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therewillbenoromance · 21 days ago

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A major geologic process that has affected the Moon's surface is impact cratering,[148] with craters formed when asteroids and comets collide with the lunar surface. There are estimated to be roughly 300,000 craters wider than 1 km (0.6 mi) on the Moon's near side.[149] Lunar craters exhibit a variety of forms, depending on their size. In order of increasing diameter, the basic types are simple craters with smooth bowl shaped interiors and upturned rims, complex craters with flat floors, terraced walls and central peaks, peak ring basins, and multi-ring basins with two or more concentric rings of peaks.[150] The vast majority of impact craters are circular, but some, like Cantor and Janssen, have more polygonal outlines, possibly guided by underlying faults and joints. Others, such as the Messier pair, Schiller, and Daniell, are elongated. Such elongation can result from highly oblique impacts, binary asteroid impacts, fragmentation of impactors before surface strike, or closely spaced secondary impacts.[151]

The lunar geologic timescale is based on the most prominent impact events, such as multi-ring formations like Nectaris, Imbrium, and Orientale that are between hundreds and thousands of kilometers in diameter and associated with a broad apron of ejecta deposits that form a regional stratigraphic horizon.[152] The lack of an atmosphere, weather, and recent geological processes mean that many of these craters are well-preserved. Although only a few multi-ring basins have been definitively dated, they are useful for assigning relative ages. Because impact craters accumulate at a nearly constant rate, counting the number of craters per unit area can be used to estimate the age of the surface.[152] However care needs to be exercised with the crater counting technique due to the potential presence of secondary craters. Ejecta from impacts can create secondary craters that often appear in clusters or chains but can also occur as isolated formations at a considerable distance from the impact. These can resemble primary craters, and may even dominate small crater populations, so their unidentified presence can distort age estimates.[153]

The radiometric ages of impact-melted rocks collected during the Apollo missions cluster between 3.8 and 4.1 billion years old: this has been used to propose a Late Heavy Bombardment period of increased impacts.[154]

High-resolution images from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter in the 2010s show a contemporary crater-production rate significantly higher than was previously estimated. A secondary cratering process caused by distal ejecta is thought to churn the top two centimeters of regolith on a timescale of 81,000 years.[155][156] This rate is 100 times faster than the rate computed from models based solely on direct micrometeorite impacts.[157]

Lunar swirls

Main article: Lunar swirls

Wide-angle image of a lunar swirl, the 70-kilometer-long Reiner Gamma

Lunar swirls are enigmatic features found across the Moon's surface. They are characterized by a high albedo, appear optically immature (i.e. the optical characteristics of a relatively young regolith), and often have a sinuous shape. Their shape is often accentuated by low albedo regions that wind between the bright swirls. They are located in places with enhanced surface magnetic fields and many are located at the antipodal point of major impacts. Well known swirls include the Reiner Gamma feature and Mare Ingenii. They are hypothesized to be areas that have been partially shielded from the solar wind, resulting in slower space weathering.[158]

Presence of water

Main article: Lunar water

Liquid water cannot persist on the lunar surface. When exposed to solar radiation, water quickly decomposes through a process known as photodissociation and is lost to space. However, since the 1960s, scientists have hypothesized that water ice may be deposited by impacting comets or possibly produced by the reaction of oxygen-rich lunar rocks, and hydrogen from solar wind, leaving traces of water which could possibly persist in cold, permanently shadowed craters at either pole on the Moon.[159][160] Computer simulations suggest that up to 14,000 km2 (5,400 sq mi) of the surface may be in permanent shadow.[112] The presence of usable quantities of water on the Moon is an important factor in rendering lunar habitation as a cost-effective plan; the alternative of transporting water from Earth would be prohibitively expensive.[161]

In years since, signatures of water have been found to exist on the lunar surface.[162] In 1994, the bistatic radar experiment located on the Clementine spacecraft, indicated the existence of small, frozen pockets of water close to the surface. However, later radar observations by Arecibo, suggest these findings may rather be rocks ejected from young impact craters.[163] In 1998, the neutron spectrometer on the Lunar Prospector spacecraft showed that high concentrations of hydrogen are present in the first meter of depth in the regolith near the polar regions.[164] Volcanic lava beads, brought back to Earth aboard Apollo 15, showed small amounts of water in their interior.[165]

In 2008, NASA's Moon Mineralogy Mapper equipment on India's Chandrayaan-1 discovered, for the first time, water-rich minerals (shown in blue around a small crater from which they were ejected).

The 2008 Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft has since confirmed the existence of surface water ice, using the on-board Moon Mineralogy Mapper. The spectrometer observed absorption lines common to hydroxyl, in reflected sunlight, providing evidence of large quantities of water ice, on the lunar surface. The spacecraft showed that concentrations may possibly be as high as 1,000 ppm.[166] Using the mapper's reflectance spectra, indirect lighting of areas in shadow confirmed water ice within 20° latitude of both poles in 2018.[167] In 2009, LCROSS sent a 2,300 kg (5,100 lb) impactor into a permanently shadowed polar crater, and detected at least 100 kg (220 lb) of water in a plume of ejected material.[168][169] Another examination of the LCROSS data showed the amount of detected water to be closer to 155 ± 12 kg (342 ± 26 lb).[170]

In May 2011, 615–1410 ppm water in melt inclusions in lunar sample 74220 was reported,[171] the famous high-titanium "orange glass soil" of volcanic origin collected during the Apollo 17 mission in 1972. The inclusions were formed during explosive eruptions on the Moon approximately 3.7 billion years ago. This concentration is comparable with that of magma in Earth's upper mantle. Although of considerable selenological interest, this insight does not mean that water is easily available since the sample originated many kilometers below the surface, and the inclusions are so difficult to access that it took 39 years to find them with a state-of-the-art ion microprobe instrument.

Analysis of the findings of the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) revealed in August 2018 for the first time "definitive evidence" for water-ice on the lunar surface.[172][173] The data revealed the distinct reflective signatures of water-ice, as opposed to dust and other reflective substances.[174] The ice deposits were found on the North and South poles, although it is more abundant in the South, where water is trapped in permanently shadowed craters and crevices, allowing it to persist as ice on the surface since they are shielded from the sun.[172][174]

In October 2020, astronomers reported detecting molecular water on the sunlit surface of the Moon by several independent spacecraft, including the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA).[175][176][177][178]

Orbit

Main articles: Orbit of the Moon, Lunar theory, Lunar orbit, and Cislunar space

A view of the rotating Earth and the far side of the Moon as the Moon passes on its orbit in between the observing DSCOVR satellite and Earth

The Earth and the Moon form the Earth–Moon satellite system with a shared center of mass, or barycenter. This barycenter is 1,700 km (1,100 mi) (about a quarter of Earth's radius) beneath the Earth's surface.

The Moon's orbit is slightly elliptical, with an orbital eccentricity of 0.055.[1] The semi-major axis of the geocentric lunar orbit, called the lunar distance, is approximately 400,000 km (250,000 miles or 1.28 light-seconds), comparable to going around Earth 9.5 times.[179]

The Moon makes a complete orbit around Earth with respect to the fixed stars, its sidereal period, about once every 27.3 days.[h] However, because the Earth–Moon system moves at the same time in its orbit around the Sun, it takes slightly longer, 29.5 days,[i][72] to return to the same lunar phase, completing a full cycle, as seen from Earth. This synodic period or synodic month is commonly known as the lunar month and is equal to the length of the solar day on the Moon.[180]

Due to tidal locking, the Moon has a 1:1 spin–orbit resonance. This rotation–orbit ratio makes the Moon's orbital periods around Earth equal to its corresponding rotation periods. This is the reason for only one side of the Moon, its so-called near side, being visible from Earth. That said, while the movement of the Moon is in resonance, it still is not without nuances such as libration, resulting in slightly changing perspectives, making over time and location on Earth about 59% of the Moon's surface visible from Earth.[181]

Unlike most satellites of other planets, the Moon's orbital plane is closer to the ecliptic plane than to the planet's equatorial plane. The Moon's orbit is subtly perturbed by the Sun and Earth in many small, complex and interacting ways. For example, the plane of the Moon's orbit gradually rotates once every 18.61 years,[182] which affects other aspects of lunar motion. These follow-on effects are mathematically described by Cassini's laws.[183]

Minimum, mean and maximum distances of the Moon from Earth with its angular diameter as seen from Earth's surface to scale

Tidal effects

Main articles: Tidal force, Tidal acceleration, Tide, and Theory of tides

Simplified diagram of Earth bulging, being pulled and streched toward the Moon by its gravity, which is the main driver of the tides. The Ocean and Earth are being pulled more where it is closer to the Moon, causing tidal forces to be weaker at the far-side of Earth creating a second bulge and high-tide. The animation shows the change of the Moon's position on its inclined orbit.

The gravitational attraction that Earth and the Moon (as well as the Sun) exert on each other manifests in a slightly greater attraction on the sides closest to each other, resulting in tidal forces. Ocean tides are the most widely experienced result of this, but tidal forces also considerably affect other mechanics of Earth, as well as the Moon and their system.

The lunar solid crust experiences tides of around 10 cm (4 in) amplitude over 27 days, with three components: a fixed one due to Earth, because they are in synchronous rotation, a variable tide due to orbital eccentricity and inclination, and a small varying component from the Sun.[184] The Earth-induced variable component arises from changing distance and libration, a result of the Moon's orbital eccentricity and inclination (if the Moon's orbit were perfectly circular and un-inclined, there would only be solar tides).[184] According to recent research, scientists suggest that the Moon's influence on the Earth may contribute to maintaining Earth's magnetic field.[185]

The cumulative effects of stress built up by these tidal forces produces moonquakes. Moonquakes are much less common and weaker than are earthquakes, although moonquakes can last for up to an hour – significantly longer than terrestrial quakes – because of scattering of the seismic vibrations in the dry fragmented upper crust. The existence of moonquakes was an unexpected discovery from seismometers placed on the Moon by Apollo astronauts from 1969 through 1972.[186]

The most commonly known effect of tidal forces is elevated sea levels called ocean tides.[187] While the Moon exerts most of the tidal forces, the Sun also exerts tidal forces and therefore contributes to the tides as much as 40% of the Moon's tidal force; producing in interplay the spring and neap tides.[187]

The tides are two bulges in the Earth's oceans, one on the side facing the Moon and the other on the side opposite. As the Earth rotates on its axis, one of the ocean bulges (high tide) is held in place "under" the Moon, while another such tide is opposite. The tide under the Moon is explained by the Moon's gravity being stronger on the water close to it. The tide on the opposite side can be explained either by the centrifugal force as the Earth orbits the barycenter or by the water's inertia as the Moon's gravity is stronger on the solid Earth close to it and it is pull away from the farther water.[188]

Thus, there are two high tides, and two low tides in about 24 hours.[187] Since the Moon is orbiting the Earth in the same direction of the Earth's rotation, the high tides occur about every 12 hours and 25 minutes; the 25 minutes is due to the Moon's time to orbit the Earth.

If the Earth were a water world (one with no continents) it would produce a tide of only one meter, and that tide would be very predictable, but the ocean tides are greatly modified by other effects:

the frictional coupling of water to Earth's rotation through the ocean floors

the inertia of water's movement

ocean basins that grow shallower near land

the sloshing of water between different ocean basins[189]

As a result, the timing of the tides at most points on the Earth is a product of observations that are explained, incidentally, by theory.

System evolution

Delays in the tidal peaks of both ocean and solid-body tides cause torque in opposition to the Earth's rotation. This "drains" angular momentum and rotational kinetic energy from Earth's rotation, slowing the Earth's rotation.[187][184] That angular momentum, lost from the Earth, is transferred to the Moon in a process known as tidal acceleration, which lifts the Moon into a higher orbit while lowering orbital speed around the Earth.

Thus the distance between Earth and Moon is increasing, and the Earth's rotation is slowing in reaction.[184] Measurements from laser reflectors left during the Apollo missions (lunar ranging experiments) have found that the Moon's distance increases by 38 mm (1.5 in) per year (roughly the rate at which human fingernails grow).[190][191][192] Atomic clocks show that Earth's Day lengthens by about 17 microseconds every year,[193][194][195] slowly increasing the rate at which UTC is adjusted by leap seconds.

This tidal drag makes the rotation of the Earth, and the orbital period of the Moon very slowly match. This matching first results in tidally locking the lighter body of the orbital system, as is already the case with the Moon. Theoretically, in 50 billion years,[196] the Earth's rotation will have slowed to the point of matching the Moon's orbital period, causing the Earth to always present the same side to the Moon. However, the Sun will become a red giant, most likely engulfing the Earth–Moon system long before then.[197][198]

If the Earth–Moon system isn't engulfed by the enlarged Sun, the drag from the solar atmosphere can cause the orbit of the Moon to decay. Once the orbit of the Moon closes to a distance of 18,470 km (11,480 mi), it will cross Earth's Roche limit, meaning that tidal interaction with Earth would break apart the Moon, turning it into a ring system. Most of the orbiting rings will begin to decay, and the debris will impact Earth. Hence, even if the Sun does not swallow up Earth, the planet may be left moonless

i think we're annoying like 60% of my mutuals /silly

Tachocline

Main article: Tachocline

The radiative zone and the convective zone are separated by a transition layer, the tachocline. This is a region where the sharp regime change between the uniform rotation of the radiative zone and the differential rotation of the convection zone results in a large shear between the two—a condition where successive horizontal layers slide past one another.[75] Presently, it is hypothesized that a magnetic dynamo, or solar dynamo, within this layer generates the Sun's magnetic field.[62]

Convective zone

Main article: Convection zone

The Sun's convection zone extends from 0.7 solar radii (500,000 km) to near the surface. In this layer, the solar plasma is not dense or hot enough to transfer the heat energy of the interior outward via radiation. Instead, the density of the plasma is low enough to allow convective currents to develop and move the Sun's energy outward towards its surface. Material heated at the tachocline picks up heat and expands, thereby reducing its density and allowing it to rise. As a result, an orderly motion of the mass develops into thermal cells that carry most of the heat outward to the Sun's photosphere above. Once the material diffusively and radiatively cools just beneath the photospheric surface, its density increases, and it sinks to the base of the convection zone, where it again picks up heat from the top of the radiative zone and the convective cycle continues. At the photosphere, the temperature has dropped 350-fold to 5,700 K (9,800 °F) and the density to only 0.2 g/m3 (about 1/10,000 the density of air at sea level, and 1 millionth that of the inner layer of the convective zone).[62]

The thermal columns of the convection zone form an imprint on the surface of the Sun giving it a granular appearance called the solar granulation at the smallest scale and supergranulation at larger scales. Turbulent convection in this outer part of the solar interior sustains "small-scale" dynamo action over the near-surface volume of the Sun.[62] The Sun's thermal columns are Bénard cells and take the shape of roughly hexagonal prisms.[76]

Photosphere

Main article: PhotosphereImage of the Sun's cell-like surface structures

The visible surface of the Sun, the photosphere, is the layer below which the Sun becomes opaque to visible light.[77] Photons produced in this layer escape the Sun through the transparent solar atmosphere above it and become solar radiation, sunlight. The change in opacity is due to the decreasing amount of H− ions, which absorb visible light easily.[77] Conversely, the visible light perceived is produced as electrons react with hydrogen atoms to produce H− ions.[78][79]

The photosphere is tens to hundreds of kilometers thick, and is slightly less opaque than air on Earth. Because the upper part of the photosphere is cooler than the lower part, an image of the Sun appears brighter in the center than on the edge or limb of the solar disk, in a phenomenon known as limb darkening.[77] The spectrum of sunlight has approximately the spectrum of a black-body radiating at 5,772 K (9,930 °F),[12] interspersed with atomic absorption lines from the tenuous layers above the photosphere. The photosphere has a particle density of ~1023 m−3 (about 0.37% of the particle number per volume of Earth's atmosphere at sea level). The photosphere is not fully ionized—the extent of ionization is about 3%, leaving almost all of the hydrogen in atomic form.[80]

Atmosphere

Main article: Stellar atmosphere

The Sun's atmosphere is composed of five layers: the photosphere, the chromosphere, the transition region, the corona, and the heliosphere.

The coolest layer of the Sun is a temperature minimum region extending to about 500 km above the photosphere, and has a temperature of about 4,100 K.[77] This part of the Sun is cool enough to allow for the existence of simple molecules such as carbon monoxide and water.[81] The chromosphere, transition region, and corona are much hotter than the surface of the Sun.[77] The reason is not well understood, but evidence suggests that Alfvén waves may have enough energy to heat the corona.[82]The Sun's transition region taken by Hinode's Solar Optical Telescope

Above the temperature minimum layer is a layer about 2,000 km thick, dominated by a spectrum of emission and absorption lines.[77] It is called the chromosphere from the Greek root chroma, meaning color, because the chromosphere is visible as a colored flash at the beginning and end of total solar eclipses.[74] The temperature of the chromosphere increases gradually with altitude, ranging up to around 20,000 K near the top.[77] In the upper part of the chromosphere helium becomes partially ionized.[83]

Above the chromosphere, in a thin (about 200 km) transition region, the temperature rises rapidly from around 20,000 K in the upper chromosphere to coronal temperatures closer to 1,000,000 K.[84] The temperature increase is facilitated by the full ionization of helium in the transition region, which significantly reduces radiative cooling of the plasma.[83] The transition region does not occur at a well-defined altitude, but forms a kind of nimbus around chromospheric features such as spicules and filaments, and is in constant, chaotic motion.[74] The transition region is not easily visible from Earth's surface, but is readily observable from space by instruments sensitive to extreme ultraviolet.[85]During a solar eclipse the solar corona can be seen with the naked eye during totality.

The corona is the next layer of the Sun. The low corona, near the surface of the Sun, has a particle density around 1015 m−3 to 1016 m−3.[83][e] The average temperature of the corona and solar wind is about 1,000,000–2,000,000 K; however, in the hottest regions it is 8,000,000–20,000,000 K.[84] Although no complete theory yet exists to account for the temperature of the corona, at least some of its heat is known to be from magnetic reconnection.[84][86] The corona is the extended atmosphere of the Sun, which has a volume much larger than the volume enclosed by the Sun's photosphere. A flow of plasma outward from the Sun into interplanetary space is the solar wind.[86]

The heliosphere, the tenuous outermost atmosphere of the Sun, is filled with solar wind plasma and is defined to begin at the distance where the flow of the solar wind becomes superalfvénic—that is, where the flow becomes faster than the speed of Alfvén waves,[87] at approximately 20 solar radii (0.1 AU). Turbulence and dynamic forces in the heliosphere cannot affect the shape of the solar corona within, because the information can only travel at the speed of Alfvén waves. The solar wind travels outward continuously through the heliosphere,[88][89] forming the solar magnetic field into a spiral shape,[86] until it impacts the heliopause more than 50 AU from the Sun. In December 2004, the Voyager 1 probe passed through a shock front that is thought to be part of the heliopause.[90] In late 2012, Voyager 1 recorded a marked increase in cosmic ray collisions and a sharp drop in lower energy particles from the solar wind, which suggested that the probe had passed through the heliopause and entered the interstellar medium,[91] and indeed did so on August 25, 2012, at approximately 122 astronomical units (18 Tm) from the Sun.[92] The heliosphere has a heliotail which stretches out behind it due to the Sun's peculiar motion through the galaxy.[93]

On April 28, 2021, NASA's Parker Solar Probe encountered the specific magnetic and particle conditions at 18.8 solar radii that indicated that it penetrated the Alfvén surface, the boundary separating the corona from the solar wind, defined as where the coronal plasma's Alfvén speed and the large-scale solar wind speed are equal.[94][95] During the flyby, Parker Solar Probe passed into and out of the corona several times. This proved the predictions that the Alfvén critical surface is not shaped like a smooth ball, but has spikes and valleys that wrinkle its surface.[94]Depiction of the heliosphere

#ethan's asks!!

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spacetimewithstuartgary · 2 months ago

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NASA's mini rover team is packed for lunar journey

Three small NASA rovers that will explore the lunar surface as a team have been packed up and shipped from the agency's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California, marking completion of the first leg of the robots' journey to the moon.

The rovers are part of a technology demonstration called CADRE (Cooperative Autonomous Distributed Robotic Exploration), which aims to show that a group of robots can collaborate to gather data without receiving direct commands from mission controllers on Earth. They'll use their cameras and ground-penetrating radars to send back imagery of the lunar surface and subsurface while testing out the novel software that enables them to work together autonomously.

The CADRE rovers will launch to the moon aboard IM-3, Intuitive Machines' third lunar delivery, which has a mission window that extends into early 2026, as part of NASA's CLPS (Commercial Lunar Payload Services) initiative. Once installed on Intuitive Machines' Nova-C lander, they'll head to the Reiner Gamma region on the western edge of the moon's near side, where the solar-powered, suitcase-size rovers will spend the daylight hours of a lunar day (the equivalent of about 14 days on Earth) carrying out experiments.

The success of CADRE could pave the way for potential future missions with teams of autonomous robots supporting astronauts and spreading out to take simultaneous, distributed scientific measurements.

Construction of the CADRE hardware—along with a battery of rigorous tests to prove readiness for the journey through space—was completed in February 2024.

To get prepared for shipment to Intuitive Machines' Houston facility, each rover was attached to its deployer system, which will lower it via tether from the lander onto the dusty lunar surface. Engineers flipped each rover-deployer pair over and attached it to an aluminum plate for safe transit. The rovers were then sealed in protective metal-frame enclosures that were fitted snuggly into metal shipping containers and loaded onto a truck. The hardware arrived safely on Sunday, Feb. 9.

"Our small team worked incredibly hard constructing these robots and putting them to the test, and we have been eagerly waiting for the moment where we finally see them on their way," said Coleman Richdale, the team's assembly, test, and launch operations lead at JPL. "We are all genuinely thrilled to be taking this next step in our journey to the moon, and we can't wait to see the lunar surface through CADRE's eyes."

The rovers, the base station, and a camera system that will monitor CADRE experiments on the moon will be integrated with the lander—as will several other NASA payloads—in preparation for the launch of the IM-3 mission.

IMAGE: Members of a JPL team working on NASA’s CADRE technology demonstration use temporary red handles to move one of the project’s small Moon rovers to prepare it for transport to Intuitive Machines’ Houston facility, where it will be attached to the company’s third lunar lander. Credit: NASA / JPL-Caltech

youtube

#science #space #astronomy #physics #news #nasa #astrophysics #spacetimewithstuartgary #starstuff #esa #Youtube

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kosmos2999 · 1 year ago

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Saturday’s Late Night Sci-Fi Cinema:

War Between The Planets (1966 film)

Theatrical release poster

Main cast:

Giacomo Rossi Stuart (as Jack Stuart) as Commander Rod Jackson Ombretta Colli (as Amber Collins) as Lieutenant Terry Sanchez Enzo Fiermonte as General Norton Halina Zalewska (as Alina Zalewska) as Janet Norton Goffredo Unger (as Freddy Unger) as Captain Frank J. Perkinson Peter Martell Captain Emil Dubrowski John Bartha as Doctor Schmidt Marco Bogliani as Lieutenant Peters Vera Dolen as Lieutenant Tina Marley Norman Rose as The Narrator

Production staff:

Directed by: Antonio Margheriti (as Anthony Dawson) Story and screenplay by: Ivan Reiner and Renato Moretti (Ralph Moody) Produced by: Ivan Reiner (associate producer), Walter Manley (associate producer), Joseph Fryd (producer) and Antonio Margheriti (as Anthony Margheriti) (producer) Cinematography by: Riccardo Pallottini Edited by: Otello Colangeli Music by: Angelo Francesco Lavagnino Production company: Mercury Film International Released by: Fanfare Film Productions, Inc. Original release date: July 29, 1966 YouTube channel: VTV Classics

Huge landslides, earthquakes, very tall tidal waves and other mysterious phenomena are happening on every opposite corner of Planet Earth.

The United Democracies of the World has its top scientists looking for the cause of this strange activity. They now have a theory that a gravity disturbance from outer space never before encountered is the responsible for all of those disasters.

Planet Earth is doomed and something has to be done.

Commander Rod Jackson, of the United Democracies Space Command has been commissioned to the Gamma-One Space Station to be in charge of the mission to save the planet Earth from a mysterious planet that is approaching in a collision course.

War Between The Planets is the English dubbed release in America of an Italian movie originally titleled Il Pianeta Errante (translated in English as The Errant Planet).

A 1966 color film by director Antonio Margheriti.

Fascinating facts:

This is the third movie of a quadrlogy of the Gamma-One series by director Antonio Margheriti under the pseudonym Anthony Dawson.

The cast was very different from the other movies of the series.

youtube

#space opera #60s sci fi #italian adventure #italian fantasy #Italian sci-fi movies #italian movies #Youtube #war between the planets

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covenawhite66 · 1 year ago

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The rocks are located near an area named Reiner Gamma, the small group of meter-sized rocks stood out because they are covered in a layer of dust with special reflective properties.

This will help us understand how moon dust moves and about magnetic properties on the moon.

Discovery of a Dust Sorting Process on Boulders Near the Reiner Gamma Swirl on the Moon

Journal of Geophysical Research: PlanetsVolume 129, Issue 1 e2023JE007910 Research Article

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023JE007910

From a database of lunar fractured boulders

After a photo-geologic investigation and determined that the features correspond to a dust mantling on top of boulders with a unique photometric behavior.

#astronomy #moon #nasa #moon rocks #science article #scientific research #space dust #magnetic #lunar dust

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sunaleisocial · 2 months ago

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NASA’s Mini Rover Team Is Packed for Lunar Journey - NASA

New Post has been published on https://sunalei.org/news/nasas-mini-rover-team-is-packed-for-lunar-journey-nasa-19/

NASA’s Mini Rover Team Is Packed for Lunar Journey - NASA

[embedded content]

A team at JPL packed up three small Moon rovers, delivering them in February to the facility where they’ll be attached to a commercial lunar lander in preparation for launch. The rovers are part of a project called CADRE that could pave the way for potential future multirobot missions. NASA/JPL-Caltech

A trio of suitcase-size rovers and their base station have been carefully wrapped up and shipped off to join the lander that will deliver them to the Moon’s surface.

Three small NASA rovers that will explore the lunar surface as a team have been packed up and shipped from the agency’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California, marking completion of the first leg of the robots’ journey to the Moon.

The rovers are part of a technology demonstration called CADRE (Cooperative Autonomous Distributed Robotic Exploration), which aims to show that a group of robots can collaborate to gather data without receiving direct commands from mission controllers on Earth. They’ll use their cameras and ground-penetrating radars to send back imagery of the lunar surface and subsurface while testing out the novel software that enables them to work together autonomously.

The CADRE rovers will launch to the Moon aboard IM-3, Intuitive Machines’ third lunar delivery, which has a mission window that extends into early 2026, as part of NASA’s CLPS (Commercial Lunar Payload Services) initiative. Once installed on Intuitive Machines’ Nova-C lander, they’ll head to the Reiner Gamma region on the western edge of the Moon’s near side, where the solar-powered, suitcase-size rovers will spend the daylight hours of a lunar day (the equivalent of about 14 days on Earth) carrying out experiments. The success of CADRE could pave the way for potential future missions with teams of autonomous robots supporting astronauts and spreading out to take simultaneous, distributed scientific measurements.

Construction of the CADRE hardware — along with a battery of rigorous tests to prove readiness for the journey through space — was completed in February 2024.

To get prepared for shipment to Intuitive Machines’ Houston facility, each rover was attached to its deployer system, which will lower it via tether from the lander onto the dusty lunar surface. Engineers flipped each rover-deployer pair over and attached it to an aluminum plate for safe transit. The rovers were then sealed in protective metal-frame enclosures that were fitted snuggly into metal shipping containers and loaded onto a truck. The hardware arrived safely on Sunday, Feb. 9.

“Our small team worked incredibly hard constructing these robots and putting them to the test, and we have been eagerly waiting for the moment where we finally see them on their way,” said Coleman Richdale, the team’s assembly, test, and launch operations lead at JPL. “We are all genuinely thrilled to be taking this next step in our journey to the Moon, and we can’t wait to see the lunar surface through CADRE’s eyes.”

The rovers, the base station, and a camera system that will monitor CADRE experiments on the Moon will be integrated with the lander — as will several other NASA payloads — in preparation for the launch of the IM-3 mission.

More About CADRE

A division of Caltech in Pasadena, California, JPL manages CADRE for the Game Changing Development program within NASA’s Space Technology Mission Directorate. The technology demonstration was selected under the agency’s Lunar Surface Innovation Initiative, which was established to expedite the development of technologies for sustained presence on the lunar surface. NASA’s Science Mission Directorate manages the CLPS initiative. The agency’s Glenn Research Center in Cleveland and its Ames Research Center in Silicon Valley, California, both supported the project. Motiv Space Systems designed and built key hardware elements at the company’s Pasadena facility. Clemson University in South Carolina contributed research in support of the project.

For more about CADRE, go to:

https://go.nasa.gov/cadre

News Media Contact

Melissa Pamer Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif. 626-314-4928 [email protected]

2025-018

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theart2rock · 1 year ago

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Black Diamonds - Destination Paradise - Review

Schwarze Diamanten sind eigentlich sehr selten und noch seltener in der Natur anzutreffen, diese werden heute meist eingefärbt. Sind sie in reiner Form, wie der Black Orlov, anzutreffen, zudem sündhaft teuer. Im St. Galler Rheintal jedoch befinden sich in Form der Black Diamonds gleich vier Stück davon und mit dem neuen Album «Destination Paradise» dürfte auch deren Wert erneut steigen. Mich, Andi, Manu und Chris haben nach drei Jahren Logis im No-Tell Motel ausgecheckt mit einem neuen Reiseziel, dem Paradies. Und auf dem Weg dorthin hinterlassen sie Spuren in Form von dreizehn (wenn der Bonus-Track mitgezählt wird) neuen Ohrwürmern. Die Reise beginnt mit «Through Hell And Back», fast schon im Bereich des Power Metal anzusiedeln, ist es genau die Art von Opener, der den Hörer wachzurütteln vermag und darauf vorbereitet was noch kommt. Messerscharfe Riffs der Mach-Art Gamma Ray und ein treibendes Schlagzeug mit dem Drang vorzupreschen. Dazu diese starken Gesangsharmonien im Refrain. «After The Rain» kennt man schon. Und genau an diesem Song merkt man, die Black Diamonds wollen definitiv die Leiter zum Rockolymp hochsteigen. Nicht nur vom Songwriting her sind sie einige Stufen geklettert auch das Video wirkt viel professioneller als die vergangenen Filmchen. Obwohl wenn ich ehrlich bin, ich den Humor aus früheren Clips ein wenig vermisse. Aber der Erfolg, denn sie mit dem bei Musicclip gedrehten Video zurzeit feiern, gibt ihnen Recht und stellt sie als hart und seriös arbeitende Rockband dar. Einmal gehört, setzt sich «After The Rain» in den Gehörgängen fest. Der nächste Song ist eine Widmung an die «Everyday Heroes» die ohne Verlangen nach Ruhm und Geld ihre helfende Hand ausstrecken, wenn sie benötigt wird. Eine wunderschöne Hymne die mit einem Refrain ausgestattet, der einfach zum Mitsingen einlädt. Zudem diesen repetiven Gitarrenlauf in der zweiten Strophe offenbart, für den es sich alleine schon lohnt den Song in Dauerschlaufe zu hören. Kreischende Gitarren Obertöne leiten den nächsten Uptempo Song «Bottums Up» der mit einem unaufhaltsamen Drang nach vorne nur so danach schreit live auf der Bühne präsentiert zu werden. Im Mittelteil wird dann etwas Tempo rausgenommen, um dann gegen Ende nochmal aufzudrehen. Vor ein paar Tagen erschien mit «Only For A While» die nächste Single. Die obligate Ballade mit einem wunderschönen Piano Intro. Ein sehr verletzlicher Song der die Rheintaler von einer komplett anderen Seite zeigt. Ein schöner Song mit der Nachricht den Kopf nicht hängen zu lassen, wenn es mal Schweisse läuft und einen Song anzustimmen. Getreu dem Motto; wo man Lieder singt, da lass dich nieder, böse Menschen kennen keine Lieder. So würde ich dies interpretieren. Dann geht die Reise weiter durch das «Valley Of The Broken Hearted». Eine typische Black Diamonds Melodic Rock Nummer, bei der es so viel zu entdecken gibt. Sphärisch gespielte Chords die sehr viel Raum bekommen. Ein Gitarrenriff, dass zum Mitsingen einlädt. Bassnoten die so gezielt eingesetzt werden, dass sie ein Gewinn für den Song sind. Ein Schlagzeug, welches Punkte zu setzen vermag, um dann im Refrain den Motor zu starten. Und wie bei allen Songs auf Destination Paradise, ein songdienliches Gitarrensolo, Chris zeigt auf allen Nummern sein Gespür für Melodie. Songs mit «Rock’n’Roll» im Titel sind grundsätzlich leider selten meine liebsten Nummern. Irgendwie fehlt mir dem Wort die Melodie oder ich assimiliere es mit AC/DC, die es doch exzessiv benutzen. Die Black Diamonds haben auch solch einen Song mit «Rock N’ Roll Is My Religion», der aber weit entfernt ist von AC/DC und Konsorten. Es ist ein treibender Rocksong, und auch wenn die Wörter gegen den Schluss nicht mehr gesungen werden, die Gitarre trifft die Intonierung so genau, dass der Text unterbewusst auf die Gitarre gelegt werden kann. Davonrennen kann man auch vor dem nächsten Song nicht, den «Nothing’s Gonna Keep Me From You» verfolgt den Hörer unweigerlich. Will ich denn auch davonrennen? Klare Antwort, Nein. Die Black Diamonds zählen für mich zu meinen liebsten Schweizer Bands, seit der ersten Begegnung am Bang Your Head Festival. Deshalb keine Angst, ich halte die Black Diamonds nicht davon ab meinen Weg zu kreuzen. Die Spieluhr wird aufgezogen und mit «From The Ashes» folgt der nächste Rocker, ein Riffmonster mit einem, nach mehrmaligem Durchhören der Platte, für mich wohl aufdringlichsten Chorus, im positiven Sinne. Mit 03.21 Spielzeit zwar die kürzeste Nummer, aber der Replay-Knopf kommt hier doch ziemlich oft zum Zuge. Die Black Diamonds sind auch immer wieder einmal gut für eine Covernummer und auf Destination Paradise kommt die mit einem Stern auf dem Walk Of Fame in Hollywood geehrte Künstlerin Belinda Carlisle zum Zuge. Nicht etwa ihr Megahit Heaven’s A Place On Earth (damals wurde dem Song eine gewisse Ähnlichkeit zu Livin’ On A Prayer nachgesagt), nein es ist «Leave A Light On» der hier umgeschrieben und mit David Balfour von den Label Kollegen Maverick verewigt wurde. Grandios umgesetzt und macht dem Original alle Ehre. In «Yesterday’s News» besingt Mich wie es früher einmal war «MTV is showing me, what I wanna be» als Aussage oder wie der lokale Plattenhändler sein bester Freund war. MTV spielt heute keine Musik mehr, Plattenhändler sind zu einem Grossteil verschwunden und «gone with the wind». Wahre Worte die mich als Kind der 80er auch in Erinnerungen schwelgen lassen und mich in diese Zeiten zurückversetzen, wie es Mich im Break besingt. Ein Wunder kommt noch ein fettes vielleicht frustrierendes «Hä» zum Schluss. Mittlerweile sind Black Diamonds im Paradies angekommen. Der letzte, zudem längste Song, «Paradise» der Vinylausgabe kommt aus dem Kopfhörer. Wartet wieder mit einem übermächtigen Refrain auf. Hier werfen sie nochmals alles in die Waagschale, ein richtiger Reisser, der von mir aus gerne auch als Single ausgekoppelt werden darf, da er alles darstellt, wofür Black Diamonds steht. Die Besitzer der CD, bekommen aber noch einen Bonustrack in Form von «Run With Us». Und da weiss ich jetzt echt nicht, was ich noch schreiben soll. Für mich ist dies die beste Nummer überhaupt auf diesem grandiosen Album. Alleine wie die Strophen gesungen werden mit diesen langgezogenen Vokalen zum Ende jeder einzelnen Zeile, Weltklasse. Diese typischen 80er Jahre Drumrolls in der zweiten Strophe. Dieser übermächtige Refrain. Ehrlich Jungs, dies ist ein Opener für jede Show, den nach dieser Nummer rennt jeder mit Euch, garantiert. Selbst ich als aktiver Passivsportler mit Renndispenz würde mit Euch mithalten, egal wohin es geht. Die dritte Strophe, getrieben von Andi’s Bass, so geht Songwriting. Black Diamonds ist ein Album gelungen, dass in jede Plattensammlung von Fans des Melodic Rocks gehört, vorbestellen kann die Platte hier bei CeDe. Ein Album gespickt mit Ohrwürmern, so dass es schwerfällt, einen Favoriten rauszupicken. Ein Album, dass ohne jeden Zweifel eine Glanzleistung darstellt und auch in meinen Jahrescharts weit vorne angesiedelt sein wird. Der Release ist auf den 31. Mai 2024 angesetzt, bis dahin soll noch eine dritte Single veröffentlich werden. Einen Tag später, am 01. Juni 2024 findet die Release Party in Diepoldsau statt. Ich werde wohl in der glücklichen Lage sein, fast alle Songs schon mitsingen zu können, denn ich werde dort sein. Tickets gibt es hier. Tracklist: - Through Hell And Back - After The Rain - Everyday Heroes - Bottums Up - Only For A While - Valley Of The Broken Hearted - Rock N' Roll Is My Religion - Nothing's Gonna Keep Me From You - From The Ashes - Leave A Light On (feat. David Balfour) - Yesterday's News - Paradise - Run With Us (CD-Bonus Track) Lesen Sie den ganzen Artikel

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spacenutspod · 1 year ago

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For years, people noticed strange features on the Moon dubbed “Lunar Swirls.” They’re bright regions that appear to be concentrations of lighter-colored material on the surface. It turns out that interactions between the solar wind and magnetic regions on the Moon may play a role at two sites. Scientists long thought that these swirls weren’t related to the surrounding topography, but it turns out there’s some kind of interaction going on between the swirl deposition and the surface. Planetary Science Institute senior scientist John Weirich led a team to study topographic data for lunar swirls at high resolution. They found a correlation between the swirl areas and lower topography in a region called the Reiner Gamma swirl. About Swirl Regions The Moon has a number of similar regions with high-contrast bright markings that appear to loop across the surface. Generally, they look like wide bright swirls separated by darker off-swirl lanes. The fact that they exist spurs questions about how they form and there isn’t a clear answer, yet. Once that mystery is solved, scientists will have a better understanding of how the lunar surface is affected by the solar wind, bombardment by micrometeorites, how the lunar soil “migrates”, and what other effects the local environment has on the surface. Lunar swirls are found in several regions on the Moon. Courtesy NASA. “Lunar swirls have piqued scientists’ interest since they were discovered, partly because the scientific community doesn’t completely understand how they formed. There are many hypotheses about their formation process. Each hypothesis has observations that support it, but there are also other observations that contradict them,” Weirich said. “Since we don’t have a full understanding of how these swirls formed, we don’t completely understand the story they can tell us about the Moon. Forming them could involve a combination of well-understood processes interacting together or a currently unknown process. Unusual objects or phenomena are sometimes the key to obtaining deeper knowledge, and for this reason, lunar swirls are very intriguing. And the fact that they look really cool.” Studying Swirls in Higher Detail To do their work, Weirich’s team looked at earlier research showing that bright areas are 2-3 meters lower than dark areas, particularly in the Mare Ingenii lunar swirl. “However, it is not as simple as the bright areas are uniformly lower than the dark areas. If that was the case this relationship between topography and swirl would be easy to demonstrate by comparing an elevation map to a picture of the swirl. Instead, this relationship is only seen when we compare the average height of the bright areas and the average height of the dark areas.” Weirich studied Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter mission images and applied a special software suite to determine the surface topography. The team also used machine-learning tools on specific images. It classified the swirls into various units: bright areas (on-swirl)and dark areas (or “off-swirl”). The studies allowed them to identify transition regions between the two units, and they labeled those “diffuse-swirl”. The correlation between topography and swirl formation still doesn’t explain exactly why they form. But, it does give planetary scientists some new clues as they study other swirl features on the Moon. At present, there are several theories about formation, but none of them explain all of the details. One idea is that they formed as a result of cometary impacts. That explains the brightness of these features. Another theory is that the swirls form when weak magnetic fields protect lighter-colored lunar surface soil (regolith) from the solar wind. Finally, weak electric fields created by brief interactions between the magnetic anomalies and solar wind plasma could play a role. Those fields could affect electrically charged fine dust on the surface. How topography plays into any of these theories is still an unknown. How They Did It The specialized software the team used does stereophotoclinometry to analyze the topography of a surface. It combines stereo imaging and photoclinometry to get the surface height of a region. The swirl units of interest were defined by machine learning procedures. The team then compared that information to the SPC-derived topography. That allowed them to statistically determine if height correlations existed and what differences they showed. The SPC methodology has been used on various surfaces, including using data from the OSIRIS-REx mission, among other missions. Planetary scientists use SPC methodologies to describe the shapes of planets, asteroids, comets, and other small bodies. Still, there’s not yet a definite explanation for these swirls. However, the combo of high-resolution imaging, machine learning, and advanced software techniques gives planetary scientists more insight into their still-mysterious origins. For More Information Two Lunar Swirls Linked to Topography The post The Lunar Swirl Mystery Deepens appeared first on Universe Today.

#space #astronomy #news #science

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drcpanda12 · 2 years ago

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The moon, Earth's only natural satellite, has captivated humanity's imagination for centuries. While we often marvel at its silvery glow and recognize its significant role in Earth's tides and night sky, there are lesser-known aspects of this celestial body that are equally intriguing. Beyond the familiar tales of moon landings and lunar phases, the moon hides a multitude of captivating secrets. In this exploration, we delve into 10 less discussed facts about the moon, shedding light on its enigmatic lunar swirls, seismic activities known as moonquakes, mysterious mass concentrations, and the surprising presence of water on its surface. We'll also uncover the delicate lunar atmosphere, the true nature of the moon's far side, and the unique coloration of its soil. Join us as we embark on an adventure to discover the lesser-known wonders of Earth's faithful companion, the moon. Lunar Swirls Lunar swirls are intriguing and enigmatic patterns found on the surface of the moon. These bright, wispy features stand out against the darker lunar regolith (soil). They are often referred to as "lunar Reiner Gamma" after one of the prominent swirls. The exact cause of lunar swirls is not yet fully understood, but there are several theories. One hypothesis suggests that the swirls may result from the interaction between the moon's surface and its magnetic field. It is believed that these magnetic fields may protect the underlying regolith from darkening due to the sun's radiation, creating distinctive bright patterns. Another hypothesis proposes that the swirls might be related to ancient volcanic activity. It is suggested that magnetic anomalies associated with past volcanic activity may have influenced the formation of the swirls. Lunar swirls are typically found in regions with a relatively low concentration of impact craters. They are often associated with young and geologically complex areas, such as the lunar maria (large basaltic plains). Studying lunar swirls provides valuable insights into the moon's geologic history, its magnetic properties, and the processes that have shaped its surface over billions of years. However, further research and exploration are still needed to unravel the full mystery behind these captivating lunar features. Moonquakes Moonquakes are seismic activities that occur on the moon, similar to earthquakes on Earth. However, moonquakes are generally less frequent and less intense than earthquakes. Moonquakes can be categorized into four types: deep moonquakes, shallow moonquakes, thermal moonquakes, and meteorite impact moonquakes. Deep Moonquakes: These quakes occur deep below the moon's surface, around 700 kilometers (435 miles) or more. They are thought to be caused by tidal forces exerted by the gravitational interaction between the Earth and the moon. Deep moonquakes can last for several minutes and have magnitudes up to around 5 on the Richter scale. Shallow Moonquakes: Shallow moonquakes have epicenters within about 20 kilometers (12 miles) of the moon's surface. They are believed to be related to the gradual cooling and contraction of the moon's interior, causing the brittle crust to fracture. Shallow moonquakes have shorter durations and lower magnitudes compared to deep moonquakes. Thermal Moonquakes: Thermal moonquakes are caused by the expansion and contraction of the moon's surface due to temperature changes. They typically occur when the lunar surface transitions between periods of extreme cold and warmth during the moon's day-night cycle. These quakes are generally weak and short-lived. Meteorite Impact Moonquakes: Moonquakes can also be triggered by the impact of meteorites. When a meteorite collides with the moon's surface, it generates seismic waves that can cause moonquakes. These impact-induced moonquakes tend to be relatively localized near the impact site. Moonquakes were first detected by seismometers deployed on the moon during the Apollo missions.

They continue to be studied and monitored using data from various lunar missions. Understanding moonquakes helps scientists gain insights into the moon's internal structure, geologic processes, and its interaction with Earth's gravitational forces. Mascons Mascons, short for "mass concentrations," are regions on the moon's surface with higher-than-average gravitational pull. They were discovered during the Apollo missions when astronauts orbiting the moon noticed anomalies in the spacecraft's trajectories. Mascons are primarily associated with large impact basins on the moon. When a celestial object, such as a massive asteroid or comet, collides with the moon, it creates a basin by excavating material and redistributing it around the impact site. This redistribution causes variations in the density and thickness of the lunar crust. The denser regions of the crust, known as mascons, create localized gravitational anomalies. These anomalies affect the trajectory of spacecraft in lunar orbit, requiring adjustments to maintain a stable orbit. Mascons can have a significant influence on the moon's gravitational field, leading to uneven distribution and deviations from what would be expected from a uniform spherical body. The exact mechanism behind the formation of mascons is not fully understood, but one prevailing theory suggests that they are created by the accumulation of dense, iron-rich materials from the impact event, resulting in localized gravitational anomalies. Studying mascons provides valuable information about the moon's geology, impact history, and interior structure. Mascons have been instrumental in mapping lunar gravity and understanding the distribution of mass within the moon. They also offer insights into the processes that shaped the moon's surface during its early history. Lunar Water Lunar water refers to the presence of water on the moon's surface, primarily in the form of ice. For a long time, it was believed that the moon was completely dry, but recent discoveries have confirmed the existence of water in various locations. The water on the moon is found in extremely cold and permanently shadowed areas near the lunar poles. These regions, such as deep craters, are shielded from the sun's direct rays, creating frigid conditions where water ice can accumulate and persist. The presence of lunar water has been confirmed through the analysis of data from various lunar missions, including the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) and the Chandrayaan-1 mission. These missions have detected signatures of water molecules and hydroxyl (OH) groups in the form of ice on the moon's surface. The origin of lunar water is still a subject of scientific investigation. One possibility is that water molecules are delivered to the moon by comets or through the solar wind, which carries hydrogen ions that can react with oxygen-bearing minerals on the lunar surface to form water. Another hypothesis suggests that water might be produced through chemical reactions within the moon itself, such as the interaction of solar wind protons with the lunar soil. The discovery of lunar water is of great interest for future lunar exploration and colonization efforts. Water is a vital resource, not only for sustaining human life but also for potential fuel production and as a source of oxygen for life support systems. The presence of lunar water opens up possibilities for creating a sustainable human presence on the moon and serves as a valuable resource for future space missions. Moon Dust Moon dust, also known as lunar regolith, refers to the fine layer of fragmented rock and soil that covers the moon's surface. It is composed of small particles ranging from tiny specks to larger grains, created by billions of years of meteorite impacts. Moon dust is primarily made up of basaltic rocks, which are rich in iron and magnesium, along with smaller amounts of other minerals like anorthosite. These materials are the remnants of ancient volcanic activity on the moon.

The properties of moon dust differ from Earth's soil. It lacks organic matter and water due to the moon's lack of atmosphere and the extreme temperature variations it experiences. Moon dust is also highly abrasive and can cling to surfaces, posing challenges for astronauts and equipment during lunar missions. Its sharp, jagged edges can potentially damage spacesuits, electronics, and seals. Studying moon dust provides valuable insights into the moon's geological history and the processes that have shaped its surface. Scientists have examined moon dust samples brought back by the Apollo missions and have analyzed the chemical composition and mineralogy to understand the moon's origins and evolution. Moon dust is of ongoing interest for future lunar missions and the establishment of lunar bases. Scientists and engineers are exploring methods to mitigate its impacts, such as developing dust-repellent materials and protective measures. Understanding and managing moon dust will be crucial for the success of future human activities on the moon and for gaining a deeper understanding of our celestial neighbor. Lunar Atmosphere The moon has an extremely thin and tenuous atmosphere, often referred to as an exosphere. While the moon's atmosphere is not comparable to Earth's dense atmosphere, it does contain trace amounts of gases. The lunar atmosphere is composed of various elements, including helium, neon, hydrogen, and small amounts of other gases such as argon, methane, and carbon dioxide. However, the concentrations of these gases are so low that they are considered almost negligible. Due to the moon's weak gravity and lack of a substantial atmosphere, the gas particles in the exosphere are widely spaced and do not interact frequently. As a result, the moon's exosphere does not exhibit the same properties as Earth's atmosphere, such as pressure or the ability to sustain human life. The lunar exosphere is primarily derived from different sources. Some gases originate from the solar wind, which is a stream of charged particles emitted by the Sun. These particles interact with the lunar surface, causing atoms to become electrically charged and escape into the exosphere. Other gases may come from outgassing, which is the release of volatile compounds from the moon's interior or from impacts of micrometeoroids. The study of the lunar atmosphere provides insights into the moon's interaction with its space environment, the effects of solar radiation, and the processes that have shaped its surface over time. While the lunar atmosphere may be faint, understanding its composition and behavior contributes to our overall understanding of the moon as a celestial body. Lunar Farside The lunar farside, often referred to as the "dark side of the moon," is the hemisphere of the moon that is permanently hidden from view from Earth. It is not actually perpetually dark; it receives just as much sunlight as the near side. The term "dark side" is a misnomer. The reason we only see one side of the moon from Earth is due to a phenomenon called tidal locking. The moon's rotation period and its orbit around the Earth are synchronized, resulting in the same side always facing Earth. This is known as the "nearside." The lunar farside has a distinct topography compared to the nearside. It features fewer of the large, smooth plains called maria that are prominent on the nearside. Instead, the farside is characterized by rugged highlands, abundant craters, and numerous impact basins. Exploration of the lunar farside began with the Soviet Union's Luna missions and has continued with more recent missions such as China's Chang'e series. These missions have provided valuable data and imagery of the farside, allowing scientists to study its geology, composition, and history. The lunar farside holds great potential for future exploration and scientific investigations. Its unique geologic features and lack of radio interference

from Earth make it an ideal location for radio astronomy and studying the universe beyond our planet. Additionally, the farside's pristine environment could provide opportunities for radio observatories and the establishment of a future lunar base or observatory. Lunar Soil Color Lunar soil, also known as lunar regolith, appears grayish in color when observed from space. However, upon closer inspection, the soil is composed of a mixture of different materials that contribute to its coloration. The primary components of lunar soil are dark basaltic rocks and lighter-colored materials such as anorthosite. Basalt, which is rich in iron and magnesium, gives the lunar soil a darker tone, while anorthosite, which is predominantly made of feldspar, lends a lighter hue. The presence of these materials, along with other minerals and glasses formed by volcanic activity and meteorite impacts, creates the characteristic coloration of lunar soil. The overall appearance can vary depending on the specific location and age of the lunar surface. The grayish color of lunar soil is a result of the limited presence of organic matter and the absence of water or atmospheric processes that can lead to weathering and soil development, as observed on EarMoonth. Studying the color and composition of lunar soil provides valuable insights into the moon's geologic history, its volcanic past, and the impact processes that have shaped its surface over billions of years. Analyzing the soil samples collected during the Apollo missions has been crucial in understanding the moon's formation and evolution.

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knewtoday · 2 years ago

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skycrorg · 2 years ago

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Entregan espectrómetro de plasma para misión lunar

Southwest Research Institute ha entregado un espectrómetro de plasma para la integración en un módulo de aterrizaje lunar como parte de la investigación Lunar Vertex de la NASA, programada para comenzar el próximo año. El sitio objetivo es la región Reiner Gamma en el lado cercano de la luna, un área misteriosa conocida por tener un campo magnético local. El Espectrómetro de Plasma de Anomalías…

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#espectrómetro

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glennmillerorchestra · 2 years ago

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i was tagged by the wonderful maddie @leonardcohenofficial to post the posters from my favorite new-to-me watches of the year!! (in purely aesthetic order)

rope - alfred hitchcock (1948) sunset boulevard - billy wilder (1950) deep end - jerzy skolimowski (1970) i’m not there - todd haynes (2007) brewster mccloud - robert altman (1970) carol - todd haynes (2015) ladies and gentlemen, the fabulous stains - lou adler (1982) what’s up doc? - peter bogdanovich (1972) the effect of gamma rays on man-in-the-moon marigolds - paul newman (1972)

i'll tag @frogeye-pierce @thebuffalospringfeild @iwrotemrtambourineman and @juliebarnes!!!!

i only made it through half my goal of 100 new-to-me movies this year (life was. crazy) but the 52 i did watch will be under the cut!

edge of the city - martin ritt (1957)

the grand budapest hotel - wes anderson (2014)

licorice pizza - paul thomas anderson (2021)

dazed and confused - richard linklater (1993)

brewster mccloud - robert altman (1970)

the tragedy of macbeth - joel coen (2021)

my own private idaho - gus van sant (1991)

my beautiful laundrette - stephen frears (1985)

dead reckoning - john cromwell (1947)

keep off my grass! - shelley berman (1975)

raising arizona - joel & ethan coen (1987)

top hat - mark sandrich (1935)

the man who fell to earth - nicolas roeg (1976)

chicago - rob marshall (2002)

the blues brothers - john landis (1980)

little miss sunshine - jonathon dayton & valerie faris (2006)

sunset boulevard - billy wilder (1950)

i'm not there - todd haynes (2007)

love & mercy - bill pohlad (2014)

walk hard - jake kasdan (2007)

mysterious skin - gregg akari (2004)

whip it - drew barrymore (2009)

sophie scholl: die letzten tage - marc rothemund (2005)

when harry met sally - rob reiner (1989)

the watermelon woman - cheryl dunye (1996)

shiva baby - emma seligman (2020)

juno - jason bateman (2007)

carol - todd haynes (2015)

what's up doc? - peter bogdanovich (1972)

the philadelphia story - george cukor (1946)

die fälscher - stefan ruzowitzky (2007)

but i'm a cheerleader - jamie babbit (1999)

the twilight saga: eclipse - david slade (2010) <- THIS WAS NOT MY CHOICE but it was technically new to me. i want to emphasize my friend forced me to watch this with her

velvet goldmine - todd haynes (1998)

magical mystery tour - bernard knowles & the beatles (1967)

the shape of water - guillermo del toro (2017)

all that heaven allows - douglas sirk (1955)

i was a male war bride - howard hawks (1949)

the effect of gamma rays on man-in-the-moon marigolds - paul newman (1972)

ladies and gentlemen, the fabulous stains - lou adler (1982)

the breakfast club - john hughes (1985)

airplane! - jerry & david zucker & jim abrahams (1980)

maleficent - robert stromberg (2014) <- twilight friend pick lmfao

chi-raq - spike lee (2015)

a league of their own - penny marshall (1992)

rope - alfred hitchcock (1948)

pearl - ti west (2022)

get out - jordan peele (2017)

one cut of the dead - shinichiro ueda (2017)

deep end - jerzy skolimowski (1970)

the hours and times - christopher munch (1991) <- random number generator decided my gay john lennon fate with this one :/

glass onion - rian johnson (2022)

#i'm not upset about not meeting my goal because there was a steep drop-off in august that correlated to big life events. i'm okay with #living out and about in the world. there will be more movies to watch next year :)) i like going through the list and remembering every #detail of where and why i watched the movies i did and with who etc etc. also is carol a controversial pick idk i liked it. i like haynes

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spacetimewithstuartgary · 6 months ago

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Magnetized magma intrusions being sources of two lunar magnetic anomalies revealed by 3D inversion

This work is led by Professor Shuo Yao from China University of Geosciences (Beijing), and her doctoral student Hongyi Wang. The authors have applied a 3D amplitude inversion technique from geophysical survey to study the origin of lunar magnetic carriers. This inversion technique was originally proposed and developed at the University of British Columbia’s Geophysical Inversion Facility (UBC-GIF). After careful checks for validity and stability, the authors believed that the amplitude inversion technique is well-suited for the Moon where the direction of the magnetic anomaly is complex, the Curie depth is unknown, and the grid spacing of surface magnetic anomaly is much larger than that on the earth. Assuming the magnetized body being spherical and using the related depth weighting function, the 3D distribution of magnetization could be reconstructed. The boundary of the reconstructed 3D distribution of magnetization can reveal the depth to the bottom of the magnetic carriers. The depth to the bottom is key evidence to determine the origin of the magnetized materials and the Curie temperature.

This work studied a weak magnetic anomaly in Mare Tranquillitatis and a strong famous one called Reiner Gamma in Oceanus Procellarum. The surface magnetic anomaly model is calculated from the orbit measurements of Lunar Prospector and Kaguya spacecraft. The surface ages of the two studied areas are 3.6 and 3.3 billion years just on either side of the famous intensity drop of the ancient magnetic field. According to the results from model test, the boundary of spherical magnetized body could be estimated by the contour at 20% of the maximum magnetization reconstructed by inversion. From the boundary, the authors derived the depths to the bottom and the thickness of the magnetized body. The depth to the bottom of the magnetic carriers under Mare Tranquillitatis is about 50 km, and that under Reiner Gamma is about 30 km. The results indicated that magnetized magma intrusion rather than impact melt layer is the source of the magnetic carriers in lunar crust. The maximum magnetization reconstructed by inversion is about 3.0 A/m under Reiner Gamma. Since the magnetized materials under Reiner Gamma may be older than the surface materials, the intensity of ancient magnetic field deduced by the magnetization is about some microteslas 3.3 billion years ago.

IMAGE: In the first row, from left to right, the four panels show the distribution of magnetization in the profiles of depth versus latitude at 302°E related to depth constraints of the inversion region at 30, 60, 90, and 120 km. In the second row, the distribution of magnetization in profiles of depth versus longitude at 7.4°N are shown. The horizontal slices of magnetization at the depth related to maximum magnetization are shown in the third row. The bottom row shows the forward-calculated surface anomalies related to the four depth constraints. The dashed white contours denote 20% of the maximum magnetization. Credit Beijing Zhongke Journal Publising Co. Ltd.

#science #space #astronomy #physics #news #astrophysics #moon

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resistingfateymir · 5 years ago

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Captain Annie: The First Avenger

AOT Manga Spoilers.

Amino Conscripto 2019 challenge: Disney x AOT

On my Ao3 and Fanfiction accounts.

This was always going to happen. It was decided. It’s probably happened, once before. Maybe in a different way, but this is how she wakes today. Any inconsistency explained with one word: PATHS.

__________________________________________

An Island of Devils. Annie is cursed, cursed with the Power of the Female Titan. She’s completed many operations, always for a supposed greater good. Yet this is where she falls.

Mikasa slices Annie’s giant, skinless fingers. Landing delicately ontop her head. “Now fall.”

Crash.

She can’t escape. Eren’s giant form. Not a Titan, but a devil. Raging in flames, ready to bite down on her nape with incisor teeth. This can’t be the end?

Annie has to do it. The Titan researchers said it would be her last resort, now’s a better time than ever.

Woosh.

Blue crystals form over her body, encasing her. Pushing back Eren, Mikasa, and everyone. Away, to leave Annie isolated. Her eyelids flutter before sealing shut in the ice.

“Reiner, Berthold. Come save me.”

She waits. Seconds, unable to hear the outside world. Tired, she rests.

Rumble.

__________________________________________

Annie juts awake, but her eyes don’t open. Only hearing the stampede of massive footsteps, but it doesn’t affect her. Allowing her to tire again. Alone, isolated from the world. Yet, she’s frozen. Not even able to cry.

When are they coming to save her?

Annie gasps for breath. Oxygen filling her lungs, she thrashes her arms over white sheets. Opening her eyes, to the faint light in the room that gradually increases in luminosity.

She’s out. Out of her crystal. No one’s in the room. The simple Marlian hospital. They did it, she is safe.

Her eyes drift to the bedside counter. A metal object reminiscent of a Plato clock. It flickers in red light. 12:00. Noon. This scene looked very familiar. A PATH opens in her mind, telling her she’s out of time.

The door opens. A man walks inside, tall. “I see you’re finally awake, frozen girl.”

“Who are you? You’re not the General?”

“Call me Fury, director of S.H.E.I.L.D.”

Wait, he’s the agent for Marley’s secret defence force?

“But I met the director of S.H.E.I.L.D before. You’re not him.”

“That was Fury senior. .” He was a real piece of work, let me tell you.

“Just to be clear, we’re still talking about Magath, right?”

The man nods, but he’s not Fury. He’s Samuel L. Jackson. And that makes it all the worse.

“Things have changed since you were last awake. The world has got a whole lot smaller.”

So they failed their mission. Eren activated the Rumbling and became the tyrant of the world. Which begged the question: why was she alive?

Annie springs off the bed, then stalls. Fury gestures for her to stop.

“Calm down, you’re home now.”

The man drags a stool, painfully scrapping on the ground before dropping his weight on the cranking seat. Past his acting days, he looks at her with a grumpy expression. He’s going to monologue.

“The preceding mission, before Paradis, you were piloting the Hydra bomber locked on autopilot to Liberio. As you weren’t a fool, you jumped out of the plane in the last moment, using your Titan form to crush the landing.”

“And?”

“Soldier, I want you to understand something. Give me your mission report?”

Fury locks a deadly glare, eyes filled with a dark past. Annie falters. Squirming, she bites her lip. But she collects herself, returning a lazy stare to Fury. Like there is no problem at all.

“The bomber was on autopilot. I tried to move the steering column, only jutting it a little. That was enough for some manual control over the plane. This came with a caveat. Every time I left the steering yoke, the plane reverted back to its original heading. I couldn’t trust a damaged plane, so jamming the controls was a no go. That’s why I stayed behind, I was the only one who could crash that plane. A sacrifice wouldn’t have been stupid. But why are we talking about that? We know all of this already. Tell me, what happened on Paradis?”

He ignores her question, reshuffling himself on his stool like the question is awkward. He’s hiding a terrifying truth.

“The Hydra clean up went smoothly and was a great assistance to our war efforts. So I want to know something?”

He leans in.

“How come, a very capable Warrior like yourself failed at the last moment. On Paradis, you infiltrated the Walls and went face to face with the Coordinate. Everything was laid out for you, then you flunked it. Reverting to your crystal form.”

“I was outmatched.”

“No, you were scared. Thought you could hide away, that the crystal would protect you, keep you conscious. That’d you wake up from a fake slumber, and surprise the enemy. You were wrong, you couldn’t breathe in that crystal. It froze you in cryostasis. We didn’t even think that was possible.”

Annie would rather not waste her words on interrupting Fury. She huffs to the side, watching the window. Bright light glares on her skin. Almost like its a beautiful sunny day outside, but Annie’s a Titan shifter. She can tell straight away this is fake. She’s inside an industrial complex, not a general hospital.

Annie is a bird, trapped in a cage. And if Fury didn’t answer her questions soon, she would rattle the bars.

“I’m asking one last time, what happened Fury?”

Fury bolts up, striding forward.

“What didn’t happen, Annie? Marley got their butt kicked, while you were stuck in your crystal for who knows how long. And we want to know why?”

What’s Annie to say, she was probably in a coma. Sure, she could have fought harder against the Survey Corps, but she was on their home turf. The safest option was to run.

A voice in PATHS gives her doubt. Telling her, she is weak. Pathetic. Missed out on everything.

Annie considers it. That Fury is right. She gave up too soon. Glancing up, Fury is furious. He wants her to own up, try to atone for her failure. Be their slave for the remainder of her short life. It must be so short now.

“So I’m your prisoner?”

“On the contrary, you’re free. Free as a butterfly in skates riding a roller coaster. You can do anything you want. But first, you should listen.”

A stream of Erens spouting Freedom invade her mind: telling her to save Armin and Mikasa. Whose memories are these? Eren’s obviously, but that’s beside the point.

“All I want is to see my father. So whatever game you’re trying to pull, skip it.”

Fury sighs, making his way to the door.

“It’s been 70 years.”

Annie gasps, for such a stupid lie.

“Nope.”

“Yep.”

“Someone would have rescued me.”

“Nope.”

“They wouldn’t leave the fate of a beloved character to an off-screen death.”

“Did it with Ymir.”

He’s serious, Isayama forgot about her.

Annie crumples on her bed, covering her eyes with her forearm.

“What happened?”

“The Yeagers happened. Eren and Zeke together were able to activate the coordinate and change the world. Flattening all their enemies. If it wasn’t for one woman, none of us would be standing here today?”

Annie will bite the bullet. “Who?”

“Stark. Pieck Stark. A brilliant mind, always exactly right. The last words of Zeke Yeager, before she finished him off, and stopped the Rumbling. In her remaining years, she even privatised world peace. Leaving everything to her adopted daughter.”

Ah, Pieck. A fellow Warrior, always a nice girl.

But Annie wants to see her father. She promised she would return. Return back home, even if the whole world turned against her. She can’t have missed him? She needs to be sure.

“How long, how long has it been?”

“I don’t know?”

“But you said 70 years before.”

“Thinking it over, that doesn’t work with our timeline. Hey.”

Useless.

Annie knocks Fury over and pushes past him. Bursting outside the paper room, sprinting to the doors. The hallway changes. More shiny, clinical. She’s out the entrance reception. Crashing through the glass doors, into the bright and busy metropolis. Cars, plentiful, zoom past her. On an intersection of roads. The buildings flash large images, spinning. Spinning Annie’s head. Her whole body. As she collapses on the ground.

Laughing hysterically. This was not her home.

Five figures drop beside her, one by one. A girl clad in iron armour, a boy, dressed as a Viking, a green hulk shrinking into an old lady, a pile of stone, dragged along by a little girl hurling a bucket of water.

Fury stands in front. “There was once an initiative. To form a group of remarkable and unique individuals: to fight the fight that no one else could.”

This is Eren’s fault. He did this, used the power of the coordinate to change the world into a Super Hero parody.

“Pieck always wanted you to join this team. Be the glue that held it together.”

Annie eyes the heroes.

The iron helmet opens, revealing a face similar to Eren. Just as hostile. The tin soldier is held back by a herculean man, with the face of a 12-year-old. Fury laughs.

“This is Gabi Stark. She, accidentally, shot a border patrol officer. They captured her and forced her to make missiles. Luckily, Pieck taught her well, and she made the first Iron man suit. Now she can retaliate with deadly force whenever she causes a problem.”

The hair on Annie’s skin prickles. She can feel the temptation. Just looking at Gabi makes her want to start a Civil War.

But Fury points to Gabi’s restrainer.

“Falco Odinson, a God from Asgard. Always wanted to fly, and now he can. In exchange, he has to help Gabi solve racism.”

Annie doesn’t care. The old lady gives a piercing glare. She knows her.

“And this is Mikasa, the incredible hulk.”

Mikasa rolls bandages around her fists.

“So you decided to wake up Annie.”

“You’re the monster, how fitting.”

“I was having a nice picnic with Eren, Armin and Gabi when a gamma bomb exploded. It unleased my Ackerman rage, turning me into this monster.”

Samuel L. Jackson is quick to correct. “Actually, Eren Said this:”

Eren echos through PATHS.

“Ever since I was a kid, Mikasa. I’ve always hated you.”

Mikasa transforms, collapsing the entire neighbourhood.

Really, of all the old friends Annie could have a reunion with after 70 years, why did it have to be Mikasa?

Annie kicks the stone, annoying the monster. “Who’s this then?”

“That’s Hawkeye, a very effective member of the team.”

“Yeah, but who’s Hawkeye here?”

“Sasha.”

“That’s a tombstone.”

“Exactly.”

The last one, the Black Widow. A deadly poison. Too cool to actually show up. Instead, they get Ymir. Not the 104th cadet. Actual ancient Ymir. She splashes her bucket over Annie.

“You know, this technically makes us Disney Princesses now.”

“So I’m Sleeping Beauty?”

Annie doubts either of them is of royal blood. She sighs – no, grieves.

This is too much. If there is one moral to take away from all this: Don’t wait too long in your crystal.

With all the silliness aside, they’re just trying to distract her from the truth. Her father is dead.

PATHS echos the last voice. “I love you 3000.”

Annie’s not the only one suffering a loss. Fury lost Stark, and he’s trying to rebuild the past. But it’s over now.

Samuel L. Jackson raises his hands. “This is the Avenger initiative.”

Annie’s fist trembles, but she breathes deeply. Turning back.

There is only one thing to do.

“I’m done.”

__________________________________________

Credits

Annie Leonheart as Steve Rogers

Nick Fury as Samuel L. Jackson, don’t question it.

Pieck as Howard Stark

Gabi Braun as Tony Stark

Falco Grice as Thor Odinson

Mikasa Ackerman as Bruce Banner

Sasha Blouse as Clint Barton

Ymir Fritz as Natasha Romanoff

Reiner Braun as Bucky Barnes

Eren Yeager as PATHS

__________________________________________

Annie walks with flowers through the massive graveyard. It isn’t cloudy or foggy. The sky is beautiful today.

Annie doesn’t even care that she screwed up the Paradis operation. No matter how long Fury will pester her, thinking she has to own up to a problem long past. Her heart’s not in it: fighting for the rest of her short life. Saying ‘No’ was the best decision she ever made. Even if she does miss out on a multi-billion-dollar franchise.

She reaches it. The Mound. The grave.

“Father, I’m home.”

A routine for her, Annie places the flowers next to the grave. She looks at her wrinkled hands. The curse of Ymir has aged her considerably, but she doesn’t regret how she’s spent the remaining years of her life.

Reiner strolls towards her, a 100 year old husk. Death, never quite able to take him.

“Seems you’re still kicking it.”

They’ve forgiven each other for the past. Reiner lays down next to her.

“It keeps bothering me, PATHS. Why does it keep me alive just so I can suffer, have you figured it out yet?”

Annie nods her head. It was so satisfying.

“You have, great! Going to tell me what you found?”

“No. No, I don’t think I will.”

#snk #captain america #snk fanfiction #Annie Leonhardt #Nick Fury #humour

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