#somatostatin

[mitalipingale]

https://homment.com/LjfQjrh5JcxKydtvQL3g

The Somatostatin Analogs Market in 2023 is US$ 7 billion, and is expected to reach US$ 13.17 billion by 2031 at a CAGR of 8.20%.

[mindblowingscience]

Researchers have identified a component within the venom of a predatory marine cone snail, the geography cone, that mimics a human hormone called somatostatin, which regulates the levels of blood sugar and various hormones in the body. The hormone-like toxin’s specific, long-lasting effects, which help the snail hunt its prey, could also help scientists design better drugs for people with diabetes or hormone disorders, conditions that can be serious and sometimes fatal. The results appear in the journal Nature Communications.

Continue Reading.

[compneuropapers]

Interesting Papers for Week 21, 2024

Suboptimal multisensory processing in pediatric migraine without aura: a comparative, cross-sectional study. Braunitzer, G., Tót, K., Eördegh, G., Hegedűs, A., Kiss, Á., Kóbor, J., … Nagy, A. (2023). Scientific Reports, 13, 19422.

Active cortical networks promote shunting fast synaptic inhibition in vivo. Burman, R. J., Brodersen, P. J. N., Raimondo, J. V., Sen, A., & Akerman, C. J. (2023). Neuron, 111(22), 3531-3540.e6.

Alpha-frequency feedback to early visual cortex orchestrates coherent naturalistic vision. Chen, L., Cichy, R. M., & Kaiser, D. (2023). Science Advances, 9(45).

Functional alterations of the prefrontal circuit underlying cognitive aging in mice. Chong, H. R., Ranjbar-Slamloo, Y., Ho, M. Z. H., Ouyang, X., & Kamigaki, T. (2023). Nature Communications, 14, 7254.

Early Action Error Processing Is Due to Domain-General Surprise, Whereas Later Processing Is Error Specific. Choo, Y., Mather, A., & Wessel, J. R. (2023). Journal of Neuroscience, 43(45), 7678–7689.

The roles of surround inhibition for the intrinsic function of the striatum, analyzed in silico. Frost Nylén, J., Hjorth, J. J. J., Kozlov, A., Carannante, I., Hellgren Kotaleski, J., & Grillner, S. (2023). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(45), e2313058120.

Selective plasticity of fast and slow excitatory synapses on somatostatin interneurons in adult visual cortex. Grier, B. D., Parkins, S., Omar, J., & Lee, H.-K. (2023). Nature Communications, 14, 7165.

Dopaminergic systems create reward seeking despite adverse consequences. Jovanoski, K. D., Duquenoy, L., Mitchell, J., Kapoor, I., Treiber, C. D., Croset, V., … Waddell, S. (2023). Nature, 623(7986), 356–365.

Association neurons in the crow telencephalon link visual signs to numerical values. Kirschhock, M. E., & Nieder, A. (2023). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(45), e2313923120.

A mechanistic insight into sources of error of visual working memory in multiple sclerosis. Motahharynia, A., Pourmohammadi, A., Adibi, A., Shaygannejad, V., Ashtari, F., Adibi, I., & Sanayei, M. (2023). eLife, 12, e87442.3.

A thalamocortical substrate for integrated information via critical synchronous bursting. Munn, B. R., Müller, E. J., Aru, J., Whyte, C. J., Gidon, A., Larkum, M. E., & Shine, J. M. (2023). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(46), e2308670120.

Change detection in the primate auditory cortex through feedback of prediction error signals. Obara, K., Ebina, T., Terada, S.-I., Uka, T., Komatsu, M., Takaji, M., … Matsuzaki, M. (2023). Nature Communications, 14, 6981.

Immune activation state modulates infant engram expression across development. Power, S. D., Stewart, E., Zielke, L. G., Byrne, E. P., Douglas, A., Ortega-de San Luis, C., … Ryan, T. J. (2023). Science Advances, 9(45).

Dopaminergic error signals retune to social feedback during courtship. Roeser, A., Gadagkar, V., Das, A., Puzerey, P. A., Kardon, B., & Goldberg, J. H. (2023). Nature, 623(7986), 375–380.

Hierarchical temporal prediction captures motion processing along the visual pathway. Singer, Y., Taylor, L., Willmore, B. D., King, A. J., & Harper, N. S. (2023). eLife, 12, e52599.

Neuronal implementation of the temporal difference learning algorithm in the midbrain dopaminergic system. Stetsenko, A., & Koos, T. (2023). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(45), e2309015120.

Forgotten memory storage and retrieval in Drosophila. Wang, C.-M., Wu, C.-Y., Lin, C.-E., Hsu, M.-C., Lin, J.-C., Huang, C.-C., … Chiang, H.-C. (2023). Nature Communications, 14, 7153.

Striatum-projecting prefrontal cortex neurons support working memory maintenance. Wilhelm, M., Sych, Y., Fomins, A., Alatorre Warren, J. L., Lewis, C., Serratosa Capdevila, L., … Helmchen, F. (2023). Nature Communications, 14, 7016.

Vestibular contribution to spatial encoding. Zanchi, S., Cuturi, L. F., Sandini, G., Gori, M., & Ferrè, E. R. (2023). European Journal of Neuroscience, 58(9), 4034–4042.

Sampling-based Bayesian inference in recurrent circuits of stochastic spiking neurons. Zhang, W.-H., Wu, S., Josić, K., & Doiron, B. (2023). Nature Communications, 14, 7074.

[collectivecartomancy]

Dandelion & Diabetes

Hey Everybody! Here’s my final for Rootwork Herbals People’s Medicine School.

Once it’s accepted, I’ll be a real, live community herbalist and I’m so excited! 🥹 🥹 🥹

Please feel free to put any questions or concerns in the comments, or email me directly at cyreejarelle@collectivecartomancy.com.

Thanks for bearing witness to this wonderful experience :)

As ever, wishing you well,

Cyree Jarelle

Dandelion/Taraxacum officinale: Overview

Dandelion is a perennial flowering herb that grows from a long taproot.

Its name has been associated with the Persian tark hashgun, which means wild endive.

Rodale's Illustrated Encyclopedia of Herbs, suggests an origin in the Greek taraxos is more likely. Taraxos is a Greek word for "disorder" and as Rodale's writes, akos means remedy.

This is the relationship that humans have kept with Dandelion. It's abundant, nigh unkillable, and easy to identify. The designation officinale refers to Dandelion's inclusion in early apothecaries. Its earliest written virtues are in the Tang Bencao, written during the Tang dynasty.

Dandelion has a history in Europe and the United States, where it's used to treat diseases of the liver and GI tract.

Dandelion is a bitter stimulant with diuretic and laxative properties.

Unlike other diuretics, dandelion does its work without depleting potassium in the body. This is due to the potassium richness of dandelion itself.

Type 2 Diabetes & Dandelion

Diabetes is an endocrine disorder. It primarily affects the pancreas, an organ in the digestive system found in the upper abdomen. The pancreas produces the hormones to control blood sugar, including insulin, glucagon, peptides, and somatostatin. It also makes enzymes essential to the digestion of food.

Diabetes has many risk factors and symptoms, but all types of diabetes involve insulin.

Type 2 Diabetes is characterized by the pancreas no longer making enough insulin to process sugar in one's diet. This can cause disruptions throughout the body, with notable impacts on the heart, liver, and eyes.

Wirngo et. al published "The Physiological Effects of Dandelion (Taraxacum Officinale) in Type 2 Diabetes" in 2016. There they attribute Dandelion's anti-diabetic properties to its "bioactive chemical components." These include "chicoric acid, taraxasterol (TS), chlorogenic acid, and sesquiterpene lactones," they write.

Wirngo et. al. assert that herbal medicine and other traditional medicines have "demonstrated potential to alleviate diabetic symptoms, enable recovery, and improve health." Dandelion does this by fighting inflammation, which can harm tissues throughout the body.

Dandelion's bitter taste is due to "sesquiterpene lactones." These include "taraxacolide, dihydro-lactucin, ixerin D, taraxinic acids, phenyl propanoids, and ainslioside." These constituents have have anti-inflammatory properties. Dandelion's foundational action as a bitter facilitates proper digestion.

Dandelion is so rich with CGA that it is a viable alternative to proprietary antioxidants. CGA itself is anti-diabetic, and it's best in it's natural form according to Wirngo. It also contains high levels of CRA, which combined with other inulin rich herbs such as Burdock Root and Chicory, helps people metabolize fats better.

When we metabolize fats better, it can decrease our cholesterol. CRA can also make us produce more bile, which breaks down fat and helps flush waste from our livers. CRA is also a strong anti-diabetic.

Bile breaks fat down into fatty acids. Fatty acids provide our bodies with a source of energy. Their presence also impacts the body's response to hormones, including insulin.

In fact, the way our bodies work with fatty acids can be very important for individuals with diabetes. This is because many people with type 2 diabetes have insulin resistance. Their bodies may not be able to store fatty acid as easily.

As a result, these fatty acids may deposit in the liver. This can cause Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver disease, which allopathic doctors cannot treat well. They generally just tell patients to lose weight and lower their cholesterol. (Ask me how I know lol.)

According to Sears and Perry, "90 % of obese type-2 diabetic patients have NAFLD." Even people without diabetes are likely to have NAFLD though, due to poor nutritional options in the United States. They go on to note that researchers expect 50% of Americans to have NAFLD by 2030.

Dandelion is a beautiful medicine for people in this position because it supports the liver and helps lower cholesterol. It does this while also stimulating the metabolism, and aiding digestion. It's highly anti-oxidant and anti-carcinogenic. Dandelion root is also among the vegetables highest in beta-carotene. Beta-carotene becomes Vitamin A in the body.

Vitamin A improves eye function, helps the immune system and keeps our skin healthy. This is essential for people with diabetes, because they are prone to complications with all three, many of them serious.

Dandelion has the potential to ease symptoms of diabetes at low cost.

Specifically, it can lower the cholesterol, which is a major risk factor for the heart and liver complications of type 2 diabetes. This is essential because 80% of people with diabetes live in countries without high incomes.

As Chen et. al report in their article "Income-related inequalities in diagnosed diabetes prevalence among US adults, 2001−2018" the " burden of diabetes falls disproportionately on low-income populations."

In the United States, the people experiencing the strongest correlation between poverty and diabetes are Black and Latina women between the ages of 45-65.

These are the people who have the most to gain from dandelion medicine. It's free in most cases, can be cultivated even in small spaces, and it's cheap. It's identifiable even by children, and abundant nearly everywhere.

Dandelion reduces blood sugar through its caffeic, chicoric, and chlorogenic acid components. It also "effects glucose uptake directly and indirectly" through its "alkaloids, glycosides, amino acids, terpenoids, inorganic ions, steroids, carbohydrates, and galactomannan gum" components.

Importantly, Dandelion has extremely low toxicity.

Dandelion Vinegar

Many diabetics avoid alcohol. If you're not into alcohol, try this vinegar!

Ingredients:

- Fresh dandelion tops

- Fresh dandelion leaves

- Dried dandelion roots

- Apple Cider Vinegar (with the mother, if you can get your hands on some)

Directions

1. Clean a glass jar of your choice

2. Sterilize the jar with boiling water.

3. Let the jar dry

4. Wash your fresh ingredients so that they are completely free of dirt and bugs.

5. Grind all ingredients down as fine as you can using a clean coffee grinder, clean blender, or a mortar and pestle.

6. Fill cleaned and sterilized jar up halfway with Dandelion parts.

7. Cover Dandelion parts with vinegar, then fill jar up to 1/2-3/4inch from the top with vinegar.

8. Stir and release any air bubbles

9. Top with a plastic cap. If you have no plastic caps, use parchment paper between the metal of the jar top and the rim of the glass jar.

Works Cited

The Role and Anatomy of the Pancreas. Animated Pancreas Patient. Youtube. September 6, 2013. Accessed January 26, 2024. 

Article Source: Income-related inequalities in diagnosed diabetes prevalence among US adults, 2001−2018

Chen Y, Zhou X, Bullard KM, Zhang P, Imperatore G, et al. (2023) Income-related inequalities in diagnosed diabetes prevalence among US adults, 2001−2018. PLOS ONE 18(4): e0283450. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283450

Choi UK, Lee OH, Yim JH, Cho CW, Rhee YK, Lim SI, Kim YC. Hypolipidemic and antioxidant effects of dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) root and leaf on cholesterol-fed rabbits. Int J Mol Sci. 2010 Jan 6;11(1):67-78. doi: 10.3390/ijms11010067. PMID: 20162002; PMCID: PMC2820990.

Fan M, Zhang X, Song H, Zhang Y. Dandelion (Taraxacum Genus): A Review of Chemical Constituents and Pharmacological Effects. Molecules. 2023 Jun 27;28(13):5022. doi: 10.3390/molecules28135022. PMID: 37446683; PMCID: PMC10343869.

Gamboa-Gómez CI, Rocha-Guzmán NE, Gallegos-Infante JA, Moreno-Jiménez MR, Vázquez-Cabral BD, González-Laredo RF. Plants with potential use on obesity and its complications. EXCLI J. 2015 Jul 9;14:809-31. doi: 10.17179/excli2015-186. PMID: 26869866; PMCID: PMC4746997.

Kania-Dobrowolska M, Baraniak J. Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale L.) as a Source of Biologically Active Compounds Supporting the Therapy of Co-Existing Diseases in Metabolic Syndrome. Foods. 2022 Sep 15;11(18):2858. doi: 10.3390/foods11182858. PMID: 36140985; PMCID: PMC9498421.

Li J, Luo J, Chai Y, Guo Y, Tianzhi Y, Bao Y. Hypoglycemic effect of Taraxacum officinale root extract and its synergism with Radix Astragali extract. Food Sci Nutr. 2021 Feb 26;9(4):2075-2085. doi: 10.1002/fsn3.2176. PMID: 33841825; PMCID: PMC8020951.

Li Y, Chen Y, Sun-Waterhouse D. The potential of dandelion in the fight against gastrointestinal diseases: A review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2022 Jul 15;293:115272. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2022.115272. Epub 2022 Apr 8. PMID: 35405251.

Pfingstgraf IO, Taulescu M, Pop RM, Orăsan R, Vlase L, Uifalean A, Todea D, Alexescu T, Toma C, Pârvu AE. Protective Effects of Taraxacum officinale L. (Dandelion) Root Extract in Experimental Acute on Chronic Liver Failure. Antioxidants (Basel). 2021 Mar 24;10(4):504. doi: 10.3390/antiox10040504. PMID: 33804908; PMCID: PMC8063808.

Sears B, Perry M. The role of fatty acids in insulin resistance. Lipids Health Dis. 2015 Sep 29;14:121. doi: 10.1186/s12944-015-0123-1. PMID: 26415887; PMCID: PMC4587882.

Seo SW, Koo HN, An HJ, Kwon KB, Lim BC, Seo EA, Ryu DG, Moon G, Kim HY, Kim HM, Hong SH. Taraxacum officinale protects against cholecystokinin-induced acute pancreatitis in rats. World J Gastroenterol. 2005 Jan 28;11(4):597-9. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v11.i4.597. PMID: 15641154; PMCID: PMC4250819.

Suo C, Polanski K, Dann E, Lindeboom RGH, Vilarrasa-Blasi R, Vento-Tormo R, Haniffa M, Meyer KB, Dratva LM, Tuong ZK, Clatworthy MR, Teichmann SA. Dandelion uses the single-cell adaptive immune receptor repertoire to explore lymphocyte developmental origins. Nat Biotechnol. 2024 Jan;42(1):40-51. doi: 10.1038/s41587-023-01734-7. Epub 2023 Apr 13. PMID: 37055623; PMCID: PMC10791579.

Wirngo FE, Lambert MN, Jeppesen PB. The Physiological Effects of Dandelion (Taraxacum Officinale) in Type 2 Diabetes. Rev Diabet Stud. 2016 Summer-Fall;13(2-3):113-131. doi: 10.1900/RDS.2016.13.113. Epub 2016 Aug 10. PMID: 28012278; PMCID: PMC5553762.

[hypeptide]

Peptides – unique medicines

In contrast to proteins and small molecules, peptides represent a unique class of pharmaceutical compounds that are biochemically and therapeutically distinct from both. As intrinsic signaling molecules for many physiological functions, peptides offer an opportunity for therapeutic intervention that closely mimics natural pathways. In recent years, peptides have received increasing attention as a therapeutic approach.

The origin and development of in vitro peptide drugs

Polypeptides are amino acid derivative compounds containing at least one amide (peptide) bond. From a structural point of view, polypeptides include various types of peptides, such as linear peptides, cyclic peptides, delipidated peptides, etc. According to function, they can also be divided into antibacterial peptides and hormones. Regulatory peptides, neuroactive peptides, etc. [1].

In the early 20th century, research on peptides focused primarily on the effects of human signaling hormones. Insulin is a classic example of endogenous hormone therapy. It was the first peptide drug to be used clinically and is by far the most commercially successful [2] because it revolutionized the treatment of type I diabetes.

Advantages, disadvantages and new attempts of peptide drugs

The key factors for the success of peptide drugs are the effectiveness, specificity and safety of the mode of action of the peptide [3]. The rapid clearance of peptides from the body means that they do not accumulate in tissues and are relatively less toxic to the human body [4]. However, the limitations of peptide drugs are as obvious as their advantages. ​

Since peptide drugs are easily cleared from the serum, this also results in low bioavailability of peptide drugs. Furthermore, peptides generally have poor cell membrane permeability, which limits their use in targeting intracellular targets. Therefore, the development of peptide therapeutics has mainly focused on extracellular targets. Moreover, because they cannot penetrate the intestinal mucosa and need to be administered subcutaneously or intravenously, the convenience and compliance of peptide drugs in actual treatment are reduced [4].

Improving the bioavailability and efficacy of peptide drugs is also a popular research area. There have also been advances in universal and reproducible oral administration, as well as intracellular delivery of peptide drugs [4]. Cyclic peptides, a category of peptide drugs, are an emerging form of drugs designed to solve problems.

Cyclotides—a new form of peptide drugs

Cyclic peptides (including cyclodeposition peptides and bicyclic peptides) have many favorable properties as therapeutic agents and research tools. Compared with linear peptides, cyclic peptides have better proteolytic resistance and structural stability.

Currently, several cyclic peptides have become highly successful drugs, including vancomycin (antibacterial), daptomycin (antibacterial), cyclosporine A (transplantation immunosuppressant), and caspofenside (antifungal). Inspired by natural products, chemists have developed many methods to prepare cyclic peptides via N-to-C, side chain to side chain, or main chain to side chain cyclization. Some synthetic cyclic peptides, such as eptifibatide (used to treat heart disease), octreotide (a somatostatin mimetic used to treat acromegaly and diarrhea), cyclic RGD peptide, and linalotide Peptides have also been approved by the FDA for clinical or late-stage clinical trials [5].

Peptidomimetics – chemically synthesized peptide drugs

In terms of new drug strategies, in order to overcome the instability defects of peptides, in addition to modifying polypeptides to varying degrees like cyclic peptides, peptidomimetic compounds are also another reasonable means.

Peptidomimetic compounds are a class of compounds whose pharmacophore simulates natural peptides or proteins in three-dimensional space and retains the ability to interact with biological targets and produce the same biological effects [6]. The difference is that peptoids avoid the inherent defects of natural polypeptides and improve biological activity and stability.

Peptide drugs, whether isolated from the innate immunity of various species (including mammals, amphibians, fish, insects, plants and bacteria), or designed based on structure-activity relationship research, serve as a new structural drug , all have great potential [7]. Here we introduce a high-throughput method that can quickly identify and find suitable drugs – constructing a peptide library.

Currently, there are nearly a hundred peptide drugs on the global market, and research on new peptide therapeutic drugs continues at a steady pace, with more than 100 peptides in the clinical development stage and another 400-600 peptides in the preclinical research stage [2 ]. The utilization of peptides as therapeutics has evolved over time and continues to evolve as drug development and treatment paradigms change.

references

Luca Gentilucci. Chemical modifications designed to improve peptide stability: incorporation of non-natural amino acids, pseudo-peptide bonds, and cyclization. Curr Pharm Des. 2010;16(28):3185-203.

Markus Muttenthaler. Trends in peptide drug discovery. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2021 Apr;20(4):309-325.

Keld Fosgerau. Peptide therapeutics: current status and future directions. Drug Discov Today. 2015 Jan;20(1):122-8.

Antoine Henninot. The Current State of Peptide Drug Discovery: Back to the Future?. J Med Chem. 2018 Feb 22;61(4):1382-1414.

Patrick G Dougherty. Understanding Cell Penetration of Cyclic Peptides. Chem Rev. 2019 Sep 11;119(17):10241-10287. Epub 2019 May 14.

Josef Vagner. Peptidomimetics, a synthetic tool of drug discovery. Curr Opin Chem Biol. 2008 Jun; 12(3): 292–296.

Sylvie E Blondelle. Optimization and high-throughput screening of antimicrobial peptides. Curr Pharm Des. 2010;16(28):3204-11.

B Guixer. Chemically synthesized peptide libraries as a new source of BBB shuttles. Use of mass spectrometry for peptide identification. J Pept Sci. 2016 Sep;22(9):577-91.

Website: https://www.ks-vpeptide.com

[charaunofficial]

razoolio b like "Do you have Ghost Pancreas and how does their emission of somatostatin interact with how you are incorporeal and unaging"

* I do not blame Razoolio for being curious.

[medcarediagnostics]

SSTR (NOTA) PET-CT in Mumbai

SSTR (NOTA) PET-CT in Mumbai as a major medical hub in India, offers access to advanced diagnostic imaging techniques, including SSTR (NOTA) PET-CT. Several reputable hospitals and diagnostic centers in Mumbai provide this valuable service. SSTR (NOTA) PET-CT (Somatostatin Receptor Targeting-Nettate Octreotide Analog PET-CT) is a non-invasive imaging test that combines positron emission tomography (PET) and computed tomography (CT) to visualize neuroendocrine tumors. During the procedure, a radioactive tracer that binds to somatostatin receptors on NET cells is injected into the bloodstream. The PET scan then detects the tracer, allowing for the identification and localization of the tumor.

Website uRL: https://medcarediagnostics.com/service/sstr-nota-pet-ct-scan/

[scientificinquirer-blog]

Deadly sea snail toxin could be key to making better medicines

Scientists are finding clues for how to treat diabetes and hormone disorders in an unexpected place: a toxin from one of the most venomous animals on the planet. A multinational research team led by University of Utah scientists has identified a component within the venom of a deadly marine cone snail, the geography cone, that mimics a human hormone called somatostatin, which regulates the…

[mitalipingale]

The Somatostatin Analogs Market in 2023 is US$ 7 billion, and is expected to reach US$ 13.17 billion by 2031 at a CAGR of 8.20%.

[nuclearmedicinetherapy]

PRRT is a molecular technique in which a radioisotope which is labeled with a small body that actually targets a particular receptor which is known as the somatostatin receptors is used to treat a specific kind of tumor known as a Neuroendocrine Tumor.

[bidhuan]

FDA Menyetujui Lutathera untuk Pasien Anak dengan Tumor Neuroendokrin Gastroenteropankreatik (GEP-NET) SSTR+

Persetujuan ini menjadikan lutetium Lu177 sebagai terapi pertama yang disetujui untuk pengobatan tumor neuroendokrin gastroenteropankreatik pada pasien anak. Lutetium Lu177 dotatate (Lutathera; Novartis) telah disetujui oleh FDA untuk pengobatan pasien anak yang berusia 12 hingga 17 tahun dengan tumor neuroendokrin gastroenteropankreatik (GEP-NET) yang positif terhadap reseptor somatostatin…

[jhavelikes]

Prior studies revealed that aversive stimuli and psychostimulant drugs elicit Fos expression in neurons clustered above and behind the interpeduncular nucleus that project strongly to the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra (SN) compacta (C). Other reports suggest that these neurons modulate responses to aversive stimuli. We now designate the region containing them as the “mesopontine rostromedial tegmental nucleus” (RMTg) and report herein on its neuroanatomy. Dense μ-opioid receptor and somatostatin immunoreactivity characterize the RMTg, as do neurons projecting to the VTA/SNC that are enriched in GAD67 mRNA. Strong inputs to the RMTg arise in the lateral habenula (LHb) and, to a lesser extent, the SN. Other inputs come from the frontal cortex, ventral striatopallidum, extended amygdala, septum, preoptic region, lateral, paraventricular and posterior hypothalamus, zona incerta, periaqueductal gray, intermediate layers of the contralateral superior colliculus, dorsal raphe, mesencephalic, pontine and medullary reticular formation, and the following nuclei: parafascicular, supramammillary, mammillary, ventral lateral geniculate, deep mesencephalic, red, pedunculopontine and laterodorsal tegmental, cuneiform, parabrachial, and deep cerebellar.

Journal of Comparative Neurology | Systems Neuroscience Journal | Wiley Online Library