home at night. Every night, he would come home and open up his suit case and give Jessica and I each a sweet. This carried on much until my pre teems - thanks for the weight gain dad!

Candice is our eldest sister who is 14 years my senior and lived with her Mother and Brother. She is my father’s child and unlike Justin, did not call my mother her mother in any way. That’s a story for another day.

I remember Justin got his first motorbike and I got my first bike for Christmas and when my dad was teaching me to play in the garden, I fell and hurt myself and he made me get back and try again. I don’t really remember Christmas’ in this house other than one - probably because we have pictures to accompany it. Jessica and I sat at our red plastic table and everyone sat together on the big one. My grandad was there, my father’s dad.

I used to run away a lot when I didn’t get my way - this happened quite a few times except that by run, I mean, I’d pack a bag and go sit right outside our gate on the pavement as I was scared to walk up the road by myself. My mom always said, I used to run around the house naked like a bushbaby. There is a picture to prove is unfortunately.

We had 3 dogs, Oliver, a sheepdog, he was lovely and I remember him passing away under a tree in the garden. My mom was distraught - she loved him. We had a pavement special, also known as a mixed breed, named Tunder. I don’t remember how he passed away. When I was about 4, we got a staffie named Boris who was my dad’s dog - he was the boss.

There were also a few cats running around. Some run away or got run over, unfortunately but I was very young. I do remember getting TJ, who stayed with us for over 20 years - more on her later.

Like more family’s, we had our traditions like, on a Friday, we would all go to the video store and my parents would let us get 2 videos. They would watch theirs on a Friday night and we could watch ours on the Saturday Morning. We would also get a takeaway and looked forward to that weekly spoil.

It is a time that I wish I could remember more of. I wish I could see my old toys or watch my parents bring us up. Take me back to 5 years old please...if only!

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kuwahuru · 5 years ago

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2 Day Tanzania Safari and Zanzibar Island

If you are looking for an adventure safari of a lifetime ultimate mountain climb, that reaches the highest peaks of Africa, or without forgetting the magic Island of Zanzibar, then Tanzania is the place to be, You will get the best experience in excursions in Tanzania!........!We as Kuwa Huru Tanzania Adventure will assist you to plan and package your vacation......we are ready to arrange it kindly. On arrival at Arusha Airport, you’ll be personally met and escorted by our driver-guide to the fashionable Hotel in Arusha for breakfast, while you’re having your Breakfast, our experienced safari driver guide, will give you a short safari briefing before starting your memorable African safari. Lake Manyara National Park Lake Manyara’s famous for tree-climbing lions are another reason to pay a visit to this park. The only kind of their species in the world, they make the ancient mahogany and elegant acacias their home during the rainy season and are a well-known but a rather rare feature of the northern park. In addition to the lions, the national park is also home to the largest concentration of baboons anywhere in the world — a fact that accounts for interesting game viewing of large families of the primates. Lake Manyara National Park is located on the way to Ngorongoro Crater and the Serengeti, Its groundwater forests, bush plains, baobab strewn cliffs, and algae-streaked hot springs offer incredible ecological variety in a small area, rich in wildlife and incredible numbers of birds. Manyara provides the perfect introduction to Tanzania’s birdlife. More than 400 species have been recorded, and even a first-time visitor to Africa might reasonably expect to observe 100 of these in one day. Highlights include thousands of pink-hued flamingos on their perpetual migration, as well as other large water birds such as pelicans, cormorants, and storks. The alkaline soda of Lake Manyara is home to an incredible array of birdlife that thrives on its brackish waters. Pink flamingo stoops and graze by the thousands of colorful specks against the grey minerals of the lakeshore. Yellow-billed storks swoop and corkscrew on thermal winds rising up from the escarpment, and herons flap their wings against the sun-drenched sky. Even reluctant bird-watchers will find something to watch and marvel at within the national park, before sunset, you will be taken back to your hotel in Marera Valley Lodge Karatu for Dinner and overnight. Ngorongoro Crater Game drive and Drive Back to Arusha Today we visit the largest intact volcanic crater in the world, the magnificent Ngorongoro Crater. After an early breakfast depart for the Ngorongoro Crater, with your packed lunch, drive to Ngorongoro Conservation entry gate. Drive on and descend 2000 feet (over 600 meters) into the crater floor for a day game drive, Explore the forest areas that are inhabited by monkeys and elephant, the lake area, where you may see the flamingos and the open Savannah where the lions hunt for food. Ngorongoro is a special place in that it is a Conservation Area, not a National Park; this means that the whole area is managed for both the animals and the local Masai people who graze their cattle alongside the indigenous wildlife. After stopping at the entrance gate, where there is a chance to learn more about this fascinating volcanic landscape, we will drive around the rim of the Crater itself, and from here we can look down and see the herd of wildebeest or buffalos. This truly world-class attraction is also known as the ’8th Wonder of the World’… finally, we descend into the crater. The crater walls provide a natural sanctuary for the animals, which means there is plenty to see: lions, elephants, buffalo, rhino, and leopard (if you are lucky). The only animal you won’t see here is a giraffe, whose long legs are unable to cope with the steeps sides of the crater. In the late afternoon after a picnic lunch, we start going out of the crater with a game drive towards Arusha town, you will stay at Venus Premier Hotel bed and breakfast Day 3: Zanzibar Holiday 3 night 4 Days On arrival at Zanzibar International Airport, you’ll be personally met and escorted by our driver-guide to the fashionable Hotel in Stone Town. After check immediately the fun begins you’ll start your tour to Prison Island Prison Island Changuu Island (also known as Kibandiko, Prison, or Quarantine Island) is a small island 5.6 km northwest of Stone Town, Ungula, and Zanzibar. The island is around 800m long and 230m wide at its broadest point The Island saw use as a prison for rebellious slaves in 1860s and also functioned as a coal mine. The British First Minister of Zanzibar, Lloyd Mathews, purchased the island in 1893 and constructed a prison complex there. No prisoners were ever housed on the island and instead, it became a quarantine station for yellow fever cases. The station was only occupied for around half of the year and the rest of the time it was a popular holiday destination. More recently, the island has become a government-owned tourist resort and houses a collection of endangered Aldabra giant tortoises’ now it is more commonly known as a home of Zanzibar’s Giant Aldabra Tortoise colony, some of which are over a hundred years old! Which was originally a gift from the British governor of Seychelles in the late 19th Century. Once on the island, you have the opportunity to feed and pet the tortoises; if you have time you may also like to take a stroll through the forested interior where you will see a wide variety of birds, colorful peacocks, bats, and beautiful butterflies. Keep your eyes peeled too for the shy and elusive Duikers – an unusual tiny antelope species after prison tour the boat will drive you back to Stone Town, you will overnight at Golden Tulip resort Bed and breakfast Day 4: The Safari blue Safari Blue Tour in Zanzibar is the Zanzibar number one full day trip, this is a sea adventure safari starts from Fumba fishing village, southwest coast of the island, the major attraction is to swim, snorkeling, kinds of seafood and sailing within the traditional dhow, the history of traditional dhow dated back to the 15th and 16th centuries, the ages of the monsoon winds and the Arab movements, We inboard into sailing dhow at 9:00 am ahead to a sandbank for relaxation, swimming and beach walking, You will have a great time to test the tropical kinds of seafood including octopus, calamari, lobster, shrimps, shark, shellfish, tuna fish, barracuda, etc. Snorkeling is also the main activity, whereby tourist will be taken to the coral reef and the areas which are good and have a colorful school of fish. After the lunch at Kwale Island, there will be a short tour to the ancient baobab tree which is said to have more than 200 years now, On our way back to the Fumba beach we shall again have opportunity to swim into the natural swimming pool near the Kwale Island, we normally finish our tour around 4:00 pm; you will overnight at Golden Tulip resort Bed and Breakfast Day 5: Dolphin Tour and Spice Farms. Spend the day at the Island with a variety of optional activities. The most popular dolphin spotting location in Zanzibar is in Kizimkazi village, located on the Southern coast of Zanzibar Island where you can see both bottle-nose and humpback dolphins. Dolphin tour is best very early in the morning, because in the afternoon as the sun rises seawater tends to become warm, therefore dolphins dive deep down the sea bottom to escape the heat, Early At 06:00 in the morning you’ll be picked up to south coast of Zanzibar for a dolphin tour, Although dolphin-spotting is a popular activity, sightings aren’t guaranteed 100%, and actually managing to swim with dolphins is a rare occurrence, like with other wild animals spotting dolphins require time and patience as they are not confined in a cage or a zoo, they are in their natural environment. The Dolphin tour lasts for two to three hours. Kizimkazi is also the site of a 12th-century mosque, the earliest evidence of Islam in East Africa, and is thus worth a visit for both cultural and historical reasons. The dolphin trip can be combined with Jozani Forest, as the forest is on the way to Kizimkazi we pass through the forest on the way back from the dolphin tour. Jozan forest The forest is 2,512 hectares (6,207 acres) in size and was declared a nature reserve in the 1960′s. Jozani forest is a natural pharmacy, an amazing source of natural remedies! Every plant or tree cures something. What is so beautiful about Jozani forest tour, that height of the trees and the palms are just outstanding! Jozani is also famous for rare red Colobus monkeys and even harder to spot – Zanzibar Sykes’ monkey, a very rare monkey species unique to Zanzibar. Along with Red Colobus Monkeys, you can expect to see Bushbaby, 50 different species of butterflies, and 40 species of birds. This forest is one of the last remaining sanctuaries in the world of the red colobus monkey. Wonderful photo opportunities and sightings of these rare creatures living in the forest reserves are possible on the pathways. Our guides are also naturalists and nature lovers will have a wonderful time in the nature reserve. Spice Farms The Spice Tour is one of the most popular excursions in Zanzibar, the Spice Island. Zanzibar was one of the world’s leading producers of spices such as clove, nutmeg, and cinnamon. Tour takes you to on organic farms with a wide variety of plants around the year. You don’t just see, you also touch, smell and taste. Spices and herbs were originally introduced to Zanzibar by Portuguese traders in the 16th century, brought from their colonies in South America and India. This tour is a walking tour on a spice farm (shamba). While there, you shall see how the spices, herbs, and fruits grow and are cultivated. Your tour guide will describe how the crops can be used. You will be smelling and tasting spices, herbs, and tropical fruits such as clove, lemongrass, nutmeg, cinnamon, turmeric, vanilla, coconuts, papaya, chili, black pepper, jackfruit, cardamom, cassava, and oranges. After the tour, you will enjoy a traditional Swahili lunch at the farm. Here is when you can really taste the different ways of using spices. The tour finishes with a stop at a spice stall selling fresh packaged spices (cash only). You will overnight at Golden Tulip resort Bed and Breakfast Day 6: Departure Day Zanzibar to Dar Depending on your flight or boat schedule departure time, before departure time your guide will take you for the walking tour in Stone Town, which is the old city and cultural heart of Zanzibar and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Famous for its winding alleys, bustling bazaars, sultan’s palace, mosques, House of Wonders, Portuguese fort and gardens and the extravagant merchants’ houses with their remarkably ornate doors, then from stone town is just a walking distance to the port to take your Boat buck Dar es, Salaam. Don’t forget to come to Buck. 6 Days safari Price Include Full board accommodation whilst on safari in the above-mentioned lodges Private safari guide Private 4 x 4 safari jeep with pop up roof for game viewing Transfers in both directions between the Arusha Airport Park fees Ngorongoro Crater fees Game drives Drinking water All government taxes Â including VAT All transfers while in Zanzibar. All entries fees as listed in the itinerary Pick up from and to the Airport in Zanzibar All tours & excursion in Zanzibar Domestic Flight – From Dar to Arusha 6 Days Price Excludes International airfares and departure taxes Walking Tour in the Ngorongoro Highland $20 All items of personal nature such as telephone call, fax, email, etc Tips for your service providers and gratuities to hotel, lodges, porters, camp staff and driver-guide (recommended) drinks Laundry services Read the full article

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topfygad · 5 years ago

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Sabi Sands: The ultimate safari

The Sabi Sand Game Reserve is one of the most sought after safari destinations in South Africa. Not only is it well-known for its big game viewing but also its experienced trackers and game rangers. Together with world-class safari lodges, set in prime locations in the heart of the African bush, you’re guaranteed an unforgettable safari.

Founded in 1948 as the first private game reserve in South Africa, the Sabi Sands has come a long way and now forms part of the Greater Kruger National Park. Now sharing a 50km unfenced border with the Kruger National Park to the east, game moves freely, without restriction, between the 65,000 hectare Sabi Sands Game Reserve and the adjacent Kruger.

Going on a safari in Africa has to be on your bucket list at least once in your lifetime. I couldn’t think of a better place to do that than the exclusive Sabi Sand Game Reserve. It offers guests everything they envisage, with them going back time and time again. Here are a few reasons that make the Sabi Sands a great choice for your next African safari.

Private Safari Lodges

The Sabi Sand Game Reserve has a range of private safari lodges on offer: from ultra-luxurious to more affordable modest accommodation. For the ultimate bush escape, world-class safari lodges like Singita, Dulini and Londolozi offer the very best in luxury, design, cuisine and service. Providing the discerning traveller with an unforgettable bush experience, these upmarket lodges pride themselves in being intimate with the highest standards.

Some lodges are perfect for a romantic honeymoon or intimate wedding, and others that cater well for families with children. Some lodges also provide options like pampering spa treatments, spending the night in a luxury treehouse, approaching game on foot on a guided bush walk and offering specialised photographic safaris. It’s also good to know that all lodges in the Sabi Sands include all meals and two daily game drives – with some including bush walks as well. The high-end lodges being on an all-inclusive basis.

Whatever your budget and taste, each lodge is individually unique, offering the guest something special. The Luxury Traveler helps guests in finding the perfect fit for them when planning their safari. Talk to one of their African safari experts and they’ll match the right lodge to your needs.

Experience a night in a luxury treehouse in the wild bushveld of the Sabi Sand Game Reserve in South Africa. Photo credit by MORE

Impressive Wildlife Sightings

The Sabi Sands is well-known for its incredible leopard and Big-5 game sightings. Although wildlife sightings can never be guaranteed, it’s not uncommon for guests to see all the big five animals – namely elephant, rhino, buffalo, lion and leopard – in a single game drive! The game reserve has an excellent reputation for showing guests incredible animals and birds – and their behaviour. You could find yourself watching a pack of African wild dog playing with their pups or soaring vultures making their way down to a lion kill to feed. One never knows what you’ll see, and that’s what makes an African safari so thrilling.

The Sabi Sand Game Reserve has one of the highest biodiversity of fauna and flora in Africa. With over 500 bird species and more than 145 mammals recorded in the reserve, you won’t have to drive far to see a variety of wildlife. With a year-round supply of water, provided by the perennial Sand and Sabie Rivers, together with the many boreholes that dot the area, there is water even in the dry season. This ensures that animals stick around throughout the year, with only some of the bird species migrating during different seasons.

Guests can expect to see common favourites like zebra, giraffe, hippo, wildebeest, kudu, hyena and warthog – in addition to the Big-5. Iconic species like wild dog, cheetah and pangolin may also put in an appearance if you’re lucky. Night game drives also give you a unique opportunity to see the lesser-known nocturnal species that come out. You may be privileged to see bushbaby, civet, nightjars, owls, porcupine, genet, honey badger and the African cat species on a hunt

Leopards are a common sighting in the Sabi Sands. They’re almost dropping from the trees. Photo copyright Claudia Hodkinson.

Experienced Guides and Trackers

A huge advantage of going on safari in the Sabi Sands is the experienced guides and trackers that work hand in hand to find incredible game sightings for their guests. The trackers, who sit at the front of the vehicle on game drives, are highly-skilled in picking up on signs and tracks in the bush, which they follow to find animals.

Unlike Kruger National Park, one is allowed to drive off-road in the Sabi Sands to follow tracks and animal movements. It also allows one to get up really close to animals, especially big cats like cheetah, lion and leopard. The guides are also in constant communication with other vehicles in the area about sightings. This increases the chances of seeing game.

If you have a particular interest like photography or birding, the guide and tracker will make every effort during the game drive to deliver on your request. Not only do the guides and trackers have information about animals and their behaviour, but they have a wealth of knowledge about other aspects of nature too like medicinal properties of trees, folklore and the stars.

The trackers and guides of the Sabi Sands are highly experienced to find and interpret the African bush. Photo courtesy of MORE.

Easy Access

Travellers have a variety of ways to get to the Sabi Sand Game Reserve. The most convenient and fastest way is to take a charter (shuttle) flight from Johannesburg or Kruger Mpumalanga International Airport (KMIA) to an airstrip in the Sabi Sands. This will ensure you spend the maximum amount of time at your lodge and out in nature. Alternatively, you could take one of the scheduled flights from Johannesburg or Cape Town to one of the three main access airports. This will be followed by either a road transfer to your lodge or a charter flight to the nearest airstrip.

Those that are on a self-drive package, using a rental car, can also reach the Sabi Sand Game Reserve. It will take you a relaxed 6 hours to drive the approximately 450 kilometres from Johannesburg to the southern Sabi Sands and 7 hours to the northern section of the reserve. A travel consultant will help put your safari itinerary together, including all relevant flights, transfers and car hire that you require.

Year-Round Destination

The Sabi Sand Game Reserve offers excellent game viewing throughout the year. Each season has its advantages. During the dry season (May-September) the bush vegetation thins out, making it easier to spot wildlife. With little rain over this time, waterholes and rivers attract many animals to drink. Fewer crowds and mild daytime temperatures also make this a popular month for many visitors. Mid-winter can get cold, but the risk of malaria is also at its lowest. Overall, the Sabi Sands is considered a very low-risk malaria area all year round. Summer (October-April) brings warmer temperatures and thunderstorms that revitalise the bush. Vegetation becomes lush and green, with migratory birds flocking back to the area with a good chance of seeing newborn animals. Birding is sensational over this time. Fish eagles, vultures, rollers, nightjars, owls, cranes, bee-eaters, falcons, hornbills and storks all form part of a dazzling avian display.

Every season in the Sabi Sands is unique with incredible game viewing throughout the year. Photo copyright Claudia Hodkinson.

The Sabi Sands also makes a great addition to a longer multi-destination holiday. You can easily combine your Sabi Sands safari with a trip to Victoria Falls or the Okavango Delta in Botswana for instance. Another great option is to combine it with a beach component to your itinerary. Why not add a few nights in Cape Town or Mozambique to the end of your safari? You’ll get to relax on sun-kissed beaches after watching the game, providing a great end to a thrilling start.

Contact

I recommend that you book your safari to Africa at least 8-12 months in advance. The Luxury Traveler can help you do that. Start planning your safari to the Sabi Sands Game Reserve today and enquire here with your details. Alternatively, you can send them an email to [email protected]

from Cheapr Travels https://ift.tt/2MbISry via https://ift.tt/2NIqXKN

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hogwartslessons-blog · 7 years ago

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POTIONS | October 6th | Lesson #15 | African Potions

Western Witches and Wizards, particularly the maheka-lala, or the Curse-Breakers of Gringotts are still seeking the true nature of Egyptian Magic, or heka. In fact, the Magical communities of Egypt now have no recollection of this heritage of powerful and advanced magic either, and the magic practiced there now can best be characterized as Western in nature.

However, one of the ingredients endemic to Potions in Northern Africa, particularly those brewed in Morocco, contains flowers and essential oils from the argan tree, a species of tree in the Sous valley in southwestern Morocco. The flowers of the argan tree are used in beautifying creams as well as slimming and thinning potions. The oil, meanwhile, has widespread use in North African Potioneering, being utilized not only in different beautifying potions, but also love and lust potions, and certain healing potions, particularly those that cure digestive issues, ulcers, and other stomach problems.

There are a few species native to North Africa that are still used in region-specific potions. The first of these is the Fat-Tailed Scorpion, of the genus Androctonus, whose etymological root comes from the Greek for “man-killer.” The tail of this scorpion is used in certain strong antidotes to poison, and can also be used in powerful anti-venoms. The claws meanwhile can be used in potions that increase an individual’s stealth and cunning.

The Egyptian Cobra is another popular ingredient - as well as occasional Witch or Wizard pet - in North Africa. Despite its common name, this snake can be found across most of North Africa and parts of the Middle East, as well as across the savannas of West Africa, and even parts of East Africa. The blood of this snake is a very powerful ingredient, and it is thought that the skin of the hood of the Egyptian Cobra may be one of the important ingredients in the mysterious Drink of Despair, occasionally known as the Emerald Potion. The use of the hood of this cobra is illegal in most parts of the Magical world.

A very important animal that, while it can be found elsewhere in the world, originally came from Egypt is the phoenix. The feathers of the phoenix will be well known to students in Great Britain, as it is one of the three cores that the Ollivander family uses exclusively in their wands. While phoenix tears are on their own magical curatives, these tears can also be used in very powerful curing potions. Phoenix tears are exceedingly rare and difficult to track down by legal and ethical means, so these potions are not often used.

One relatively unique aspect of North African Potioneering that is seen, though to a lesser extent, in Central and Eastern African regions is the use of chips of metallic and stone elements in Potioneering, often heavily utilizing the substances alchemic principles. For instance, there is an incredibly power love potion that was invented in the sixteenth century in Morocco that utilizes not only dates from the date palm and two spines from the crested porcupine, but also incorporates shavings of copper as one of its major ingredients.

Traditionally, Witches and Wizards of Southern Africa took the role of shaman, priest, healer, and occasionally even leadership positions within their communities, mostly of the San, Bantu, and Khoikhoi people, although those of the Zulu nation arrived a little later in the region’s history. Potions were not quite as commonly used as healing energies, healing charms, and even runic enchantments. However, traditional plants native to Southern Africa were used in potions primarily brewed for healing, protection and strength, and dreams. For example, the leaves of a plant native to South Africa known as Uzara are used in antidotes to uncommon poisons. Meanwhile, the roots of the plant Silene pilosellifolia are used in several Draughts of Vivid Dreaming.

One of the most powerful protective potions known to Wizardkind is, in fact, a highly complicated and time-sensitive concoction that comes from Southern Africa composed of the blood of a Blackhead Persian sheep, the eyes of a galago (more commonly called a bushbaby), and charred wood chips from an African date tree. This potion, while it will not defend the taker from all harm or disease, will make them resistant to many forms of dark magic and assault. Few have managed to brew this protective potion successfully, and none off the continent of Africa, interestingly. Galago eyes are also used in other protective potions, which, while they are not quite as efficacious as the Staalhart Serum, are still quite handy, and can be brewed in Europe and Great Britain.

These days, much of the Potioneering in urban South Africa is heavily influenced by the European Witches and Wizards who arrived during the colonization of the region. Although Wizarding kind has often been in close contact and agreement in other situations of colonization and influx of magical and non-magical kind from elsewhere, there was a good deal of strife and tension between the Witches and Wizards who lived in South Africa and those who arrived with the colonizers in the 17th century and onward. There was, in fact, a twenty-year conflict between the magical South Africans and Dutch-descended Witches and Wizards at the beginning of this century that only ended when the International Ministry stepped in to control the situation. The conflict is now known as Die Draai or “The Turning.”

Also a well-known symbol in East African non-magical populations, particularly among the Maasai, the zebu or Brahman cow is one of the unique elements of East African potioneering. While they have myriad uses in Kenya and Tanzania for dairy, meat, and draught oxen, their tongue, hooves, blood, and liver also have several unique uses in Potions. Scrapings from their hooves, for example, can be used in potions that very rapidly heal blisters, sores and other cuts, while their tongue is often used in secrecy or silencing potions. These are potions which, in conjunction with specific complicated spells, can prevent a person from speaking about a particular topic or revealing a secret. Though not as dire as a blood oath, as they can be overcome without harm by a very strong mind, they are still very tricky potions with which to manage.

Feathers of the Superb Starling (Lamprotornis superbus) are also used in beautification potions, and are in fact occasionally used as pets. When they are used as such, they are not poached for their feathers, but rather collected from the cages and enclosures to keep for potioneering. The specific beautification potions for which they’re used promote smooth, blemish free skin and thick, smooth hair. Dried feet of these starlings are also used for muscle-building potions and potions that encourage toning of the body. While these potions will not alter the composition of the body on their own, they do seem to impact the overall metabolism and resource allocation, so that physical exertion has a faster and more robust impact on the Witch or Wizard who consumes it.

In the past five decades or so, the magical population in Central Africa has dropped greatly, with much of this population traveling to West Africa, in consideration of seeking to escape Muggle conflicts. Many families also desire to be located closer to Uagadou, and as such, there have been much larger Magical communities established in Mali and Burkina Faso.

#HogwartsLessons

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collectiveofanimals · 9 years ago

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South African Bushbaby (South African Galago)

Galago moholi

Galago is Afrikaans for a bushbaby, while moholi is in honor of someone apparently with the last name of Mohol.

Family: Galagidae (Bushbabies/Galagos)

Fun Fact: “They are independent of water, obtaining their moisture requirements from food. They rest in groups of 2-7, but disperse to forage alone.” (IUCN)

Habitat: They are endemic to woodlands and semi-arid woodlands of southern Africa (Angola to Tanzania t0 Zimbabwe).

Ecosystem Role:They help control insect populations, however they do eat the gum (sap) of Acacia trees. They provide food for birds of prey, small predatory mammals (like civets and mongooses), and snakes.

Conservation Status: Least Concern

#Galago moholi #south african bushbaby #south african galago #mohol galago #mohol bushbaby #southern lesser bushbaby #southern lesser galago #nagapies

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kuwahuru · 5 years ago

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2 Day Tanzania Safari and Zanzibar Island

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kuwahuru · 5 years ago

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Tanzania Safari Ngorongoro and Zanzibar

While traveling in Africa Tanzania with Kuwa Huru Tanzania Adventure you should expect a wonderful and memorable adventure very much out of the ordinary from your normal lifestyle. There will be great food, big smiles, new sights, and nice smells, most probably dust or mud, and many stories. Each of our itinerary packages, therefore, is tailored to meet the expectations of our guests, but each has one objective in common. To make the safari experience, memorable and something to be cherished forever Get ready to have fun! On arrival at Arusha Airport, you’ll be personally met and escorted by our driver-guide to the fashionable Hotel in Arusha for breakfast, while you’re having your Breakfast, our experienced safari driver guide, will give you a short safari briefing before starting your memorable African safari. Lake Manyara National Park Lake Manyara’s famous for tree-climbing lions are another reason to pay a visit to this park. The only kind of their species in the world, they make the ancient mahogany and elegant acacias their home during the rainy season and are a well-known but a rather rare feature of the northern park. In addition to the lions, the national park is also home to the largest concentration of baboons anywhere in the world — a fact that accounts for interesting game viewing of large families of the primates. Lake Manyara National Park is located on the way to Ngorongoro Crater and the Serengeti, Its groundwater forests, bush plains, baobab strewn cliffs, and algae-streaked hot springs offer incredible ecological variety in a small area, rich in wildlife and incredible numbers of birds. Manyara provides the perfect introduction to Tanzania’s birdlife. More than 400 species have been recorded, and even a first-time visitor to Africa might reasonably expect to observe 100 of these in one day. Highlights include thousands of pink-hued flamingos on their perpetual migration, as well as other large water birds such as pelicans, cormorants, and storks. The alkaline soda of Lake Manyara is home to an incredible array of birdlife that thrives on its brackish waters. Pink flamingo stoops and graze by the thousands of colorful specks against the grey minerals of the lakeshore. Yellow-billed storks swoop and corkscrew on thermal winds rising up from the escarpment, and herons flap their wings against the sun-drenched sky. Even reluctant bird-watchers will find something to watch and marvel at within the national park, before sunset, you will be taken back to your hotel in Marera Valley Lodge Karatu for Dinner and overnight. Ngorongoro Crater Game drive and Drive Back to Arusha Today we visit the largest intact volcanic crater in the world, the magnificent Ngorongoro Crater. After an early breakfast depart for the Ngorongoro Crater, with your packed lunch, drive to Ngorongoro Conservation entry gate. Drive on and descend 2000 feet (over 600 meters) into the crater floor for a day game drive, Explore the forest areas that are inhabited by monkeys and elephant, the lake area, where you may see the flamingos and the open Savannah where the lions hunt for food. Ngorongoro is a special place in that it is a Conservation Area, not a National Park; this means that the whole area is managed for both the animals and the local Masai people who graze their cattle alongside the indigenous wildlife. After stopping at the entrance gate, where there is a chance to learn more about this fascinating volcanic landscape, we will drive around the rim of the Crater itself, and from here we can look down and see the herd of wildebeest or buffalos. This truly world-class attraction is also known as the ’8th Wonder of the World’… finally, we descend into the crater. The crater walls provide a natural sanctuary for the animals, which means there is plenty to see: lions, elephants, buffalo, rhino, and leopard (if you are lucky). The only animal you won’t see here is a giraffe, whose long legs are unable to cope with the steeps sides of the crater. In the late afternoon after a picnic lunch, we start going out of the crater with a game drive towards Arusha town, you will stay at Venus Premier Hotel bed and breakfast Day 3: Zanzibar Holiday 3 night 4 Days On arrival at Zanzibar International Airport, you’ll be personally met and escorted by our driver-guide to the fashionable Hotel in Stone Town. After check immediately the fun begins you’ll start your tour to Prison Island Prison Island Changuu Island (also known as Kibandiko, Prison, or Quarantine Island) is a small island 5.6 km northwest of Stone Town, Ungula, and Zanzibar. The island is around 800m long and 230m wide at its broadest point The Island saw use as a prison for rebellious slaves in 1860s and also functioned as a coal mine. The British First Minister of Zanzibar, Lloyd Mathews, purchased the island in 1893 and constructed a prison complex there. No prisoners were ever housed on the island and instead, it became a quarantine station for yellow fever cases. The station was only occupied for around half of the year and the rest of the time it was a popular holiday destination. More recently, the island has become a government-owned tourist resort and houses a collection of endangered Aldabra giant tortoises’ now it is more commonly known as a home of Zanzibar’s Giant Aldabra Tortoise colony, some of which are over a hundred years old! Which was originally a gift from the British governor of Seychelles in the late 19th Century. Once on the island, you have the opportunity to feed and pet the tortoises; if you have time you may also like to take a stroll through the forested interior where you will see a wide variety of birds, colorful peacocks, bats, and beautiful butterflies. Keep your eyes peeled too for the shy and elusive Duikers – an unusual tiny antelope species after prison tour the boat will drive you back to Stone Town, you will overnight at Golden Tulip resort Bed and breakfast Day 4: The Safari blue Safari Blue Tour in Zanzibar is the Zanzibar number one full day trip, this is a sea adventure safari starts from Fumba fishing village, southwest coast of the island, the major attraction is to swim, snorkeling, kinds of seafood and sailing within the traditional dhow, the history of traditional dhow dated back to the 15th and 16th centuries, the ages of the monsoon winds and the Arab movements, We inboard into sailing dhow at 9:00 am ahead to a sandbank for relaxation, swimming, and beach walking, You will have a great time to test the tropical kinds of seafood including octopus, calamari, lobster, shrimps, shark, shellfish, tuna fish, barracuda, etc. Snorkeling is also the main activity, whereby tourist will be taken to the coral reef and the areas which are good and have a colorful school of fish. After the lunch at Kwale Island, there will be a short tour to the ancient baobab tree which is said to have more than 200 years now, On our way back to the Fumba beach we shall again have opportunity to swim into the natural swimming pool near the Kwale Island, we normally finish our tour around 4:00 pm; you will overnight at Golden Tulip resort Bed and Breakfast Day 5: Dolphin Tour and Spice Farms. Spend the day at the Island with a variety of optional activities. The most popular dolphin spotting location in Zanzibar is in Kizimkazi village, located on the Southern coast of Zanzibar Island where you can see both bottle-nose and humpback dolphins. Dolphin tour is best very early in the morning, because in the afternoon as the sun rises seawater tends to become warm, therefore dolphins dive deep down the sea bottom to escape the heat, Early At 06:00 in the morning you’ll be picked up to south coast of Zanzibar for a dolphin tour, Although dolphin-spotting is a popular activity, sightings aren’t guaranteed 100%, and actually managing to swim with dolphins is a rare occurrence, like with other wild animals spotting dolphins require time and patience as they are not confined in a cage or a zoo, they are in their natural environment. The Dolphin tour lasts for two to three hours. Kizimkazi is also the site of a 12th-century mosque, the earliest evidence of Islam in East Africa, and is thus worth a visit for both cultural and historical reasons. The dolphin trip can be combined with Jozani Forest, as the forest is on the way to Kizimkazi we pass through the forest on the way back from the dolphin tour. Jozan forest The forest is 2,512 hectares (6,207 acres) in size and was declared a nature reserve in the 1960′s. Jozani forest is a natural pharmacy, an amazing source of natural remedies! Every plant or tree cures something. What is so beautiful about Jozani forest tour, that height of the trees and the palms are just outstanding! Jozani is also famous for rare red Colobus monkeys and even harder to spot – Zanzibar Sykes’ monkey, a very rare monkey species unique to Zanzibar. Along with Red Colobus Monkeys, you can expect to see Bushbaby, 50 different species of butterflies, and 40 species of birds. This forest is one of the last remaining sanctuaries in the world of the red colobus monkey. Wonderful photo opportunities and sightings of these rare creatures living in the forest reserves are possible on the pathways. Our guides are also naturalists and nature lovers will have a wonderful time in the nature reserve. Spice Farms The Spice Tour is one of the most popular excursions in Zanzibar, the Spice Island. Zanzibar was one of the world’s leading producers of spices such as clove, nutmeg, and cinnamon. Tour takes you to on organic farms with a wide variety of plants around the year. You don’t just see, you also touch, smell and taste. Spices and herbs were originally introduced to Zanzibar by Portuguese traders in the 16th century, brought from their colonies in South America and India. This tour is a walking tour on a spice farm (shamba). While there, you shall see how the spices, herbs, and fruits grow and are cultivated. Your tour guide will describe how the crops can be used. You will be smelling and tasting spices, herbs, and tropical fruits such as clove, lemongrass, nutmeg, cinnamon, turmeric, vanilla, coconuts, papaya, chili, black pepper, jackfruit, cardamom, cassava, and oranges. After the tour, you will enjoy a traditional Swahili lunch at the farm. Here is when you can really taste the different ways of using spices. The tour finishes with a stop at a spice stall selling fresh packaged spices (cash only). You will overnight at Golden Tulip resort Bed and Breakfast Day 6: Departure Day Zanzibar to Dar Depending on your flight or boat schedule departure time, before departure time your guide will take you for the walking tour in Stone Town, which is the old city and cultural heart of Zanzibar and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Famous for its winding alleys, bustling bazaars, sultan’s palace, mosques, House of Wonders, Portuguese fort and gardens and the extravagant merchants’ houses with their remarkably ornate doors, then from stone town is just a walking distance to the port to take your Boat buck Dar es, Salaam. Don’t forget to come Buck. 6 Days safari Price Include Full board accommodation whilst on safari in the above-mentioned lodges Private safari guide Private 4 x 4 safari jeep with pop up roof for game viewing Transfers in both directions between the Arusha Airport Park fees Ngorongoro Crater fees Game drives Drinking water All government taxes Â including VAT All transfers while in Zanzibar. All entries fees as listed in the itinerary Pick up from and to the Airport in Zanzibar All tours & excursion in Zanzibar Domestic Flight – From Dar to Arusha 6 Days Price Excludes International airfares and departure taxes Walking Tour in the Ngorongoro Highland $20 All items of personal nature such as telephone call, fax, email, etc Tips for your service providers and gratuities to hotel, lodges, porters, camp staff and driver-guide (recommended) drinks Laundry services Accommodation in Zanzibar Flight from Arusha to Zanzibar Read the full article

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kuwahuru · 5 years ago

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2 Days Safari 4 Zanzibar Beach Holiday

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kuwahuru · 5 years ago

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2 Days Safari 4 Zanzibar Beach Holiday

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