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GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY It may be in the best interest for Geology students that the General Education appeasement courses be fulfilled during the “summer” and “winter" sessions, or done in junior and senior years of high school. Advancing standing upon matriculation will be a great advantage. Curriculum: This pursuit demands advance standing in mathematics and science; advance completion of general education appeasement courses would also greatly help. Most of the courses will involve field work and labs. Such are characteristic of any good Geology programme. Concerns that can likely have cumulative academic consequences and legal ramifications: Littering Low temperature high temperature combustible substances Illegal and unregulated fires Pesticides unsanctioned with environmental protection Toxic substances Substances with absurd Ph levels (high or low) that may be damaging to environment Levels of exhaust emissions from vehicles High volume audio and video Harassing or capturing animals Unsanctioned venturing, or ditching officially recognised groups Releasing animals unnatural to ambiance ecosystem NOTE: first aid kits may be expected on all field activities. --Core Courses: Scientific Writing I & II, General Physics I & II, General Chemistry I & II --Mandatory Courses: Calculus I-III, Ordinary Differential Equations, Numerical Analysis, Probability & Statistics B, Mathematical Statistics, Data Programming with Mathematica (check CS post) --Required Components: Culture --> Physical Geology, Historical Geology, Invertebrate Paleontology, Geomorphology, Geological Field Methods Chemical --> Geochemistry, Mineralogy Characterisation --> Igneous & Metamorphic Petrology; Sedimentation & Stratigraphy Physical --> Global Geophysics; Hydrology; Structural Geology; Plate Tectonics; Field Geology; Mathematical Physics for Geophysics; Seismology Data Analysis --> Geographical Information Systems Mandatory Option Tracks --> Option 1 (Chemical): Analytical Chemistry (check CHEM); Analytical Geochemistry; Geochemical Modelling; Environmental Geochemistry; Trace Element Geochemistry Option 2 (Physical): Potential Field Methods in Exploration Geophysics; Fluid Mechanics (check physics); Geodynamics; Computational Geomechanics; Signal Analysis NOTE: curriculum concerns mathematicians, general physicists, chemists and archaeologist NOT taking away jobs from geologists NOR dominating the field expertise of a geologists. NOTE: For mathematics courses refer to the Computational Finance post; for physics courses refer to the Physics post. Any activity under Physics refer to the physics post. For any Engineering activity that’s relevant, refer to the engineering post. The described tools in the following link can prove to be invaluable long term: https://reference.wolfram.com/language/guide/EarthSciencesDataAndComputation.html Remember, for such Wolfram language functions there’s often numerous different parameters to apply. As well, such Wolfram functions can be subjugated by other functions towards massive projects or interests. NOTE: the following text can be applicable of labs and field activities: Millard, S. P. (2013). EnvStats: An R Package for Environmental Statistics, Springer Course Descriptions: Historical geology Historical Geology is a foundational course for the major. Many of your later courses— Sedimentology & Stratigraphy, Structural Geology, Geochemistry, Field Geology, etc. —will draw upon methods, concepts, and terms derived from this class. If you hope to earn a good grade for the class, and to retain the information for future classes, make sure that you keep up with the readings (from the textbooks and the online lecture notes), and make sure you that you understand the concepts and information. If you are having problems, feel free to ask questions. As part of the nature of the course, there will be a lot of memorization (less than a foreign language class, but more than that found in more mathematically-oriented introductory science classes). This will include lots of anatomical, geological, and paleontological terms, as well as evolutionary and temporal relationships. If you have difficulty memorizing, this may not be the class for you. Also, if there are words or concepts with which you are not familiar, feel free to ask(in class, after class, over email, etc.) for an explanation or clarification. By the end of the semester, every student should be able to: --Identify the major techniques used by geologists to assess the paleoenvironments and sequence of events found in the rock record --Recognise the sequence of and interrelationships between major events in the history of the Earth, its surface, and its life forms --Properly classify different types of sedimentary rocks & structures and major groups of fossilizing organisms from hand samples --Correctly interpret geological cross-sections, fence-diagrams & other stratigraphic charts, and geologic maps Typical Text: Stanley, S. M. & Luczaj, J. A. (2015). Earth System History, W.H. Freeman & Co. Gastaldo, R. A., Savdra, C. E. & Lewis, R. D. (2006). Deciphering Earth History: Exercises in Historical Geology. , CPC Publishing) Tools --> A 10x hand lens A coloured pencil set Ruler/straight edge will be helpful in some of the labs Access to a scanner/photocopier (to make hardcopies of the labs to turn in) Loaded staplers Quizzes (15%) --> Weekly quizzes will be given either in class or in lab (depending on time available that week), but which emphasizes the material from the lectures. These will typically be multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank, matching, or true/false. The lowest two (2) quizzes will automatically be dropped: this is how missed quizzes will be accommodated. 2 Midterm Exams (20% each) --> Two pen-and-paper exams Final Exam (20%) --> A pen-and-paper final exam during the regularly scheduled exam season. Labs (25%) --> Essentially every week there will be a lab. Labs are due the week after they are assigned, allowing students time to examine specimens over the course of the week if they wish. Lab Policies --> -The point of the lab is to hone your skills as an observer and to teach you the methods of the field. It is vital that you actually examine the specimens yourselves so that you can discern the various features and attributes of the rocks and fossils. -Please read the introductory material in the lab manual by the time we meet in lab. -Labs are due the next lab meeting (1 week later). If they are turned in by the next class time after that there will be a 10% grade reduction; further reduction as days go by. Labs won’t be accepted for a grade later than 1 week overdue (barring legitimate extenuating circumstances.) -Lab specimens will remain out for your examination through the end of the week and on the following Monday. However, typically to replace some lab specimens sometime on throughout. -You are encouraged to collaborate and interact with each other and with Dr. Holtz while working on the labs. However, all work you turn in must be your own. 12 -DON’T be a specimen hog! Make sure that others get adequate access to the hand samples. -ALWAYS return specimens to their appropriate boxes. -We have limited samples, so please be careful with them. Doubly so with the fossils!! -Use the dilute HCl wisely: Use small drops, only leave it on long enough to validate whether there is effervescence or not; and wipe it up afterwards. Leaving acid on the hand samples will allow the reaction to run its course and leave a reaction rind on the rock. This will mislead students in the future) In general, only use acid on fresh surfaces In general, don’t drop acid on the fossils -If you are having problems, don’t be shy; ask for help! Course Outline --> WEEK 1 -- Introduction: It’s About Time Every Rock is a Record of History: Historical Approaches to Lithology Terrestrial sedimentary Environments WEEK 2 -- Fluvial & Deltaic Environments & Walther’s Law Coastal & Marine Environments; Transgressions & Regressions Physical Stratigraphy WEEK 3 -- Index Fossils, Correlations & Radiometric Dating Lithostratigraphy Biostratigraphy & the Geologic Timescale WEEK 4 -- Another Geography: Plate Tectonics Orogenesis I Orogenesis II & Geochemical Cycles WEEK 5 -- Fossils & Fossilization Evolution I: On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection Evolution II: Patterns, Processes & Phylogeny WEEK 6 -- Midterm Exam I Strange Eons: Introduction to the Precambrian & the Hadean Eon The Archean Eon I The Archean Eon II WEEK 7 -- The Proterozoic Eon I The Proterozoic Eon II WEEK 8 The Proterozoic Eon III The Early Paleozoic Era I The Early Paleozoic Era II WEEK 9 -- The Middle Paleozoic Era I The Middle Paleozoic Era II The Middle Paleozoic Era IIII WEEK 10 -- The Late Paleozoic Era I The Late Paleozoic Era II The Late Paleozoic Era III WEEK 11 -- The Late Paleozoic Era IV Midterm Exam II The Early Mesozoic Era I Weekind FIELD TRIP: environment geology WEEK 12 -- The Early Mesozoic Era II The Cretaceous Period I The Cretaceous Period II WEEK 13 -- The Cretaceous Period III The Paleogene Period I The Paleogene Period II WEEK 14 -- The Neogene Period I The Neogene Period II The Quaternary Period I WEEK 15 -- The Quaternary Period II: To the Anthropocene and Beyond! WEEK 16 -- Final Exam LABS --> Introduction; Overview of Policies; Prior Knowledge Survey Sedimentary Rock Classification Sedimentary Structures & Depositional Environments The Ordering of Geological Events Biostratigraphy, Geochronology, Magnetostratigraphy Physical Stratigraphy Introduction to Paleontology: Fossils and Fossilization Common Fossilizing Organisms Applied Paleontology Geologic Map Interpretation Precambrian & Paleozoic Geology Post-Paleozoic Geology Quaternary Geology and Climate Change Physical Geology In this course you will learn about geologic materials (e.g., minerals, rocks, water, air) and processes (e.g., erosion, plate tectonics, climate change, volcanism). Through labs and other activities you will examine, evaluate, and apply problem-solving techniques to evidence to reach geologically plausible conclusions. You will practice technical writing, and several ways to graphically communicate the results of your work. Typical Text: Marshak, S. (2018). Earth: Portrait of a Planet. W. W. Norton & Company Labs --> There will be 9 formal lab exercises. The 10th lab will be review for the final exam. There will be 5 labs in the field where weather status must be highly hazardous or non-constructive to respectively field activity. Don’t be late! Wear clothing and shoes appropriate for the weather, rocky and/or muddy walking surfaces, and walking through brush. Field labs will require 2 – 3 page write-ups, explained during the lab. These should concisely describe what you did, how you did it, your results, and your interpretation of the results in terms of the geologic questions posed in lab. All field trip writeups must be computer printed OR sent in by e-mail, and submitted on the Friday following the lab. That means paper versions may be handed in, or electronic versions submitted by e-mail. Electronic versions must be a single file, with your last name at the beginning of the file name. Permitted formats: Microsoft Word (doc, docx), Adobe Acrobat (pdf), OpenOffice / LibreOffice (odt), Googlw Docs. Figures and tables must be legible, complete, labelled and numbered as figures and tables, and cited as evidence supporting your conclusions. Completing and understanding the readings will help you finish the labs with a minimum of fuss. Tests and quizzes --> There will be mid-term and final exams. Exams will be closed book and closed notes, and will contain mostly short answer questions, many related to figures given in the exam (a copy of an old final exam is here to give you an idea of the format). The exams will cover material from lectures, labs, and the textbook. Each Friday there will be a 2-point mini-quiz, for which you get 1 point for a wrong answer and 2 points for a right answer (all questions direct from figures in the text, no quiz week 1). Grading --> Mini-quizzes 10% Lab points (9 labs) 45% Mid-term exam 20% Final exam 23% Complete entrance quiz 1% Complete exit quiz 1% Course Outline --> WEEK 1-- Introduction. Structure of the Earth, plate tectonics introduction WEEK 2-- Plate tectonics - forming magmas and igneous rocks. Plate tectonics - sea-floor spreading. Lab 1 WEEK 3 -- Plate tectonics - subduction zones Subduction zones, volcanoes, and volcanic eruptions Folds and faults Realms of change – metamorphism Lab 2 WEEK 4 -- Geologic time - relative age relationships Geologic time - absolute age relationships Lab 3 WEEK 5 -- Geologic time - using both absolute and relative ages The Earth's climate - climate zones, climate controls Weathering and landslides Erosion on hill slopes Lab 4 WEEK 6 -- Midterm Running water - moving sediment and dissolved material Lab 5 WEEK 7 -- Running water - floods and related deposits Sedimentary rocks, origin and characteristics Ground water - concepts of ground water flow Ground water - storage and flow Lab 6 WEEK 8 -- Oceans - shoreline processes Oceans - shoreline advance and retreat Oceans - open ocean currents, shallow and deep Lab 7 WEEK 9 -- Deserts of sand, rock, and ice Evidence for climate change Deducing long-term climate from sedimentary rocks LAB 8 WEEK 10 -- Glaciers and ice ages Anatomy and dynamics of glaciers Topographic features, flood, landslide hazards Lab 9 WEEK 11 Geologic hazards WEEK 12 Final Exam Geological Field Methods This course will allow you to develop a basic understanding and working knowledge of many introductory techniques pertaining to geological field methods and map interpretation. This will include introductions to techniques involving topographic map interpretation; Brunton compass use to determine location and collect geologic data; identification of basic geologic relationships; interpretation and presentation of various geologic data in maps; and use of GIS in map production. Overall, each student will be able to collect, compile, analyse, interpret, and present basic map data of various types. Learning Outcomes --> Topographic Map Interpretation Brunton Compass Location Brunton Data Collection Basic Geologic Relationships Geologic Map Interpretation Geologic Map Data Presentation GIS Map Production Typical Text: Geologic Maps: A Practical Guide to the Preparation and Interpretation of Geologic Maps by Spencer Materials: Pencils (no pen on assignments unless noted otherwise) Pen for final inking; notebook; C-thru brand protractor-ruler, calculator Brunton compasses will be checked out at the start of the semester Rock hammers and map/clip boards will also be checked out as needed A GIS of your choosing; students will be debriefed on operational requirements A smartphone with at least strong optical range and strong focus; good GPS location parameters Altitude record keeping Mathematica Google Earth Google Maps Field Trips --> There will be a few afternoon field trips during Friday labs. In order to maximize the time allotted to complete lab assignments during these short field trips, the lab may run long on these days. For these short field trips to locales in town, you will be responsible for transportation to the field site and back to campus. Please talk with fellow students in advance to arrange shared rides. In addition to prior mentioned field trips, there will be one weekend field trip to a much further destination. Concerns looking at some basic field relationships and apply your new skills. Lodging for the trip will be at an established campground near the field sites, so please arrange tent, sleep bag, etc. etc., etc. Please notify your other professors of a potential absence due to these university excused absences. If necessary, and with proper notification in advance, I would also be happy to write a brief email explaining such an absence to any professor from another course. Grading: In-class assignments: 20% Comprehension Quizzes: 10% Lab Assignments: 30% Midterm Field Exam: 20% Final Exam Indoor Mapping Exam: 20% Topic Outline --> WEEK 1. Introduction; Topographic Maps (Ch 1 & 2). Lab 1: Topographic Maps WEEK 2. Map Interpretation Basics (Ch 3). Lab 2: Brunton Compass Basics Part 1 (Chosen site 1) WEEK 3. Map Interpretation Basics (CH 3). Lab 2a: Brunton Compass Basics Part (Chosen site 1) WEEK 4. Sedimentary Rocks; Aerial Photographs (Ch 4 & 5). Lab 3: Introductory Indoor Map Exercise WEEK 5. Geologic Maps of Bedrock; Homoclinal Beds (Ch 7). Lab 3 Continued WEEK 6. Lab 4: Structural Measurements (Chosen site 2) WEEK 7. Surficial Geology (Ch 6). Lab 5: Surficial Geology WEEK 8. Midterm Review. Midterm Exam: Brunton Compass/Field Location ID (Chosen site 3) WEEK 9. Unconformities; Faults (Ch 9 & 11). Lab 6: Unconformities and Faults WEEK 10. Fold Patterns (Ch 10). Seminar and debriefing on long range field trip. Signatures and absence documentation. WEEK 11. Long range field trip WEEK 12. Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks (Ch 10 & 12). Lab 7: Fold Patterns/Igneous/Metamorphic Rocks WEEK 13. Lab 8: Indoor Mapping Exercise 2 WEEK 14. Soils. Lab 9: Soils WEEK 15. Reconnaissance Mapping with GIS. Lab 10: Introduction to GIS Reconnaissance Mapping WEEK 16 – 17. Lab 11: GIS Mapping (long range field trip data) and further technical skills FINAL EXAMINATION WEEK Prerequisites: Physical Geology, Historical Geology Invertebrate Paleontology The purpose of this course is to introduce you to the most important groups of organisms in the invertebrate fossil record. We will survey the morphology, paleoecology, evolution, and geologic history of the protozoans and the 9 most abundant metazoan phyla. Lectures will address the geologic history of each group, its range of habitats, functional morphology, paleoecological and paleoenvironmental significance, and basic patterns of diversification and extinction. Lab exercises will focus on the recognition of basic morphological features of fossils and identification of important taxa. Four semester hours, three hours lecture, three hours laboratory per week. Morphology, classification, evolutionary history, ecology, and geologic significance of major groups of invertebrate fossils. Student Learning Outcomes -- the student is expected to understand and apply the following concepts to the environment: 1. Become familiar with the major fossil groups. 2. Recognize major taxonomical parts of each fossil groups. 3. Be able to identify the major guide fossils. 4. Learn to identify fossils. 5. Use fossils as a key indicator of the depositional environment. Text: TBA Lab Manual: TBA (may be document download and print activity or not) Grading --> A curve will be established on the following basis: Lab: 12 lab exercises @ 10 points each 120 points (25%) 3 lab exams @ 30 points each 90 points (20%) Quizzes treat both lecture and lab (15%) Lecture: 1 midterm 90 points (20%) 1 final exam 120 points (20%) Labs --> There will be 12 lab exercises as indicated. You will have 7 days to turn in respective lab. Lab will also have 2 filed trips that will not count into lab grading, but failing to promptly attend or being absent from either field trip warrants one letter grade reduction. You will provide details on what type of fossils are to be expected with strong arguments in profession and general geology for that belief; finds will also be detailed with comparative description to belief. There may or may not be area marking activities. Such field trips concern field planning, logistics and non-destructive/professional practices applied at excavation sites. You may not find anything substantial during activity, but skills in practice must be acknowledged. Quizzes --> Assignments or questions on quizzes can come from both lab and lecture. Exams --> All exams will include Multiple-choice section True/false questions Fill in the blank questions Short answer questions Figure illustration Short essay questions Such types of tasks or challenges will have no order. Don’t expect topic sequences. You are allowed to bring 2 loose leaf size paper sheets with notes for exams. It’s in your best interest that you don’t let others or even the instructor know your trends, strengths and weakness when developing your 2 sheets. Course Outline --> WEEK 1. introduction: evolution and the fossil record No Lab WEEK 2. Microfossils Lab: microfossils WEEK 3. poriferans; metazoan organization Lab: poriferans WEEK 4. Cnidarians Lab: cnidarians WEEK 5. Bryozoans Lab: bryozoans WEEK 6. Brachiopods Lab: brachiopods WEEK 7. Intro to molluscs; gastropods Lab: gastropods & “minor” molluscs WEEK 8. Pelecypods Lab: pelecypods WEEK 9. Cephalopods Lab: cephalopods WEEK 9. Arthropods Lab: trilobites & chelicerates WEEK 10. Arthropods Lab: crustaceans & trace fossils WEEK 11. Oral presentations Lab: No lab WEEK 12. Echinoderms Lab: echinoderms-1 WEEK 13. Echinoderms Lab: echinoderms-2, graptolites WEEK 14. Paleontology, Evolution, Creationism, ID Prerequisite: Historical Geology, Physical Geology Geomorphology Process Geomorphology will provide an in-depth investigation of the processes that determine the form and evolution of landscapes, starting with tectonic geomorphology and then focusing on hillslopes, rivers, and glaciers. The course will combine lectures, discussions, field data collection, calculations, and other activities. This is not a straight lecture class! Active learning and student participation will be an essential component. Course Objectives - To provide students with: -strong understanding of the linkages between landscape form and process -familiarity and experience applying fundamental concepts in physical systems -experience collecting and analysing field data -opportunities for developing scientific writing skills -opportunities to develop and apply skills in physics and mathematics -experience in interpreting and analysing literature from both secondary and primary sources -practice in using models, data, and logical reasoning to critically evaluate and connect information about geomorphic processes -experience communicating an understanding of the interrelationships among geomorphic concepts and theories to peers and others -experience working as members of productive, collaborative teams Typical Text: Anderson, R.S. and Anderson, S.P., 2010. Geomorphology: The Mechanics and Chemistry of Landscapes. Cambridge University Press. Additional Literature --> Journal papers and supplemental readings will also be assigned. General Tools --> Google Earth Mathematica Field Trip Tools --> TBA Crucial Note --> Calculus and physics will be used in the class. Computer literacy is also expected; assignments will be given involving computations, the use of spreadsheets and retrieval of data over the internet. The most important requirement is to be prepared to devote a lot of time and effort to this class (I will too). Journal articles --> To have a robust study one needs to incorporate an international geological study. This is a course is the geosciences realm. Some of the following journal articles examples may or may not fully suit one’s interest: -Burbank, D.W., 1996. Bedrock incision, rock uplift and threshold hillslopes in the northwestern Himalaya. Nature, 379: 505-510. -Dietrich, W.E., Bellugi, D.G., Sklar, L.S., Stock, J.D., Heimsath, A.M. and Roering, J.J., 2003. Geomorphic transport laws for predicting landscape form and dynamics. In: P.R. Wilcock and R.M. Iverson (Editors), Prediction in Geomorphology. American Geophysical Union, Washington D.C., pp. 103-132. -Dietrich, W.E. and Perron, J.T., 2006. The search for a topographic signature of life. Nature 439(7075): 411-418. -Egholm, D.L., Nielsen, S.B., Pedersen, V.K. and Lesemann, J.E., 2009. Glacial effects limiting mountain height. Nature, 460(7257): 884-887. -Gabet, E. J., and A. Bookter (2008), A morphometric analysis of gullies scoured by post-fire progressively bulked debris flows in southwest Montana, USA, Geomorphology, 96(3-4), 298- 309. -Kirchner, J.W. 2002. Subtleties of sand reveal how mountains crumble. Science 295: 256-258. -Koppes, M.N. and Montgomery, D.R., 2009. The relative efficacy of fluvial and glacial erosion over modern to orogenic timescales. Nature Geosciences, 2(9): 644-647. -Molnar, P., and England, P., 1990, Late Cenozoic uplift of mountain ranges and global climate change: Chicken or egg?: Nature, v. 346, p. 29–34. -Montgomery, D.R. and J.M. Buffington. 1997. Channel reach morphology in mountain drainage basins. GSA Bulletin 109. -Montgomery, D.R. 2007. Is agriculture eroding civilization’s foundation? GSA Today 17(10): 4-9. -Naylor, S. and Gabet, E.J.. 2007. Valley asymmetry and glacial vs. non-glacial erosion in the Bitterroot Range, Montana, USA. Geology 35(4): 375-378. -Perron, J.T., Kirchner, J.W. and Dietrich, W.E., 2009. Formation of evenly spaced ridges and valleys. Nature, 460(7254): 502-505. -Pinter, N. and M.T. Brandon. 1997. How erosion builds mountains. Scientific American. April: 74-79. -Trush, W.J., S. M. McBain, and L. B. Leopold. 2000. Attributes of an alluvial river and their relation to water policy and management. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97: 11858- 11863. -Whipple, K.X., Kirby, E. and Brocklehurst, S.H., 1999. Geomorphic limits to climate-induced increases in topographic relief. Nature, 401: 39-43. -Whipple, K.X., 2009. The influence of climate on the tectonic evolution of mountain belts. Nature Geosci., 2: 97-104. Labs --> Lab 1: Landscape attributes and metrics Lab 2 (field): Surveying and GPS There will be 4 - 5 other labs that will make heavy use of Google Earth Lab 3: HEC-RAS Lab 4: HEC-FIA Field trips --> Each of the field listed below is required. The data collected on these field trips will be the basis for much of your work in this class. See me right away if you have scheduling conflict. You will need a field book, and will require use of (many) other things. Data types can be become quite broad and entries can become high volume and complicated. Fields should NOT be viewed as a picnic. Another indicator of what to expect, fields activities and development will account for 50% of your final grade. If you weren’t doing much on field trips surely weighting would be quite lower. FT1: Exploring the conjuncture between landscape and contemporary human activity at sites shaped by the geologic epoch of the Pleistocene. Through our projects, we create contexts and speculative tools for humans to recalibrate their sense of place within the geologic timescale. Depending on environment one lives in Pleistocene may or may not be practical concerning environment scale. Possibly a substitute field trip activity type will re required. FT2: Hillslope Processes FT3: Creek streams versus rapids Course Evaluation --> 30% In-class & lab exercises, other homework, class participation, quizzes 50% Field trip attendance, participation and 3 field project reports 20% Final exam Topic Outline --> WEEK 1 Introduction Introduction continued; Lab 1: Landscape attributes and metrics WEEK 2 Tectonic geomorphology Lab 2 (field): Surveying and GPS WEEK 3 Tectonic geomorphology Tectonics & climate WEEK 4 Megafloods: Glacial Lakes. Late Pleistocene paleolakes Field trip prep WEEK 5 FT1 WEEK 6 Dating Weathering WEEK 7 Sediment budgets WEEK 8 Landslides & debris flows; FT 1 project report due Landslide mechanics; Field trip prep WEEK 9 FT2 WEEK 10 Slope stability Hillslope processes wrap-up Water in the landscape; Channel networks and drainage basins WEEK 11 Water in the landscape; Hillslope hydrology WEEK 12 Fluvial processes: alluvial rivers Fluvial processes: flow and sediment transport; FT 2 project report due Field trip prep WEEK 13 FT3 WEEK 14 Fluvial processes: Hydraulic geometry, channel patterns, long profiles Fluvial processes: floods, dominant Q, channel adjustments, classification WEEK 15 Glacial processes: intro Glacial processes: flow mechanics WEEK 16 Glacial processes: flow mechanics FT 2 project report due WEEK 17 Glacial processes: landforms Glacial processes: jokulhaups, glacial hydrology WEEK 18 Human effects on geomorphic processes, course wrap-up Course Wrap-up WEEK 19 Final Exam Prerequisites: Historical geology, Physical Geology, Calculus I. Co-requisite or Prerequisite: General Physics I Mineralogy In this course you will learn about the structure and chemical makeup of Earth materials. We will concentrate on the physical and chemical properties of minerals, from macroscopic to microscopic. Since this is a geology course, we will investigate how geologic materials and processes influence mineral occurrence, stability, and composition. The course is divided into three main sections in which we will cover a lot of ground, so to speak. The first unit reviews pertinent chemistry investigates how and why minerals are classified, and introduces optical mineralogy, which is essentially the physics of how light interacts with minerals. We will begin our examination of specific minerals in detail during the second unit, as we study minerals that form within characteristic geologic environments. In the third unit, we will tackle the nitty-gritty aspects of crystal chemistry that control all physical properties of minerals. In lectures and labs students will make extensive use of spectral libraries to have consistency with chemical structures in question; the converse may also be of interest. Some goals for this course are to understand: (1) the characteristics of major mineral groups in hand specimen and thin section (2) phase equilibria, formation environments and associations of rock-forming minerals (3) crystal symmetry, crystallography, and atomic structure At the end of this course, you will be able to: (1) identify common rock-forming minerals in hand specimen and in thin section using diagnostic physical, optical, and chemical properties (2) infer something about the formation environment of a silicate mineral using only its formula (3) read a phase diagram (4) predict the physical properties of a substance from its symmetry content (5) plot crystal faces on a stereo projection (6) travel anywhere in the world, and speak intelligently about your surroundings …and etc. etc. Required Texts: Klein, Manual of Mineral Science 22nd Ed. Nesse, Introduction to Optical Mineralogy 2nd Ed. Tools --> --Bring a calculator to class each day. Periodically, we will work problems out in real time together. Coloured pencils or pens may be helpful. --A tool such as Mathematica with emphasis on chemical data and geological data interests that can fetch data interests based on specified parameters applied may prove highly useful to assist texts. --USGS Mineral Resources Data System --You are required to obtain a hand lens for this course. You will use this tool frequently, not only in this class, but in many of the upper division Geology courses. --A real geologist always has a hammer and a hand lens when going into the field!) --USGS Spectral Library is of interest: https://www.usgs.gov/labs/spec-lab/capabilities/spectral-library The USGS Spectral Library is tool one of many possible tools. Homework --> Homework has 2 main features: Will keep you on your toes with rigorous skills in chemistry that are highly applicable to minerology. Minerology trivia and mineral properties. Explaining spectral lines for chemical structures. Quizzes --> Each week there will be at least one short, unannounced quiz in class. They will cover reading assignments, which will be announced in class. The purpose of the quizzes is to motivate you to do the reading, so you are prepared for class discussion. Exams --> Exams will reflect homework and quizzes. There will also be practical components, say, requiring use of microscopes and other lab materials. Grading --> Homework (25%) Labs (35%) Quizzes (10%) 3 Tests – two midterms + a final (30%) Topic Outline --> NOTE: in lectures for identified minerals chemical formulas and structures will be identified, then to establish consistency with spectral lines from professional. Such knowledge and skill will also emerge on exams. Unit 1: Chemical and Physical Fundamentals --Atoms, ions, periodic table, bonding --Crystallization, crystal imperfections (defects, zoning, twinning), crystal precipitation, mineral classification schemes, physical properties of minerals (appearance, crystal shape, strength, density, magnetism, reaction with acid) --Polarized light, refractive index, uniaxial and biaxial indicatrices, interference figures --First Exam Unit 2: Rock-Forming Minerals --Sedimentary minerals (zeolites, clays, sulphates, halides, oxides, carbonates), weathering processes; ore minerals --Igneous minerals (silicates), phase relations --Metamorphic minerals, textures, reactions, phase equilibria, and thermodynamics --Economic minerals (magmatic, hydrothermal , and sedimentary ores; native metals, sulphides and sulfosalts, oxides and hydroxides, gems) --Second Exam Unit 3: Symmetry, Crystallography, and Atomic Structure --Symmetry, stereo diagrams, forms and crystal morphology --Unit cells and lattices in two dimensions and three dimensions, Bravais lattices, unit cell symmetry and crystal symmetry, crystal structures, crystal habit and crystal faces --2 X-ray diffraction --3 Ionic radii, coordination number, packing, Pauling’s rules, silicate structures, substitutions, structures of nonsilicates --2 – 4 additional labs (to encompass or reinforce curriculum, or make ups, or review) --Final Exam LABS MODULES --> NOTE: a module may require multiple sessions. NOTE: in labs for identified minerals chemical formulas and structures will be identified, then to establish consistency with spectral lines from professional. A. Mineral classification – What’s in a Name? Students derive their own scheme for identifying and naming minerals. Content Goals: To become familiar with the most important mineral properties used for mineral identification. Higher Order Thinking Goals: This project involves analysing a complex problem, synthesizing information of different sorts, and then deriving a logical and practical mineral classification scheme. It also involves evaluation of the ways early mineralogists approached the same problem. B. Properties of Minerals Students examine a number of key mineral properties and how they are displayed by different minerals. Content Goals: Students learn about the details and subtle implications of some key mineral properties. C. Properties of Minerals and intro to Polarizing Microscopes Continue the study of the physical properties of minerals and an introduction to a petrographic microscope. Content Goals: Become more familiar with mineral properties. Become familiar with the basic components of a petrographic microscope and with the most important mineral optical properties. D. Properties of Amphiboles, Micas, Pyroxenes, and Olivines and an introduction to Mineral Properties in Thin Section Students look at mafic igneous minerals, learning to distinguish and identify them in hand specimen. They also look at a few of the minerals in thin section. properties. Content Goals: Learn to identify mafic minerals. Be able to identify and describe the properties of minerals seen in thin section. Learn the basic techniques of optical mineralogy. Higher Order Thinking Goals: Students learn to group and classify minerals according to their physical properties. E. Examination of the Quartz, Feldspathoids, Feldspar, Zeolite group and other Framework Silicates. Ore Minerals. PART A Students study hand samples of light-coloured igneous minerals and related mineral species. They look at some of the same minerals, and others, in thin section. Content Goals: Learn to identify important light-coloured minerals. Learn to identify the most important minerals in thin section. Higher Order Thinking Goals: Begin to think about why minerals of the same chemical group have similar properties. F. Crystallography and Symmetry (based on modules D and E) G. Use of CrystalMaker software (or alternative) Overview H. CrystalMaker Labs (based on modules D, E and F) For viewing minerals in 3-D, determining coordination. Crystal and molecular structures, modelling, visualisation software Diffraction pattern simulation. I. Pauling’s Rules (Ionic Radius and Bond Strength) Learn how cation and anion size relate to coordination number. Pauling's "electrostatic valency" principle. Understand the nature and strength of ionic bonds. Think about crystals as systems governed by fundamental physical/electrostatic laws. Use of USGS PHREEQC Use of USGS NETPATH J. Calculating Oxide Weight Percentages from formulae and Normalizing Chemical Analyses This exercise involves converting chemical analyses to mineral formulas, and mineral formulas to oxide and element weight percentages. Higher Order Thinking Goals: This exercise involves application of basic chemical principles. K. Crystallizing Minerals from Aqueous Solutions & Crystal Shapes Students dissolve selected salts and other compounds in water, let the water evaporate, and examine the crystals that grow. Content Goals: To learn about the ways minerals crystallized from aqueous solutions Higher Order Thinking Goals: Learn to think about crystal shapes and to classify them in a logical way. Other Goals: To continue to improve experimental technique. Students will also identify environments where crystal salts are predominant (both aqueous and arid). Will try to establish any commonalities of crystallization between lab experimentation and the accepted crystallization processes for natural crystals from those open environments. Prerequisites: Historical Geology, Physical Geology, General Chemistry II Geochemistry Example texts --> Geochemistry: Pathways and Processes. McSween, Richardson and Uhle, 2nd edition (2003). Columbia University Press. Principles and Applications of Geochemistry. Faure. (1998). Prentice Hall. Course Assessment --> 2 Midterms 30% Final 30% Labs 40% Lectures --> WEEK 1 (2-3 lectures). Crystal Chemistry to planetary differentiation Composition of chemical reservoirs in earth Principles that control the distribution of the elements WEEK 2 (3 lectures) Trace element distribution example - rare earth elements Thermodynamics of geological systems Equilibrium and free energy concept. Gibbs function, how changing P and T changes equilibrium. WEEK 3 (2-3 lectures) How changing composition changes equilibrium Henry's and Raoult’s laws WEEK 4 (3 lectures) Trace Element Geochemistry clues to geological processes Element partitioning between minerals and magma Differentiation and geochemical reservoirs WEEK 5 (3 lectures) Radioactivity and geochronology Radiogenic isotope signatures and differentiation K-Ar system, Rb-Sr system and U-Th-Pb systems Sedimentary rocks, soil development, solubility WEEK 6 (3 lectures) Planetary differentiation Global elemental and isotopic reservoirs Nucleosynthesis: age and origin of the elements WEEK 7 (3-4 lectures) Aqueous geochemistry and natural waters Solubility calculations Non-ideal solutions WEEK 8 (3 lectures) pH and carbonate equilibria Aluminosilicate reactions, rock weathering Stable isotopes - introduction WEEK 9 (2-3 lectures) Stable isotope fractionation of H, C, O, S. Paleothermometry Stable isotope tracers and fingerprinting (3 lectures) WEEK 10 (2-3 lectures) Global geochemical cycles and time perspectives Carbon and strontium cycles on short and long timescales --Laboratory/Field --> Naturally there will be activities of field samples collections (solids and liquids). Some essentials tools and activities to implemented for various labs: Magnifying glasses, Microscopes, Gravimetry CrystalMaker software (or alternative) MINTEQA2 (accompanies comprehension and application of analytical models) PHREEQC (accompanies comprehension and application of analytical models) Lab Topics --> Review and warm-up problem set Silicate crystal chemistry Determining P and T of mineral formation Trace element geochemistry (introduction to databases) Trace element geochemistry: < faculty.washington.edu/stn/ess_312/labs/ess_312_lab_4_trace_elts.pdf > Intro Radioactivity Radioisotopes and mantle differentiation Weathering reactions and mineral stability Trace elements and stable isotopes in corals Modelling the carbon cycle (PART A) Will pursue comparing analytical quantitative models with given simulation tool. Will pursue identifying convergence, and significance of discrepancies or deviations for particular values of the parameters. Linear approximations, series approximations, etc. can apply. < https://personal.ems.psu.edu/~dmb53/Earth_System_Models/Carbon_Cycle.html > Modelling the carbon cycle (PART B) Long-term Ocean-atmosphere-Sediment CArbon cycle Reservoir Model (LOSCAR) Zeebe, R. E., LOSCAR: Long-term Ocean-atmosphere-Sediment CArbon cycle Reservoir Model v2.0.4, Geosci. Model Dev., 5, 149–166, 2012 Will compare models from Part A and Part B and try to determine where and how (drastic) deviations arise. Will also pursue acquisition of code for computational investigation. Prerequisites: General Chemistry II, Calculus II, Historical Geology, Physical Geology Analytical Geochemistry The course concerns analytical chemistry methods catering specifically to geochemistry. Course will be composed primarily of field exploration for samples and lab experiments. MAJOR FEATURES OF COURSE: Motivations and comprehension of a respective activity. Planning and logistics for lab activity. Samples Collection (will not be done in one fell swoop because not all interesting samples will be found at one location). Geological profiling relevant to motivations for respective activity Knowledge and skills from earlier geology obligation courses would make visual identification credible. Sample size determination (overview, not necessarily implemented) Will be emphasized to cater for each unique activity Logistics and walkthrough for respective sample collection Includes not contaminating environment and possibly the samples Samples Collection Data and Error Analysis (only for first 4 topics in Bulk Techniques) Fluid and constructive comprehension and process of respective method or technique Logistics for tools and equipment for respective method or technique Includes not contaminating the samples; depending on the method or technique (for bulk and point) even water may be a contaminant. Implementation of respective method or technique For all spectroscopy experiments students will also be required to explain spectral lines for chemical structures. Analysis of results and interpretation and conclusion Suggestions for improvement NOTE: for sample size determination, although emphasized to cater for each unique activity, it may not be implemented throughout all activities due to limitations with tools and resources (such as well-being of equipment, transportation issues, time constraints, preservation of environments, mitigating the risk of bodily hazards w.r.t. environment exposure, etc.) NOTE: any types of spectroscopy that aren’t specified concerns applying types of spectroscopy that are robust and dexterous, namely, high “bang for buck”; economics always dominate, plus you can’t remember everything with every type of spectroscopy. Will be comparing all spectroscopy results to professional spectroscopy databases (USGS or whatever available). USGS Spectral Library is of interest: https://www.usgs.gov/labs/spec-lab/capabilities/spectral-library The USGS Spectral Library is tool one of many possible tools. ASSESSMENT ---> Attendance Lab Quizzes (3-4) Elements for quizzes Identification, referencing appropriate methods Detailing processes and procedures Lab Exams (3) Concerns Major Features of Course with respect to the Course Outline Identification, referencing appropriate methods Detailing processes and procedures True or False questions Concerns making sense of formulas, models and results Students will also be required to explain spectral lines for chemical structures specifically for spectroscopy topics Field Trips and Labs Attendance and behaviour Preparation Operations Quality of data collection Modelling of data (if relevant) Analysis, interpretation, conclusions, suggestions Note: suggestions for each lab concerns possible improvement of field and lab operations. COURSE OUTLINE ---> 1.Bulk (Whole Rock) Techniques Density Testing Gravimetric Techniques Titration Techniques Wet Chemical Methods Types of Spectroscopy UV Spectroscopy Infrared Spectroscopy 1-2 other types 2.Point Chemical Analysis (minerals) Types of Spectroscopy Infrared Spectroscopy Raman Spectroscopy 1-2 other types 3.Aqueous Environments Chemical composition of water from environments of interest Prerequisite: Analytical Chemistry, Calculus III. Igneous & Metamorphic Petrology The main objective of this course is to get students acquainted with a wide range of igneous and metamorphic rocks and their corresponding geological settings. Deductive skills (such as identifying minerals and other phases, understanding their geologic occurrence and inferring environmental conditions from the mineral assemblage, texture, and tectonic setting) will be emphasized over memorization of nomenclature, although we will also examine why mineral and rock names are important and may convey great meaning. The petrogenesis of igneous and metamorphic rocks (the source ‘DNA’ of a given rock, its temperature, pressure, path through the earth’s crust, its interactions with other rocks and/or magmatic bodies) will be explored through different geodynamic contexts of the Earth. The importance of basic sciences (specifically chemistry and physics) in gleaning geological processes from hand samples will be emphasized throughout the course. Examination with a variety of techniques, samples that were collected during and after this eruption. Students will conduct a semester-long project using samples (e.g. from a past eruption, other locations in a islands chain, or other localities). The goal will be to recover as much information as possible from these samples through observations, identification of petrological clues, in order to constrain the geological history. The goals of these activities are to scaffold upon the students’ prior knowledge from prerequisites; apply and practice new observational and analytical skills; address frontier science questions pertaining to the plumbing systems and dynamics of Hawaiian volcanoes; and gain experience communicating scientific content in accord with accepted norms—both orally and in writing. Considered Texts: Principles of Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology, J.D. Winter An Introduction to Igneous & Metamorphic Rocks (John Winter) Labs --> Expect ALL knowledge and lab experience, and lab activities from Mineralogy prerequisite to be included with the conventional pursuits; other prerequisites to some degree. Chosen labs activities from mineralogy course will augment the given labs Grading --> Homework + Quizzes + Classroom and Fieldtrip Participation (15%) Laboratory (25%) Lab Assignments 0.5 Laboratory Practical 0.5 Two 1¼ hour exams (15% each) Comprehensive final exam (25%). Course Outline --> WEEK 1. Introduction: Overview of petrology, rocks. Structure and dynamics of the Earth. Where are igneous rocks generated? Chap 1 WEEK 2. Classification and nomenclature (Chapter 2 & 8) WEEK 3. Textures. Structures and field relations (read); Intro to Thermodynamics (Chapter 3, 4 & 5) WEEK 4. Phase rule, unary and binary systems (Chapter 6) WEEK 5. Ternary Systems (Chapter 7) WEEK 6. Mantle melting & generation of basalts. Diversification of magmas (Chapter 10 & 11) WEEK 7. Igneous Rock Associations (subduction zones and granitoids), Chapter 12 – 18. WEEK 8. Review for exam WEEK 9. Exam. Introduction to metamorphism, types of metamorphism (Chapter 21 & 22) WEEK 10. Introduction continued, Types of metamorphism (Chapter 21 & 22). Chemographics and metamorphic phase diagrams (Chapter 24) WEEK 11. Pelitic Rocks: Barrow’s zones, AFM projections, discontinuous and continuous reactions (Chapters 26 & 28) WEEK 12. Types of metamorphic reactions (Chapter 26). Metamorphism of mafic rocks (Chapter 25). WEEK 13. Metamorphism of Ultramafic rocks (Chapter 29) WEEK 14. P-T paths and orogeny (Chapters 25, 27). WEEK 15. Review for Exam WEEK 16 – 17. Exam. Extremes: UHP and UHT metamorphism (chapter 25). Thermodynamics of metamorphic reactions (Chapter 27) WEEK 17 – 18. Thermobarometry (Chapter 27). Metamorphic Fluids, mass transport and metasomatism (Chapter 30) WEEK 19. FINAL EXAM Labs --> NOTE: some 1 or 2 labs will require full week or operations. NOTE: expect ALL knowledge and lab experience, and lab activities from Mineralogy prerequisite to be included with the conventional pursuits; other prerequisites to some degree. Such chosen labs activities from mineralogy will augment the following labs: --Review of Microscopy, Petrography of rocks, textures and mineral review --Granites and related rocks --Rhyolites, tuffs, scoria, pumice and obsidian --Intermediate volcanic rocks --Mafic volcanic and plutonic rocks --Ultramafic rocks and alkaline rocks --Metamorphic minerals and textures (read Chapter 23 in advance) --Structures and textures of metamorphic rocks (read Chapter 23, esp. 23.1, 23.4.1 and 23.4.5 in advance) --Progressive metamorphism of metapelites --Metamafic rocks, metamorphic facies and disequilibrium textures --Metamorphosed calcareous and ultramafic rocks --Minerals and textures of HP and UHP rocks --Review. Preparation for laboratory practical. Prerequisite: Historical Geology, Physical geology, Geological Field Methods, Mineralogy Sedimentation & Stratigraphy Sedimentary rocks contain a wealth of information on past environments, climate, biology, tectonics, and sea level. Stratigraphy is essentially a history of geomorphic processes occurring on short timescales (seconds to days) to long timescales (thousands and millions of year) as well as a record of the forces that shaped and altered Earth’s landscapes and seascapes. This class has three main parts. First, we will cover the generation, transport, and deposition of sediments, and link these processes with their depositional products (i.e., sedimentary rocks). Second, we will examine terrestrial and marine environments on Earth and how their respective geomorphic processes impart patterns on the deposition of sedimentary rocks. Third, we will cover the spatiotemporal relationships amongst these depositional environments (i.e., stratigraphy) and the interpretation of major events in Earth’s history In a nutshell: Classification of Sedimentary Rocks -> Identification of Geomorphic Process & Environment -> History of Earth’s Surface Outlines --> 1. Understand classification of sedimentary rocks. 2. Understand the link between sedimentary structures and sediment transport processes. 3. Understand facies associations and links to depositional environments. 4. Understand how to use a Brunton compass and Jacob staff. 5. Understand transmission of geomorphic processes into stratigraphy and recovery of tectonic, climatic, and eustatic signals from stratigraphy. Objectives --> 1.1. Identify unknown siliciclastic, chemical, and biochemical rocks. 2.1. Rank grain size, bedforms, and sedimentary structures in order of increasing/decreasing fluid energy conditions. 2.2. Predict sedimentary structures given changes in fluid flow conditions and bedforms. 2.3. Calculate paleoslopes from measured input parameters. 3.1. Draw typical vertical and horizontal spatial trends in sub-environments and rock types in different depositional systems. 3.2. Identify vertical patterns in lithofacies and link them to movement and evolution of the depositional system. 4.1. Measure a stratigraphic section and support a depositional environmental interpretation from the data. 5.1. Reconstruct topographic and depositional evolution of an active sedimentary system. 5.2. Formulate and propose feasible tests of hypotheses regarding the causes of depositional patterns with experimental and field datasets. Typical Text: Nichols, G. 2009. Sedimentology & Stratigraphy. Third Edition: Wiley-Blackwell Lab Manual: TBA Lab Equipment: Hand lens Millimetre ruler Laboratory handouts (print it or notebook, or whatever) Rock hammer Containment for field samples Mineral I.D. kit Required Field Trips: There will be 2 – 3 required field trips. Will occur on particular exposures of the chosen formations, etc. Grading --> Readings and Discussions 10% Labs 30% Lab Exam 20% 2 Exams 40% Reading Reflections --> Approximately once a week we will be discussing journal articles that are pertinent to the subject matter that week. You are expected to come to class having read and thought about the material. This is a reading-heavy class. I truly believe in scouring the literature, consuming, and digesting articles for ideas, inspiration, and raw data. Labs --> There are 7 labs and one lab exam. Labs will start with a short introduction. In some cases, there will be a demonstration or an example that we work through together. The remaining time will be for you to work in groups. Each person turns in an individual lab due the following week at the start of lab. The labs may take longer than the allotted 2 hours. For designated labs students will apply their knowledge of skills and analysis from prerequisites. Students must know how to situate/associate such skills and analysis to reinforce or boost findings; will not be lab oriented, but will be data driven. If any use of spectroscopy, means of incorporating spectrographs to become identification of constituents, bonds, groups, etc. Much will be expected from associating/situating knowledge of skills, analysis and data. Topic outline --> Week 1 Introductions, Class Overview, Syllabus, Source-to-Sink, Geologic Intuition Sedimentary Basins & Weathering (Ch. 1, 6, & 24) Week 2 Grain Size and Siliciclastic Rocks (practice ID exercise) (Ch. 2) Lab 1: Siliciclastic Rock Classification Chemical & Biochemical Rocks (practice ID exercise) (Ch. 3 & 15) Week 3 Lab 2: Carbonate Rocks Sediment Transport & Facies Analysis (Ch. 4 & 50 Week 4 Discussion of readings (discussion papers) Lab 3: Sedimentary Structures (how to use a Jake staff) Exam 1 Week 5 Alluvial Fans & Rivers (Ch. 9) Rivers & Soils (Ch. 9) Formation site 1 (presentation example & discussion) – readings Lab 4: Formation site 1 field trip Week 6 Deltas (Ch. 11, 12) Deltas & Trace Fossils (Ch. 11, 12) Estuaries & Beaches (Ch. 13) Formation site 2 (presentation example & discussion) – readings Lab 5: Formation site 2 field trip Week 7 Shallow & Deep Marine (Ch. 14, 16) Deep Marine (Ch. 16) Discussion & Strat Column/Sea Level Exercise (discussion papers) Formation site 3 (presentation example & discussion) – readings Lab 6: Formation site 3 field trip Week 8 Inverse Problem & Discussion (discussion paper) Lab Exam Week 9 Lab 7: Turbidite Stratigraphy Lab 7: Turbidite Stratigraphy (discussion papers) Post-Deposition Processes & Hydrocarbons (Ch. 18) Week 10 Stratigraphic Correlations (Ch. 19 – 23) Week 11 Exam #2 11/30 Final Presentations Final Presentations Prerequisites: Historical Geology, Physical Geology, Geomorphology, Mineralogy

Environmental Geochemistry Course will cover the geochemical and hydrologic processes/mechanisms essential in releasing and fixing metals and metalloids on land and in aquatic environments. Focus will be on comprehending the basic principles causing metal/metalloid contamination in rivers, lakes, groundwater and lands around the world. The course will have readings and discussion of past and recent literature, and examination of existing data, to examine the processes controlling the transport and fate of contamination in various environments. Succeeding topics will build on prior topics, hence, know your priorities. Development in course will be geared to perform well on field trip. You will be expected to interact in class and participate in the discussion of the readings. Course requires a conference/meeting on restoring rivers and lands in question impacted by development or mining. Gathering data and profiling sites of choice. Accompanied by a following two-day field trip to whatever planned site(s). NOTE: field trip happens rain or shine. NOTE: NO LITTERING (no hypocrisy) NOTE: Analytical Chemistry will not be a prerequisite because of the time gap it would cause between Geochemistry and this course. This course has labs to treat specific analytical chemistry concerns toward field trip operations. Literature --> Texts from prerequisites and selected journal articles will be applied throughout Resources & Databases --> National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Department of Agriculture Centre for Disease Control National Library of Medicine Environmental Protection Agency (may have open source) National Institute of Health Wildlife Agency USGS Analysis Tools --> USGS models and tools/software EPA models and tools/software EQ3/6: software package for geochemical modeling of aqueous systems Will find substitute if not accessible Lab Components --> The following components will be done on multiple occasions and will compliment each other in successive manner on multiple occasions: -Applying various analytical chemistry techniques after field trips. -Will have advance replication of chosen labs from geochemistry course as precursors to course labs -Course labs will cater to course topics. -Labs will incorporate use of databases and software tools (apart from EQ3/6) -EQ3/6: software package for geochemical modeling of aqueous systems Will find substitute if not accessible Field Trip Tools --> Smartphone Proper Field Attire (for nettle, stone. rocks, rain, mud, excrement) Skin protection if need be Hopefully not much conflict with environment temperatures Safety Attire (at least two pair of gloves, KN95 masks and other things) First Aid Kit Typical geological field tools Notepad and writing utensils Course Assessment --> Attendance, Participation and Conduct Quizzes Labs Exams Fieldtrips for samples (attendance, preparation, performance, conduct, data analysis, reports) Life Cycle Assessment Report Life Cycle Assessment Report (LCAR) --> A 2-3 day field trip and post discussion along with dedicated labs following field trips for samples. COURSE OUTLINE --> Introduction and geochemical fundamentals (lecture and discussion) Geochemical fundamentals and sediment transport concepts (lecture and discussion) Development and Mining wastes and rivers (discussion of readings) Basic geochemical environments (discussion of readings, D.O.R.) Solid Phase Chemistry compositional classes and occurrence of common soil minerals precipitation and dissolution structural classification of common soil minerals structural chemistry Mineral surface properties and sorption general sorption/partitioning ion exchange surface charge and surface complexation surface charge and colloidal properties Weathering and soil development Mineralogical controls on metals and metalloid concentrations Adsorption processes for metals and metalloids Diagenesis effects on the historical records of metal contamination Geochemistry of arsenic contamination in groundwater Structure and Properties of Metalloids of interest Mobilization/fixation of metals and metalloids by acid rock drainage (D.O.R) Key factors that influence acidity Aqueous chemistry for metals and metalloids (processed water, purified water and natural mineral water) acid-base - activity - alkalinity - gas exchange aqueous complexes redox EQ3/6: software package for geochemical modeling of aqueous systems Will find substitute if not accessible Effect of metalloids on vegetation Toxicology of metals and metalloids Review of major concepts and discussion of important research needs Field Planning and Operations Determined Sites Conference Intelligence (location, geological aspects, data) Initial Profiling Attend 2-3 day fieldtrip and talks Review/Discussion of: Meeting/conference and fieldtrip Analysis of data from fieldtrip Restoration techniques/methods for contaminated sites from mining or development (bring ideas based on reading and meeting) Prerequisites: Historical Geography, Physical Geology, Geological Field Methods, Geochemistry Trace Element Geochemistry Focus of this course is to use Trace Element Geochemistry to comprehend the origin and evolution of igneous rocks. Concerns for the parameters that control partitioning of trace elements between phases and to develop models for the partitioning of trace elements between phases in igneous systems, especially between minerals and melt. Of relevance are published papers detailing examples of utilizing Trace Element Geochemistry are read and discussed. Literature --> Course will require use of multiple texts ad published articles USGS publications Reinforcement & Development for Sustainability --> 1. There will be much reinforcement with the chemistry of trace elements concerning bonds and behaviour of compounds. Done before introducing certain topics. 2. Trace elements study will often be consistent with inorganic chemistry, however, as aspiring geologists a specific path with specialized logistics focused on trace elements geochemistry. 3. Advance recitation of chosen labs from Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Igneous & Metamorphic Petrology before introducing certain topics. 4. Software will often be used to model and characterise various igneous (and metamorphic) specimen USGS and EPA may provide open source software that can work well for trace element geochemistry; will be unique to software of interest prior. Course Assessment --> Practice Problems Quizzes Labs (software and advance recitation labs) 3 Exams Note: for quizzes and exams there will be policy on notes that will vary as course progresses. COURSE OUTLINE: --What are Trace Elements? Modern Development of Trace Element Geochemistry. Sites for Trace Elements (TE) in Minerals --Thermodynamic Considerations of Trace Element Solid Solutions --Partition Coefficient --Ionic Model for Bonding and Role of Ionic Radii in Comprehending the Partitioning of Trace Elements between Phases --Nomenclature for Trace Element Classification --Determination of Partition Coefficients --Determination of Partition Coefficients: Discussion of Experimental Approach --More Experimental Approaches for Determination of Trace Element Partition Coefficients --Trace Element Abundance Variations in Simple Melt-Solid Systems --Fractional Crystallization --Fractional Melting --Complex Melting Models --Constraints on Melt Models Arising from Disequilibrium in the Th-U Decay System --Ion Exchange Chromatography Prerequisites: Mineralogy, Geochemistry, Calculus III Geochemical Modelling Geochemical modeling is a powerful tool used in the Earth sciences to understand and predict the distribution and behavior of chemical elements in geological systems. It involves applying principles of chemistry, thermodynamics, and kinetics to simulate the processes that control the composition of rocks, minerals, soils, water, and other environmental media. Geochemical models can be used to investigate a wide range of geological processes, including mineral precipitation and dissolution, water-rock interactions, and the impact of human activities on natural systems.. OVERVIEW OF THE KEY ASPECTS OF GEOCHEMICAL MODELLING --> Thermodynamics-- Chemical Equilibrium: Geochemical models often use principles of chemical equilibrium to predict the distribution of elements between different phases (e.g., minerals, water). Thermodynamic databases provide information about the stability of minerals and chemical species under specific conditions. Gibbs Free Energy: The Gibbs free energy is a key parameter in thermodynamics that determines whether a reaction is spontaneous. Geochemical models use Gibbs free energy to calculate equilibrium constants and predict the direction of chemical reactions. Eh-pH Diagrams: These diagrams, also known as Pourbaix diagrams, display the stability fields of different chemical species as a function of pH and redox potential (Eh). They are useful for understanding the stability of minerals and the solubility of elements under different conditions. Kinetics-- Reaction Rates: Kinetics plays a crucial role in geochemical modeling, especially when dealing with processes that occur over time. Understanding reaction rates and the factors influencing them is essential for accurate modeling of dynamic systems. Reactive Transport Modeling: This involves modeling the movement of fluids and the transport of chemical species through geological media. Reactive transport models integrate both thermodynamics and kinetics to simulate how chemical reactions evolve over space and time. Geochemical Modeling Software-- Various software tools are available for geochemical modeling. Popular options include PHREEQC, MINTEQA2, WATEQF Geochemist's Workbench, EQ3/6, CHESS (Chemical Equilibrium Software for Solution Systems), OpenGeoSys, ChemPlugin, Thermokin. These tools allow researchers to perform thermodynamic and kinetic calculations, create models, and analyze geochemical data. Applications-- Environmental Studies: Geochemical modeling is used to assess the impact of human activities, such as mining, waste disposal, and pollution, on the environment. Mineral Exploration: Predicting the distribution of economically valuable minerals and understanding their formation processes. Water Quality Assessment: Modeling the interactions between water and rocks to evaluate water quality and identify potential sources of contamination. Diagenesis and Sedimentation: Understanding the diagenetic processes that affect sedimentary rocks and their impact on reservoir quality in petroleum systems. Primary Textbook -- “Geochemical Modeling: Concepts and Applications", by Craig M. Bethke Supporting Texts -- Earth Crust Evolution < "Principles of Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology" by Anthony Philpotts and Jay Ague > Mantle dynamics, Crustal Evolution, and the History of Earth < "Isotope Geochemistry" by William M. White > Geochemical Consequences of Human Influence on Earth's Systems < Biogeochemistry: An Analysis of Global Change" by William H. Schlesinger and Emily S. Bernhardt > ASSESSEMENT --> Analytical Assignments (modules 1-7 & 9) Practical Assignments using modeling software (modules 1-7 & 9) Geochemical Data Sources Assignments (module 8) Midterm Exam Group Project Real-world Application of Geochemical Modelling Modelling a Specific Earth Evolution Scenario Final Exam COURSE OUTLINE --> MODULE1: Introduction to Geochemical Modeling Overview of geochemical modeling and its applications in Earth evolution Introduction to essential software tools (e.g., PHREEQC, Geochemist's Workbench) Basics of chemical thermodynamics and kinetics MODULE2: Thermodynamics in Geochemical Modeling Review of thermodynamic principles Gibbs free energy and chemical equilibrium Activities, activity coefficients, and their significance Introduction to Eh-pH diagrams MODULE3: Application to Understanding Early Earth Differentiation & Mantle Dynamics MODULE4: Geochemical Equilibrium Models Introduction to speciation and complexation reactions Acid-base equilibria in natural waters MODULE5: Applications of Equilibrium Models in Crustal Evolution and Petrogenesis MODULE6: Reactive Transport Modeling Fundamentals of reactive transport processes Introduction to mass transport and advection-diffusion equations Incorporating kinetics into reactive transport models MODULE7: Geochemical Modelling of Weathering MODULE8: Geochemical Data Analysis and Interpretation Introduction to geochemical data sources Data quality control and validation Statistical analysis of geochemical data Applications to interpreting geochemical records in sedimentary rocks and ice cores MODULE9: Advanced Topics in Geochemical Modeling Non-equilibrium thermodynamics in geological systems Modelling coupled processes (e.g., climate-geochemistry interactions) MODULE10: Human Impact on Geochemical Cycles and Environmental Consequences Prerequisites: Historical Geology, Physical Geology, Geochemistry, General Physics I, Calculus III Structural Geology The identification and analysis of tectonic forms to determine the physical conditions of formation and the context of historical geological events in which they occur. Six contact hours (three lecture hours and three laboratory hours), four credits. FIELD TRIPS REQUIRED Upon successfully completing the course, students should be able to explain and apply knowledge and skills central to the domain of professional geologists, including: -Concepts of stress, strain, and deformation -Significance of brittle, plastic, and ductile deformations and their products -Origin and mechanisms of formation of faults, fractures, and folds -Effects of time, temperature, and pressure on deformation -Processes and fabrics that occur in shear zones & their kinematic significance -Field techniques for measuring linear and planar geologic features using a Silva compass -Making and recording observations of mesoscopic rock features in the field -Techniques of presentation/analysis of linear and planar fabric data (stereonets) -Construction of objective cross-sections -Determining deformation histories derived from microscopic and mesoscopic rock fabrics -Deriving tectonic histories from analysis of geologic maps Typical Text: Earth Structure: An Introduction to Structural Geology and Tectonics (2nd edition), 2004, Ben Van der Pluijm and Steve Marshak: Norton and Co. [V&M] Lab Manual: Basic Methods of Structural Geology, 1988, Steve Marshak and Gautam Mitra, Prentice Hall. [M&M] Materials needed for labs and lab tests Coloured pencils (10 or so--good quality) 4H pencils Set of drafting triangles Protractor (accurate to at least ½ degree) Good quality tracing paper Ruler (centimetres and inches) and/or engineer's scale Graph paper (10 or 20 squares per inch) Drawing compass (for making accurate circles) Calculator with trigonometric functions clipboard (for recording data on field trips) Lab --> Completed labs must be extremely legible or they will not be graded. All constructions and calculations must be clearly organised, and the final answers clearly labelled. Lab work in the course will require extensive work outside of class. When the classroom is free, you may use this room to work quietly on assignments. Distracting activities (loud talking, computer games/videos, etc.) are not to be conducted in the room. Late work is not accepted without documentation of a student’s serious personal or medical emergency Field Trips and Field Activities --> The number of contact hours in this course was increased from 5 to 6 hours to enable more field activities and to support student success, particularly in lab. Students must either provide their own transportation to the field site or carpool with other students; if you have serious concerns about this requirement, contact the instructor as soon as possible. Field trips will involve data collection and other field skills; no pets, pals, smoking, etc., are allowed on the trips. All students must sign the liability waiver required by the University. Field Trip 1: Setters quartzite -- collecting orientation data for layering, joint sets Field Trip 2: fault orientations, kinematic data; slip vectors Field Trip 3: Gneiss. Foliation, lineation, fold hinges Field Trip 4: Setters Schist and Cockeysville Marble. Measurement of schistosity, crenulation hinges and cleavages Exams --> Course pedagogy is a combination of "transmission" for introductory knowledge and guided inquiry in developing visualization and graphical skills. Lecture and lab may seem like two separate courses at times, but both aspects are essential to the discipline of structural geology. Exams will require the student to develop the entire spectrum of knowledge skills: recall, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Synthesis Project --> he synthesis project will involve the detailed analysis of a local geological quadrangle and associated rock samples. More details will be provided later in the course Grading --> Lecture Exam I: Brittle Deformation 25% Lecture Exam II: Ductile Deformation 25% Lab Exercises 30% Synthesis Project 20% Topic Outline --> WEEK 1 Introduction to Course; Strike & Dip; Intro. to Maps Outcrop Patterns WEEK 2 Force & Stress; Mohr Circles Attitude Determinations WEEK 3 Brittle Deformation Joints & Veins Stereographic Projections WEEK 4 Faults & Faulting FT1 WEEK 5 Focal Mechanisms; Hydraulic Fracturing & Marcellus Shale Dimension Calculations WEEK 6 Lecture Exam I Determination of slip vectors WEEK 7 FT2: Begin Synthesis Project WEEK 8 Strain & Ductile Deformation FT3 WEEK 9 Folds Fold Analysis WEEK 10 Deformation Fabrics Deformation Fabrics WEEK 11 Ductile Shear Zones Cross-sections WEEK 12 Appalachian Tectonics; Muller & Chapin article Structural Analysis WEEK 13 Lecture Exam II FT4 WEEK 14 Work on Synthesis Project Work on Synthesis Project WEEK 15 Work on Synthesis Project Work on Synthesis Project WEEK 16 Present Synthesis Project Prerequisites: Historical Geology, Physical Geology, General Physics I, and at least Calculus II. Co-requisite or Prerequisite: Plate Tectonics Plate Tectonics Large-Scales processes affecting the Earth’s crust(structure and properties) Course requires much reading to progress through topics. However, it’s easy to become lost in translations. A detailed course topics outline is given to stay on track, and be constructive, productive and sustainable. In science, vocabulary and recycled statements aren’t enough to support one’s science foundation. Tectonics study isn’t valuable without some level of analytical modelling, empirical and data studies, rather than looking at sophisticated historical geological charts. Typical text (optional): Global Tectonics, by P. Kearey and F.J. Vine Supporting Text: Fundamentals of Geophysics” by. W. Lowrie (Cambridge University Press) Tools: Mathematica GPlates, GPlates data sets Grading --> Individual Assignments 20% ? Class Seminar Labs 20% 3 Exams 60% Topic Outline --> I. General Background 1.1) Division of the Earth's interior 1.2) Isostacy 1.3) Satellite altimetry 1.4) Geothermal gradient and heat flow 1.5) Marine magnetic anomalies, paleomagnetism (paleogeography/timescales) 1.6) Global seismicity and focal mechanisms II. Plate Tectonics 2.1) Evolution and breakup of Pangea 2.2) Classification of plate boundaries 2.3) Triple junctions and Velocity-Space diagrams 2.4) Euler poles of rotation III. Divergent Plate Boundaries, Passive Margins, and Basin Analysis 3.1) Continental rifting and evolution to oceanic rifting 3.2) Passive margins: structure and development 3.3) Cratonic basins 3.4) Backstripping and basin analysis IV. Convergent Plate Boundaries 4.1) B-subduction (ocean-ocean & ocean-continent convergence). Examples from the western Pacific (Marianas), Andes, and western cordillera of North America. 4.2) A-subduction (continent-continent convergence). Examples from the Himalayas and Appalachians. 4.3) Episutural basins and continental collision - examples from the Alpine belt of Europe V. Conservative Plate Boundaries 5.1) Transform faults and wrench fault tectonics VI. Mantle convection and the driving forces of plate motion. 6.1) Hot spots 6.2) Configuration of mantle convection 6.3) Driving forces of plate motion LABS (examples)--> Part A Tasks (Empirical/ Data Research) 1. Comprehending and directly developing the Eltanin 19 profile 2. During the 20th century, improvements in and greater use of seismic instruments such as seismographs allowed scientists to learn that earthquakes tend to be concentrated in specific areas, most notably along the oceanic trenches and spreading ridges. By the late 1920s, seismologists were beginning to identify several prominent earthquake zones parallel to the trenches that typically were inclined 40–60° from the horizontal and extended several hundred kilometers into the Earth. These zones later became known as Wadati–Benioff zones, or simply Benioff zones, in honor of the seismologists who first recognized them, Kiyoo Wadat of Japan and Hugo Benioff of the United States. Students will pursue developing empirical evidence to support the various statements. This means students will actually harvest raw data and model to verify the statements. 3. Modelling annual plate motions in mm/year 4. For points where three plates meet will make use of historical data for a designated timeline. Will characterise neighbouring regions based on the movement of the triple joints. 5. Tectonic processes began on Earth between 3.3 and 3.5 billion years ago. How is such determined? Pursue, modelling and data that lead to such estimate. 6. Mid-Ocean Ridge Spreading and Convection Students will identify conventional or premier field methods applied (with identification of instruments) needed to acquire data for observing such two phenomena. What major conclusions or findings have been established. Acquire the raw data to model in order to support such conclusions or findings. 7. simple Euler poles https://sites.northwestern.edu/sethstein/simple-euler-poles/ https://sites.northwestern.edu/sethstein/north-america-pacific-plate-boundary/ PART B The following literature may or may not appear quite repulsive concerning detailed or attentive reading for proper analysis, however, the rewarding prime directive may be to either: (1) Identify the data used to develop or proceed throughout. To find sources for such data, acquire them and develop modelling to confirm (the majors) findings of the literature (2) Analyse analytical models and replicate findings Note: depending on publication or respective journal article one may not be restricted to the applied time frames used in the given journal articles. Can also be extended with more modern data. Crucially, for some articles it may be of great importance to compare more modern data with data for time frame observed in respective journal article. --Gibbons, A., Zahirovic, S., Muller, R.D., Whittaker, J., and Yatheesh, V. 2015. A Tectonic Model Reconciling Evidence for the Collisions between India, Eurasia and Intra-oceanic Arcs of the Central-Eastern Tethys. Gondwana Research --Beghein, C. et al. (2014). Changes in Seismic Anisotropy Shed Light on the Nature of the Gutenberg Discontinuity. Science, Vol. 343, Issue 6176, pp. 1237-1240 --Alec R. Brenner, Roger R. Fu, David A.D. Evans, Aleksey V. Smirnov, Raisa Trubko, Ian R. Rose. Paleomagnetic Evidence for Modern-like Plate Motion Velocities at 3.2 Ga. Science Advances, 2020; 6 (17): eaaz8670 https://science.sciencemag.org/content/suppl/2014/02/26/science.1246724.DC1 --For the following article, after analysis and logistics development is it possible to apply modelling to a GIS? Hayes, G. P et al. (2018). Slab2, A Comprehensive Subduction Zone Geometry Model. Science, eaat4723 --Mason, Ronald G.; Raff, Arthur D. (1961). "Magnetic survey off the West Coast of the United States between 32°N latitude and 42°N latitude". Bulletin of the Geological Society of America. 72 (8): 1259–66 --Raff, Arthur D.; Mason, Roland G. (1961). "Magnetic survey off the west coast of the United States between 40°N latitude and 52°N latitude". Bulletin of the Geological Society of America. 72 (8): 1267–70. Prerequisites: Historical Geology, Physical Geology, General Physics I, and at least Calculus II. Prerequisite or Co-requisite: Structural Geology Geographic Information Systems: The field of Geographic Information Systems, GIS, is concerned with the description, analysis, and management of geographic information. This course offers an introduction to methods of managing and processing geographic information. Emphasis will be placed on the nature of geographic information, data models and structures for geographic information, geographic data input, data manipulation and data storage, spatial analytic and modelling techniques, and error analysis. The course is made of two components: lectures and labs. In the lectures, the conceptual elements of the above topics will be discussed. The labs are designed in such a way that students will gain first-hand experience in data input, data management, data analyses, and result presentation in a geographical information system. The basic objectives of this course for students are: 1. To understand the basic structures, concepts, and theories of GIS 2. To gain a hand-on experience with a variety of GIS operations Typical Texts: Longley P.A., M.F. Goodchild, D.J. Maguire, D.W. Rhind, 2011.Geographic Information Systems and Science. John Wiley and Sons Chang, K.T., 2012. Introduction to Geographic Information Systems (Sixth Edition). McGraw Hill, New York de Smith, M., Goodchild, M., Longley, P., 2013. Geospatial Analysis: A Comprehensive Guide (www.spatialanalysisonline.com) Tools: A GIS of your choosing; students will be debriefed on operational requirements Mathematica Google Earth Google Maps Resources: https://www.google.com/earth/outreach/learn/ support.google.com/maps/answer/144349 There are highly established freeware GIS tools for use. Premier such available are SAGA GIS, ILWIS, MapWindow GIS, uDig, GRASS GIS and others; check Goody bag post. NOTE: GRASS GIS Will be preference for GIS. Major priorities are sustainable skills in logistics, data management, accessibility & integration of data sets for project development and exhibition. Project(s) to have considerable life cycles with future use. Additionally, Wolfram Mathematica tools, Google Earth and Google Maps can possibly coexist or be a substitute in such a instruction environment, primarily for rapid data visualisation. Course is concerned with the ability to develop meaningful professional data analysis and visualisation of sustainable value to whatever specified target audience. Unique talent development among such tools are encouraged, under the condition that the interests or demand of the target audience is appeased, of high quality. Some highly capable students will be able to develop projects with various systems, while for others finding an environment that suites them is key (highly dependent on what they comprehend and the effort they give). Mathematica has the computational prowess among the rest, but isn’t visually savvy or accommodating as the rest. For those with high preference for Mathematica the following search topics in Wolfram Documentation and topics from Wolfram Blog will prove quite fruitful Earth Sciences: Data and Computation Geographic Data & Entities Geospatial Formats Geodesy Cloud Execution Metadata Create Instant APIs https://community.wolfram.com/content?curTag=geographic%20information%20system It’s recommended that those who choose such Mathematica path are those who have successfully completed the Data Programming with Mathematica course to a high degree, or of their own business have deployed Mathematica successfully with various projects. It takes a bit of skill with methods emanating from the above Mathematica (search) topics; not the favouritism propaganda you have acquired. Class Presentation --> Students need to review a journal article (or multiple articles) and give a presentation in the class. The article or articles can relate to GIS concepts, theories, or applications. An article in your discipline is preferred for you to review, for the reason that it would help you to think how to apply GIS in your work in the future. To present your reviewed article, you need to prepare five to eight slides in the format of PowerPoint, which would take approximately five to six minutes to present. In your slides, one of them would be how GIS is helpful in the article. You will have to give a small demonstration of some partial development for your project that substantially relates to your goals with whatever choice of tool employed. Followed by some substantial development (already done) with a GIS or other tool, or combination. You will have two or three minutes to answer the questions raised by the audience. Grading --> Lab Exercises 30% Exam I 25% Exam II 25% Presentation 20% Labs --> There are two components for labs: 1. Having GRASS GIS as preference concerns standard developments with course progression. 2. Extracurricular activities with Addons for GRASS GIS. Primarily, there must be strong development for a specific topic in (1) in order to commence with a respective Addons activity -- https://grass.osgeo.org/grass82/manuals/addons// Multicriteria decision decision analysis must be one topic for Addons extracurricular activities. An example: Massei, G., et al (2014). Decision Support Systems for Environmental Management: A Case Study on Wastewater from Agriculture, Journal of Environmental Management, Volume 146, Pages 491-504 However, PROMETHEE is not our only interest, and multiple MCDA addons will be pursued. Course Outline --> WEEK 1 Course Overview GIS Overview The Nature of Geographic Information WEEK 2 Data Representation Measuring Systems: Location – Coordinate Systems Data Representation Measuring Systems: Location – Coordinate Systems (Continue) WEEK 3 Data Representation Measuring Systems: Location – Coordinate Transformation Data Representation Measuring Systems: Topology Measuring Systems: Attributes WEEK 4 Data Representation Spatial Data Models: Introduction to spatial data models Spatial Data Models: Raster data models Data Representation Spatial Data Models: Relational Data Models Spatial Data Models: Vector Data Models (I) WEEK 5 Data Representation Spatial Data Models: Vector Data Models (II) Data Representation Spatial Data Models: TIN Summary of Spatial Data Models: Raster, Vector, TIN WEEK 6 Data Representation Linking attribute data with spatial data Recent Development of Data models WEEK 7 GIS Database Creation and Maintenance (I) Data Input & Editing GIS Database Creation and Maintenance (II) DBMS and its use in GIS WEEK 8 Review for Exam 1 Exam 1 WEEK 9 GIS Database Creation and Maintenance (III) Metadata / Database creation Guidelines / NSDI Data Analysis Measurement & Connectivity WEEK 10 Data Analysis Interpolation WEEK 11 Data Analysis Digital Terrain Analysis Data Analysis: Statistical Operations & Point Pattern Analysis WEEK 12 Data Analysis Classification Data Analysis GIS-based Modelling and Spatial Overlay (I) WEEK 13 Data Analysis GIS-based Modelling and Spatial Overlay (II) Data Analysis Summary Uncertainty WEEK 14 Geo-representation, Geo-presentation, and GeoVisualization GIS Applications WEEK 15 Student Presentations Student Presentations WEEK 16 Review for Exam Exam II Prerequisite: Historical Geology, Physical Geology, Geological Field Methods, Upper level Standing. Field Geology Geology is first and foremost a field science. Field geology and field geologists provide literally the ground truth for geologic concepts and theories of how the earth works. The degree to which we, as geologists, are successful observers and interpreters of rocks in the field depends in large measure on what we are prepared to see and record. Without sufficient experience and preparation, we can’t attach meaning to (and thus frequently ignore) what we don’t recognise or understand. Field experience generates purpose and professional relevance. Field proficiency has long been a distinguishing characteristic of our science. As a geoscientist, you are expected to be a proficient scientific observer and recorder. Your unique skills and training in this area separate you from lawyers, engineers, chemists and other professionals with whom you might one day work. Without proper preparation, including a strong grounding in field methods, we would be little better than rockhounds out for a day of casual collecting. Field geology is not merely collecting data and samples; it is about making sense of the geology around you, about making geologic interpretations. Landscapes are histories, with time marked by boundaries in the rocks, soil and sediment. A geologic map or a measured section is the articulation of that history, with each line marking a before and after, a hiatus that might last a second or a billion years. Through our maps and graphical logs, we represent time as space. The ability to create, read and interpret such product is best developed from training and practice in a field setting. It all begins by making and recording observations. An accurate record in the form of a map, measured section, photograph, sketch, a carefully documented sample, field notes, etc. provides a permanent, solid basis upon which to develop testable ideas and interpretations – the plot of the story. Without such evidence, interpretations are fanciful fables; there is no scientific basis to objectively evaluate them. Course is designed to engage you in the process of inquiry over the course of a semester, providing you with the opportunity for independent investigation of a question, problem, or project. You should therefore expect a substantial portion of your grade to come from the independent investigation and presentation of your work. The course consists of ~ 15 single or multi-day projects that focus on aspect of field description and interpretation. Products generated include measured sections, reports, photopan interpretations, cross sections, maps and stereonets. NOTE: realistically activities will take more than 6 weeks as mentioned later on. Such 6 weeks is simply ideal, say, if everything goes right. For the case that black swans appear and cancels visits for a substantial amount of destinations course will be canceled for the term and students will have to reschedule for a future term; course is highly dependent on data that’s of relatively high volume and the quality. This is arguably the most crucial course towards being called a real geologist. As well, there may be other opportunities available in the vast ambiances with other “treasures” such as pitch lakes (La Brea), mud volcanoes, geysers, lakes having pebbles with high amounts of distributed coloration, rainbow rock sediments, natural hot springs, high cliff waterfalls (and/or regular waterfalls), basins or other geologies being fossil fuel reserves, etc. For such distinct exhibitions in nature, if the opportunities arise field activity must be extended to accommodate field study for the crucial or unique properties/characteristics. Course will require dedicated and intricate planning and logistics. Transportation, shelter (only when extreme cases arise), self preservation, health and equipment (vitals and transporting) are crucial. Required Materials: Field notebook (e.g., engineer’s field book) Clipboard (8 1/2 x 11 size) with cover Hand lens (10x) Geology Kit Small squirt bottle of dilute (approx. 10%) HCl Containers for samples to possibly label Grain size card Six-inch ruler (best is the Post ruler with protractor on it) Protractor (bring spare rulers & protractors; many students lose several) Pencils and erasers (again, the number depends on how many you lose) 2 or 3 drafting (mechanical) pencils (recommend Pentel or equivalent 0.5 mm or 0.3 mm lead, hardness F or 3H) and spare leads Coloured pencil set that will keep a point (at least 10 colours); pencils with hard, water-fast lead are preferred Pencil sharpener or pointer, and/or sandpaper – for coloured pencils Technical pens with fine-line points and black ink (Sizes 00, 0, 1, are desirable) Tablet of 8 1/2 x 11” tracing paper Tablet of 10 square to the inch of 8 1/2 x 11” graph paper Liquid paper (optional) The textbooks and lab manual Laminated Geological Catalogues for later cross examination Calculator Watch Carrying bag (shoulder bag or daypack) Proper field clothes, long pants, long-sleeve shirts, jacket (see note on gear) Sun screen/block lotion Hat, wide brim Hiking boots, broken in (avoid non-lace boots; see note on gear) Rainwear (it will rain; see note on gear) Canteen (2 or 3, one-quart/litre water bottles, a Camel-Back or some other water storage container) Warm sleeping bag and pad** (see note on gear) Tent (can be shared; see notes on gear) Towels, washcloth Plate, cup, silverware GPS Desirable Materials --> GIS (GRASS GIS with addons use) GPS Google Earth Google Maps Digital Camera or very capable charged smart phones with smart phone with excellent range & focus Masking tape Scotch tape Tweezers (important for run-ins with cactus) Insect repellent Minor first aid kit for bug bites, thorns, blisters (moleskin), etc. Small pair of binoculars Whistle (if you are prone to getting lost and have a weak voice) Safety goggles or other eye protection (see field course policy handout regarding this and hard hats) Sharpie markers to label rocks Prohibited Items --> Consumption of alcohol in vehicles Illegal drugs Firearms Excessive exposure or flaunting of currency Highly gaudy fashionable apparel and jewelery Luxury Vehicles All participants should have their heads on a swivel and be attentive of your surroundings. Music playing during active operations is prohibited; refrain from such as well at camp sites because your life may depend on the alertness and consideration for the presence of others. Concerns that can likely have cumulative academic consequences and legal ramifications: Littering Low temperature high temperature combustible substances Illegal and unregulated fires Pesticides unsanctioned with environmental protection Toxic substances Substances with absurd Ph levels (high or low) that may be damaging to environment Levels of exhaust emissions from vehicles High volume audio and video Harassing or capturing animals Releasing animals unnatural to ambiance ecosystem Unsanctioned venturing, or ditching officially recognised groups There will be at least 12 difference sites considerably distant from each other. However, the number of sites to visit will depend on the field activities such sites can support; yet don’t want the majority of activities carried out be centred on a minimal number of places. WEEK 1 -Interpretation of depositional processes. Seeking environments where tertiary faulting and uplift causing the exposure of a shelf-to-basin setting that contains both carbonate and terrigenous sediments. -High elevation of carbonate and clastic shelf, slope and basin deposits are laid out in spectacular vistas. We will present the stratigraphic setting, and then sketch and interpret several of these major walls in terms of stratal geometric relationships and depositional processes. Will be interested in multiple sites for such. -Aeolinites and evaporites – sedimentology and stratigraphy WEEK 2. Volcanology -Geology and volcanology of a supervolcano. Classic locality for understanding the nature of large-volume caldera eruptions. Exception preservation and outstanding exposures of Pleistocene eruptive products (ash flow and air fall tuffs, lava flows, lava domes) provide an unparalleled opportunity to examine, map and describe the hallmarks of these gigantic eruptions. A field trip our first afternoon examines the caldera proper and its youngest products. The main eruptive rocks and their precursors are studied the following day. Days 2-4 are devoted to learning to recognize, interpret and map the intrusive and eruptive products of calderas through a mapping exercise that examine the geometry and sequence of volcanic deposits. -Visit to an active volcano may or may not be feasible, but if the opportunity arises field activity must be extended to accommodate field study for the crucial or unique properties/characteristics. -Late Miocene to Pliocene eruptive rocks and interlayered sediments exposed in gorges. To document and map the eruptive history of the Servilleta Basalts, older more silic lava flows and domes, and the interlayered alluvial fill. What are the relative ages of the rocks, how do we tell them apart, and when did the river gorges form? WEEK 3. Basement-Cored Structures -Paleoshorelines -With topographic maps and aerial photos, we will map the structural and stratigraphic relationships and interpret the subsurface geology of a small Laramide anticline. This will be accomplished with the aid of a stereonet and cross section. We will also visit some regional geology and become familiar with the complexity of natural fractures. This relatively simple mapping and cross section exercise is a prelude to later, more complex mapping and subsurface interpretation. -For whatever region to observe Laramide fold and fault geometries and speculate on their subsurface continuations. This information will inform your ~E-W regional cross section of whatever (mountain) range and Basin at the latitude of such region, which you will complete before day’s end. WEEK 4 – 5. Structural Geology of Thin-skinned Deformation -Growth strata. Basin and older folded and faulted stratigraphy are brought above ground to partially onlapped by strata deposited, and involved uplifts. -Measure and map in cross section the geology and geometry of the leading edge of the whatever belt; interested in a Late Cretaceous to Early Paleogene belt of thin-skinned deformation. The end result of our field work is a cross section constrained by surface observation, map data, and a seismic reflection profile. You will learn how practicing structural geologists make use of a combination of tools and techniques to arrive at a constrained subsurface interpretation in a structural complex setting. -You will learn how to map, measure and describe the geology of this fold-dominated salient of the whatever Belt. This is accomplished during two 3-day projects, a day off, and a field mapping test. Each of the projects share common components: Day 1: Introduction to setting and stratigraphy Compile a stratigraphic column of map units, recon. the field area, begin mapping Day 2: Continued mapping Begin constructing cross section and stereonets Day 3: Finish mapping Turn in map, cross section and stereonets Evening lectures provide information on stereonets, cross-section construction and the geology of the Region WEEK 6. Ore deposits -Giant porphyry copper deposits (or other). Here we spend four days documenting and unravelling field relationships among deformation, plutonism, contact metamorphism and mineralization within facies equivalents of the same rocks mapped in the previous two projects. -This project integrates different geological disciplines to unravel the geological history of this late 1800’s (or whenever) mining district or area. Field data will be collected over four days to understand the sedimentary, structural, metamorphic, magmatic and hydrothermal history of this area and to produce a concise report that synthesizes this information. In addition to introducing concepts in metamorphic and ore geology, this exercise offers a unique chance to integrate different types of data to understand the geological history of an area – a common exercise for any earth scientist. OUTCOMES OF TRAVELS AND ACTIVITIES --> 1. Sedimentary geology A. Classification of rocks and sediment by texture You must be able to classify terrigenous sediments and rocks by texture (e.g., poorly sorted, immature, fine-grained sandstone). This means that you must be able to identify the mean grain size, estimate the grain sorting, recognize the four stages of textural maturity, and recognize grain shape and roundness. B able to tell if the sorting reflects a unimodal, bimodal or polymodal grain distribution. Impact scars on pebbles and larger grains are important to identify. Rock colour also reflects important aspects of the rock. You must have comprehension of the factors that control these sediment/rock characteristics. For sandstones and conglomerates be able to estimate the abundance of framework grains, matrix, cement, and porosity using your hand lens. You must be able to distinguish those rock aspects that are depositional in nature from those that result from weathering. For example, weathering commonly results in the oxidation of pyrite and other ferrous minerals, differential dissolution of minerals, hydration, oxidation, and case-hardening of joints. Precipitation of travertine crusts and soluble white salt crusts (efflorescence), as well as Liesegang bands, are post-depositional products. In addition, it is usually possible on outcrop to recognize basic lithology (e.g., sandstone, limestone, shale) by weathering habit. Be able to classify carbonate rocks according to the Dunham classification, including identification of major grain types. Know the major taxonomic groups of invertebrate fossils and their environmental significance. Know the marine evaporite mineral sequence. B. Classification of rocks and sediment by mineralogy Be able to classify sediment and rocks by mineralogy (e.g., arkose). For sandstones be able to estimate the type of common cements (quartz, calcite, dolomite, siderite, iron oxides, kaolinite), the abundance of QFR components, and clan name using the Folk classification. Understand the relationship between mineralogy, source area, and other controls such as climate, tectonism and nature of transport. C. Sedimentary structures You must be able to identify sedimentary structures and understand under what conditions they form. Be able to identify common fossils, know their age ranges, and environmental significance. Below are listed some common sedimentary structures and other features of sedimentary rocks. You should be able to recognize these, understand how they form, and interpret their genetic significance. Laminations Wind-ripple laminations Trough cross-strata Tabular cross-strata Current ripple and climbing ripple cross-strata Wave ripple cross-strata Hummocky cross-strata Textural mottled bedding Structureless (massive) bedding Graded and reverse graded bedding Contorted bedding Nodular bedding Flaser and lenticular bedding Herringbone cross-strata Scour-and-fill structures Channel walls and channel-fills Cryptalgal laminations, stromatolites (laterally linked & stacked hemispheres) Bouma sequence Wave and current ripple marks Trace fossils: burrows, tracks, and trails Flute casts, groove casts, load casts Parting lineation Mud cracks Stylolites Liesegang bands Chert & other nodules, calcite-cemented concretions (& other types) Cone-in-cone structure Adhesion structures Breccia Paleokarst Evaporite moulds Inter vs. intraparticle porosity Boundstone Geopetals Fenestral fabric D. Depositional and diagenetic environments and processes You must be able to make a basic interpretation of environment of deposition (e.g., deep-sea turbidite sequences, meandering fluvial channel). You should be able to determine whether the seafloor was well oxygenated, suboxic, anoxic. Clues are TOC (reflected in rock colour), presence of absence of trace fossils, abundance of pyrite, etc. Most information is derived from the larger-scale geometry of the strata. You should always scan an outcrop for the continuity of beds, the overall strata arrangement, faults, channel structures, and vertical trends before studying the rock up close. For carbonate and evaporite environments, review the shelf-to-basin facies tract, the environmental factors important for carbonate/evaporite production, the different styles of carbonate shelf architecture as a function of changes in sea level, climate, time in geologic history. Review the principal mechanisms proposed for: changing sea level dolomitization subaerial and subaqueous evaporite deposition cyclic sediment deposition. E. Field methods You must be able to perform basic field procedures including: measuring a section with a staff and Brunton compass or similar instrument identifying textures and mineralogies with a hand lens, and using a Brunton compass or similar instrument to measure bedding and foreset orientations operate a hand-held GPS instrument. F. Data presentation You must be able to display geological information in various formats including vertical sections scaled field sketches cross-sections neatly drafted maps stereonets G. Basin-scale processes You must have a basic understanding of (1) tectonic basin types (2) the types of environments associated with these, and (3) the types of sediments characteristic of the different types of basins and source areas. H. Global-scale processes You must have a basic understanding of the depositional architectures and their scales as a function of cycles of sea level, climate and tectonism. Know the general history of Earth change (e.g., greenhouse/icehouse periods, first-order sea-level curve), and the basics of higher order processes such as orbital forcing of Earth’s climate. 2. Structural Geology & Mapping Notes, texts, old labs and web sites for prerequisite courses are particularly valuable resources for review. A. Be able to read a topographic map, construct a topographic profile along a line of section, and have the ability to accurately locate yourself with a topographic map. B. Have a good understanding of strike lines (structure contours), 3-point problems, the rule of V's, and how these are manifest on geologic maps by unit contacts, fault traces, fold axial traces. C. Be able to correctly use a compass to measure the attitudes of linear and planar features. D. Be able to construct stereographic projections of the attitudes of lines and planes, and determine a fold axis from attitude measurements of folded layers. E. Be able to appropriately label maps and cross sections (and where these items belong on a finished product): title, author, date, north arrow, scale bar, contour interval, stratigraphic symbols, explanation of symbols, location of cross section; endpoints of cross section, orientation of cross section, vertical scale, and vertical exaggeration. F. Be able to draw a structural cross section; know how to project data from a map into the plane of a cross section. G. Know fold terminology and map symbols: fold axis, axial surface, hinge line, axial trace, plunge, fold limbs, cylindrical, overturned vs. upright, parallel vs. non-parallel, angular vs. curved. H. Know fault terminology and map symbols: thrust, normal, strike slip, footwall, hanging wall, displacement, dip and strike separation, fault tip, fault ramp, detachment, listric, thin-skinned vs. thick-skinned, releasing and restraining bends. I. Be able to interpret a geologic map, including relative ages from superpositional or cross-cutting relationships, dip directions from map patterns, anticlines vs. synclines and directions of plunge, axial trace symbols, up vs. down sides of faults from map patterns. 3. Igneous Geology A. Know how to classify igneous rocks using compositional criteria (intrusive rocks: granite, granodiorite, gabbro, peridotite; extrusive rocks: rhyolite, andesite, dacite, basalt) and textural criteria (tuff, welded tuff, vitrophyre, etc.), and apply appropriate adjectives (porphyritic, aphanitic, phaneritic, etc.). B. Be able to identify common minerals in igneous rocks with a hand lens. These include, but are not limited to, quartz, plagioclase, k-feldspar, biotite, muscovite, clinopyroxene, amphibole (hornblende) and olivine. C. Have an appreciation for the geological settings in which different igneous rocks might be found 4. Metamorphic Geology A. Know how to classify metamorphic rocks (slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss, hornfels) and apply appropriate adjectives (granoblastic, porphyroblastic, foliated, etc.). B. Be able to identify common metamorphic minerals with a hand lens. These include, but are not limited to: i) minerals common to most metamorphic rocks: quartz, plagioclase, k-feldspar, biotite, muscovite, chlorite, ii) pelites: garnet, aluminosilicates (andalusite, kyanite, sillimanite), staurolite, iii) metabasites: clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, amphibole (hornblende, tremolite/actinolite), and iv) metacalcsilicates/metacarbonates: calcite, dolomite, talc, tremolite, wollastonite, diopside. C. Have an understanding of the concepts of metamorphic facies, P-T and T-X grids and isograds, including an appreciation of the dependence of mineral assemblages on rock composition, temperature, pressure and fluid composition/availability. D. Understand the relationship of fabrics defined by metamorphic minerals to minor and major folds and faults/shear zones. E. Know metamorphic index minerals for pelitic and mafic rocks. Prerequisites: Physical Geology, Historical Geology, Geological Field Methods, Geomorphology, Mineralogy, Sedimentology & Stratigraphy, Structural Geology, Geographic Information Systems

Global Geophysics Application of classical physics to the study of the Earth and the solution of problems in Earth sciences, including analysis of geomagnetics, the Earth’s gravitational field, seismic analysis, sequence stratigraphy, well log interpretation, and applications to petroleum exploration. Typical text: The Solid Earth: An introduction to Geophysics, 1st Edition. Author(s): C.M.R. Fowler. Publishers(s): Cambridge University Press (1997) Will also make use of Mathematica’s “Earth Sciences Data and Computation” and “Geographic Data & Entities”. Some projects will require a GIS. Assessment --> Weekly lab assignments: 70% 3 Exams: 30% WEEK 1-- Lect 1: Introductions, elementary physics (wave theory) Lect 2: Reflection and refraction Lab 1: Basic physics (as applied to geology) WEEK 2-- Lect 1: SP and resistivity logs Lect 2: Gamma ray logs Lab 2: Well log correlation exercise 1 WEEK 3-- Lect: Generation of petroleum; Migration of petroleum Lab 3: Well log correlation exercise 2 WEEK 4-- Lect 1: Petroleum reservoirs Lect 2: Neutron activation logs; Density and other logs Lab 4: Mapping exercises WEEK 5-- Lect 1: Isopach maps; First Exam (take-home) Lect 2: Fence-post diagrams and other graphical techniques Lab 5: Seismic correlations WEEK 6-- Lect 1: Introduction to seismic methods Lect 2: Seismic stratigraphy Lab 6: Seismic correlations WEEK 7-- Lect 1: Sequence stratigraphy part 1: surfaces and systems tracts Lect 2: Sequence stratigraphy part 2 Lab 7: Sequence stratigraphy interpretations WEEK 8-- Lect 1: Plate motions on the Spherical Earth Lect 2: Plate circuit diagrams Lab 8: Field surveys with GPS receivers WEEK 9-- Lect 1: Earthquake seismicity Lect 2: Earthquake seismicity; 1st motions studies Lab 9: Seismic reflection modeling WEEK 10 -- Modelling the Earth’s internal temperatures 1. Analysing seismic waves to determine the depth of the boundaries. 2. Determine the pressure at the boundaries from a mathematical relationship between depth and pressure. 3. Then, model the likelihood of different phases (primarily made from O, Fe, Si and Mg) undergoing the transformation. For instance, the transformation of olivine is likely the cause of the 410 km discontinuity. So we subject a sample of olivine to the pressure found at 410 km, then heat it up until it transforms to a new phase. The temperature of the earth at 410 km is then assumed to be the temperature at which the olivine transformed. 4. In such a way, the pressure/temperature profile of the earth is constructed. This profile is called the geotherm. Hence, without relying on “Wolfram Alpha” type tools build a temperature profile (geotherm) for the inner parts of Earth based on prior knowledge and skills applied. 5. Since Earth is around 94% Mg, Fe, Si and O, then the mineralogy of the earth can be studied by examining the phases into which these elements combine along the conditions of the geotherm. More elaboration on the temperature of Earth’s core 1. The core consists of two distinct regions, being the inner core which is solid, and the outer core which is liquid. We know this by examining the velocity profiles. Shear waves do not propagate in the outer core (why?). 2. The (mostly) Fe core. Hence, to vindicate statement 1, it’s logical to analyses the phases of Fe regarding temperature and pressure. Comprehension of conventional phases (alpha, delta, gamma, liquid). The epsilon phase. How are phases boundaries determined? X-ray analyss and Raman spectroscopy analysis Saxena, S. K. et al. (1995). Science, volume 269 Yoo, C. S. et al (1995). Science, volume 270 D. Andrault (1997). Science, volume 278 Transformations related to pressure and vibration. Slopes involving the “greeks”. Will the phase diagram match the geotherm data at the inner/outer core boundary? Why or why not? Gilder, S. & Glen, J. (1998). Science, volume 279 Steinle-Neumann, G. et al (2001). Nature, volume 413 Buffet, B. A. & Wenk, H. R. (2001). Nature, volume 413 3. Theory & Experiments Boehler, R. (1993). Temperatures in the Earth's core from melting-point measurements of iron at high static pressures. Nature 363, 534–536 Chen, G. Q. & Ahrens, T. J. (1996). High-Pressure Melting of Iron: New Experiments and Calculations. Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences , Vol. 354, No. 1711, pp 1251 - 1263 Jephcoat, A. P. & Besedin, S. P. (1996). Temperature Measurement and Melting Determination in the Laser-Heated Diamond Anvil-Cell. Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, Vol. 354, No. 1711 pp. 1333-1360 WEEK 11-- Lect 1: Climate Heat cycles characterstcs and modelling Lect 2: Geothermal heat flow Assisting literature: Morgan P. (1989) Heat Flow in the Earth. In: Geophysics. Encyclopedia of Earth Science. Springer, Boston, MA. Heat flow characteristics of the Earth; Heat flow modeling Lab 10: Heat flow modeling and simulation (climate and geothermal) WEEK 12-- Lect 1: Review from week 11 deduced magnetic properties of the Earth’s core. The dominant main field originates in the Earth's fluid core. The second internal contribution comes from magnetized rocks in the lithosphere. The third contribution, varying rapidly in time, comes from outside the Earth (External field). Amongst the sources which contribute to the geomagnetic field, the oceanic magnetic field is the faintest. Geomagnetism theory and application. Lect 2: Interpretation of geomagnetic data Lab 12: Interpretation of geomagnetic data WEEK 13-- Lect 1: Geochronology theory and application Lect 2: ... Lab 13: Calculation of isochron and Concordia diagrams and age estimates WEEK 14-- Lect 1: Kinematics of fault systems Lect 2: Thrust fault geophysics and geometric constrains Lab 14: Balanced cross-sections WEEK 15-- Lect 1: Physics of exhumation models Lect 2: Modelling exhumation Lab 16: Modelling exhumation WEEK 16-- Lect 1: Earth’s gravitational field; Correlations with tectonic boundaries Lect 2: Gravity anomalies; Isostacy Lab 10: Gravimeter data collection and reduction. Modelling. Prerequisites: Historical Geology, Physical Geology, Calculus I & II, General Physics I & II, Geological Field Methods, Ordinary Differential Equations, Data Programming with Mathematica. Co-requisite: Hydrology Based on such prerequisites students will be on track to be currently taking or have taken Calculus III when they have matriculated into this course. Hopefully the latter prevails. Hydrology Students will be expected to acquire a basic understanding of: (1) The hydrological cycle: where does the water come and where does it go? (2) The use of simple probability and statistics to describe geohydrologic phenomena. (3) The process of interception, evaporation and transpiration, whereby water is transferred from geosphere to atmosphere. The generation of runoff, factors controlling storage and transfer of water within the channels. (4) Flow through porous media and treatment of saturated flow with Darcys law (5) Well hydraulics, estimation of hydraulic conductivity from slug test. (6) Principles governing the flow in an unsaturated condition. (7) Contaminant migration in underground aquifer. (8) Water quality issues. Typical Text: Fetter, 2003: Applied Hydrogeology, Prentice Hall Tools --> Mathematica GIS (GRASS GIS with addons use) Hydrology (RHESSys) SWMM HEC-RAS HEC-HMS iRIC MODFLOW PRMS (Precipitation Runoff Modeling System) NOTE: will make emphasis use of Mathematica, HEC-HMS, MODFLOW and RHESSys in lectures and labs for modelling and computation. Grading --> Attendance 5% Homework 15% Labs 35% 3 Exams 45 % Topic Outline --> Chapter 1. Introduction Delineation of watershed, hydrological cycle, water as a resource, water supply in whatever ambiance. Chapter 2. Atmospheric aspects of hydrological cycle Weather and climate, humidity, latent heat of condensation, fusion and sublimation, and evapotranspiration Chapter 3. Precipitation and runoff Cloud, formation of precipitation, rise of the air mass, temporal and spatial distribution of precipitation, method of measuring the precipitation amount and effective precipitation depth in a watershed. Chapter 4. Stream flow Runoff, infiltration, effluent and influence streams, runoff, baseflow separation , stream flow velocity profile hydrograph and routing (rating) curves, stream ordering and bifurcation ratio. Chapter 5. Flood analysis Flood frequency duration, recurrence interval, flood attenuation and translation, hydraulic jump, Reynolds number and its relationship to turbulent and laminar, steady and uniform flow. First Midterm Test Chapter 6. Groundwater Basics 1). Primary and secondary porosity, specific yield, perched water table, aquifer types. Hydraulic head and potential. Homogeneous, heterogeneous aquifers, intrinsic permeability and hydraulic conductivity. 2). Darcy’s law, groundwater discharge (Q=Kdh/L*A), Validity of Darcy’s law 3). Storativity, specific storage (Ss) specific yield (Sy) and storativity (S) 4). Major aquifers in ambiance Chapter 7. Principles of Groundwater-Flow 1). Flow nets and conductivity ellipse, tangent law, steady and transient flow 2). Dupuit assumption. Chapter 8 (14,15,-16,17 in the text). Well Hydraulics. 1). Pumping test and Theis type curve analysis, Well drawdown, cone of depression in confined and unconfined aquifers, step-drawdown and its purpose, 2). Jacob method, distance drawdown method of conductivity and storativity Second Midterm Test Chapter 9. Leakly confined aquifer and slug test 1). Leaky confined aquifer, well screen, partial penetrating well. 2). Rising and falling head slug test, conductivity estimate from slug tests. Chapter 10. Multiple wells. 1). Multiple wells and superposition principles 2). Image wells for barrier boundaries 3). Image wells for recharge boundaries Chapter 11. Groundwater modeling 1). Model types and popular modeling programs. Finite difference and finite elements 2). Boundary conditions Chapter 12. Unsaturated flow 1). Capillary rise, soil characterisitic curve, hysteresis 2). Infiltration rate and tests, perc tests Chapter 13. Mass transport of solutes 1). Advection, dispersion and diffusion concepts 2). Types of common contaminants: Organic and Inorganic 3). Remediation Chapter 14. Water Law 1). Common laws and Legislative laws 2). Riparian Doctrine and Prior appropriate doctrine 3). Water Regulations Final Exam LABS --> -Hydrology Problems. Students will be partitioned into groups in lab where they are to assigned problems in hydrology (3 – 5). Such group exercises will be done in various labs where types of problems and level of difficulty is dependent upon point in course lessons. Students will be asked to demonstrate their methods of solution to class. Lab will have quiz periods at times based on such questions assigned to various groups. Such type of activity will be done at the beginning before other mentioned activities. -Introduction to Contouring and Digital Elevation Models. Try to find professional development to compare with. -Climate data is available from various sources. Cooperative weather stations are set-up throughout, providing a historical record of weather data. Some of these stations date back to quite some time. The types of climate data include precipitation (daily, monthly, yearly), air temperature, humidity, precipitation, etc. Meteorological records represent a fundamental hydrologic data set from which to build an understanding of the Earth's hydrosphere. The objective of this lab exercise is to use spreadsheet software or Mathematica (or R) to analyse and interpret hydrologic data, in this case, climatological information. Will need creativity/ imagination to develop something substantially meaningful. Charts will be done manually and with technology tools, ranging from Mathematica to a GIS. Try to find professional development to compare with. -Associating countering and digital elevation models to hydrological data analysis development. One would like to characterise seasonal precipitation for particular elevations. Charts will be done manually and with technology tools, ranging from Mathematica to a GIS. -Water budget of ambiance of particular region: precipitation and evaporation. A guide idea: https://people.wou.edu/~taylors/es476_hydro/monolake.pdf Not restricted solely to Excel. Charts will be done manually and with technology tools, ranging from Mathematica to a GIS. -Developing an isohyet map for a given area or region. Charts will be done manually and with technology tools, ranging from Mathematica to a GIS. Try to find professional development to compare with -Region or area ice budget The objective of this lab is to analyse glacial ice budgets for a select set of areas and to determine the factors that control the spatial distribution of ice and snow in the whatever ambiance. Glacial retreat is a high priority. Such will be done for 5 - 35 years. Additionally comparing each year and determining whether there’s variation in the ice budget over time, and how drastic is the variation over time. Scatter plots and column charts (histograms) may or may not be useful in early stages. For particular elevations will also like to develop a temperature time series for decided upon time span. For particular elevations will also like to develop a precipitation time series for decided upon time span. For particular elevations or chosen peaks (or whatever) how well are temperature and precipitation correlated. Is there any conclusive relation between elevation, temperature and precipitation? Is there any conclusive relation between latitude, elevation, temperature and precipitation? Is there any conclusive relation between ice volume, latitude, elevation, temperature and precipitation? Describe all relationships that you observe relating mountain elevation, latitude position, ice volume, and ice areas. Is there a consistent pattern that emerges Which mountain or whatever is associated with the greatest ice volume, and the least? Explain the relationships that you observe. -Surface water. Surface water processes are driven by the interplay between meteorological processes and geomorphic configuration of the landscape. Watersheds of varying scale represent the fundamental hydrologic unit at the Earth's surface. This lab employs data techniques that are commonly applied to the analysis of surface water hydrology. Flood climatology. List of world record rainfall intensities (inches of precip.) for specific durations (lengths of time). The rainfall and durations may or may not be expressed as Log 10 values; may have to convert back to original values. Plot the data on a scatter chart with a (log x) axis (duration in days) and a (log y) axis (total rainfall inches). Format the scatter plot with titles, labels and grid lines. Fit a power-function curve to the data. Answer related questions. Historical Discharge Analysis / Recurrence Intervals. Whatever River at Whatever State Park is gauged by the National Geological Survey. Discharge data have been collected since whenever. Develop a summary of annual peak discharge data from whatever gauging station. The recurrence interval of a given flood discharge is commonly calculated from a set of historical data. Develop the annual peak discharges for the Whatever gaging station; represents the maximum discharge recorded at the station for a given water year. AMBITION: recurrence interval of annual peak discharge represents an estimation, based on the historical record, of the probability of a given flood discharge occurring over a given time period. For example, the "100 yr flood" is a flood-discharge magnitude that has a probability of occurring once every 100 yrs. Generally, the lower the magnitude of event, the statistically more frequent the chance of occurring, and vice-versa. Once the recurrence intervals for given discharges are calculated, the relations may be visually plotted on a Gumbel-type graph. This is more-or-less a semi-log graph relation (Gumbel graph paper is available in the lab data section of the class web site). Determine a list of procedures on how to analyse frequency-discharge data and implement. Parameters of interest: rank of Discharge, total number of observations, and probability of occurrence. Watershed Morphometry and Hydrologic Relations. Collection of channel network data from three watersheds wherever. The data are organized by stream order and channel segment length for each area. Drainage areas, lengths from divide, and basin relief are also listed for each site. Calculate the drainage density for each watershed in m/km^2. Determine the Shreve Magnitude for each watershed (M = frequency or count of first order stream segments). Using the given empirical hydrologic relations, calculate the maximum discharge expected for each of the chosen watersheds (answer in cubic meters per second). Using the given empirical hydrologic relations, calculate the discharge expected for a recurrence interval of 2.33 years at each of the watersheds. Using the rational runoff method, assume that each watershed is covered with a clayey-soil colluvium. Now consider a regional rainfall event with an average intensity of 127 mm/day. Calculate the peak runoff discharge anticipated at each of the three watersheds, answer in cubic meters per second. What would happen to the peak discharge at each watershed if they were totally paved in asphalt (like with respect to urban development)? Using the Time for Hydraulic Concentration empirical formula from the equation list, calculate Tc for each of the watersheds (NOTE: for this empirical formula to work, the units must be in English as listed on the equation sheet). Answer questions in the Express the relationship between World Record total rainfall and duration as a power-function equation. How well do the data fit this equation? For some arbitrary region chosen, predict the region of the graph where typical Rainfall-Duration relationships will fall; think about the style of precipitation that chosen place typically receives. Based on the graph, discuss the types of rainfall events that are likely associated with widespread regional flooding. Based on your calculations of Recurrence Interval of a Given Discharge of Rank, probability of occurrence, and the Gumbel Curve, calculate a unit discharge for the highest and lowest peak discharge events observed in the record. Calculate the unit discharges for the 30 yr floods on the Ling Ling River and Ping Ping River. Which has a higher unit discharge? Compare and contrast the Gumbel plots for the Ling Ling and Ping Ping drainages. What geologic/climatic/hydrologic variables account for the similarities and differences between the two (you will have to look at a basic geologic map of the region, locate the watersheds by long. and lat., then comment on the geologic environment, etc.). Using your graphs, hypothesize what the maximum peak discharge would be for a 150 year recurrence interval on the Ling Ling and Ping Ping Rivers. Answer in cubic meters / sec. Which one is higher and why? Discuss the relationship between watershed morphometry (physical characteristics of the watershed network), climate, and river hydrology. Consider all of the calculations and relationships that you examined in this section. Place your discussion in the context of flood hazards planning. -Stream Order https://people.wou.edu/~taylors/es476_hydro/stream_ordering_ex.pdf -Rational Runoff https://people.wou.edu/~taylors/es476_hydro/river_lab_flood_analysis.pdf INSTEAD, student groups will be assigned regions. They will pursue all data for development independently. The only major issue will be acquiring clear drainage maps for respective region. -Groundwater Flow Model https://people.wou.edu/~taylors/es476_hydro/intro_groundwater_flow_model.pdf HEC-RAS activities -Choose hydrogeology exercises from the following: Ming-Kuo Lee (1998) Hands-On Laboratory Exercises for an Undergraduate Hydrogeology Course, Journal of Geoscience Education, 46:5, 433 - 438 -Working with Groundwater Contour maps There will be multiple sets to complete https://people.wou.edu/~taylors/es476_hydro/gw_contour_map_ex.pdf Co-requisite: Global Geophysics Prerequisite: Geomorphology Mathematical Physics for Geophysics This course isn’t concerned with being a perfectionist, nor towards retarding attempts to unfairly treat or critique others by claiming teaching education based on something trivial one has practiced a thousand times with nothing better to do. Affinity or innate ability makes the world turn, not a parasitic mathematical fanatic; you can’t compare a mathematician to an engineer or physicist or chemist. Any directive of this course doesn’t primarily concern repulsive trivial matrix algebra prowess; people have better things to do than trying to intimidate others with boxes of numbers abiding by linear models. All modules mentioned and detailed subjects will be completed with quality instruction. Course will have integrity in a firm foundation of physics. A major directive of this course is to introduce practical and relevant mathematical tools in a pleasant manner towards the physical sciences and geophysics. It’s really constructive that students consume and digest the material through such fluid and tangible course layout given, rather than them questioning their decision making in career goals, and them not questioning the instructor’s true worth in society. One wants to model physics, rather than attempts of mathematical superiority towards nothing. Mathematical theory will neither drown course nor weaken the focus of the course. Course will be treated in a manner that emphasizes practicality, being a solid foundation for the physical sciences and geophysics, rather than mathematical frolic and parasitic mathematical obnoxiousness. Assessment --> Homework 25% 3 Exams 75% Course Outline --> --Geometrical Vector Spaces This module will only concern objects physically meaningful to the physical sciences; notion of dimension will be physical and nothing more. To be relevant to physics one must have a background in physics and understand the physics. Topics in module will be described, developed and categorized towards constructive practical usage in applications. Matrices done manually will be no larger than column size or row size of 3 and will be limited; larger sizes concern computational tool. 1. Structure for Euclidean space Definitions of field Vector space Inner product Norm Normed vector space Metric 2. Linear independence and bases vectors with relation to coordinates and transformations. Note: I don’t care about about a bunch of given weirdo matrices out of no where. I only care about coordinate systems and transformations. 3. Gram-Schmidt Process (vectors) and its relevance to basis vectors. Modified Gram-Schmidt (vectors) 4. Transformations between Cartesian coordinate systems: shifts, Euler angle rotations and relation to spherical coordinates. 5. Transforming differentials and vectors among Cartesian, polar, cylindrical and spherical coordinates. 6. For a respective system identify the basis. Change of basis between prior mentioned coordinate systems. Confirm that magnitude and direction remains unchanged. How does one know that orientation is preserved? 7. Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues of geometric transformations (Mathematica usage to complement). Don’t evangelise the boxes of gibberish finesse, rather, why is it so special that it’s not wasting time --Properties of vectors spaces in Euclidean space with application to coordinates 1. Observing the orientations of vectors and covariant vectors at point p. Mapping for contravariant and covariant vectors, and respective transformation matrices (and will apply actual coordinates). 2. Covariant bases and contravariant bases and observing the orientations at point p (will also apply coordinate systems and transformations). 3. Kronecker delta; dual relationship between contravariant and covariant (basis) vectors 4. Defining the norm via contravariant-covariant “contraction” and its invariance w.r.t to coordinate transformations. 5. Euclidean Metric i. Properties of distance (or the norm) validated in Euclidean space, namely positive definiteness, non-degeneracy, symmetry and triangular inequality. ii. Transformation of metric components iii. Transformation of metric components w.r.t to actual coordinate transformations, and preservation of distance iv. Use of the Euclidean metric to relate contravariant and covariant components --Common Tensorial Operators Note: higher order tensors will be confined to rank 2. 1. Introducing the concept and structure of the tensor product, it’s geometrical view, and it’s transformation (”egg shell” form and explicit cases with coordinate systems). Explicit change of coordinates for tensor products among the basis vectors. For various coordinate transformations to determine how the basis vectors in the tensor product change and the explicit consequences for tensor components; for a given coordinate transformation how will chosen basis vectors transform. NOTE: will not indulge much on rotation matrices and shifts, because there are more interesting transformations. Among various coordinate systems will investigate how tensor components (within the tensor product) adjust to preserve equivalence in the manifold. Can we identify explicit images of such components based on homeomorphisms being the explicit coordinate transformations? 2. The metric tensor. Will identify its properties by formally recognising tensorial structure and employing (1) prior towards its properties. 3. Review of gradient (with properties) and the displacement gradient; change of coordinates and verifying equivalency among coordinate systems. 4. Review of directional derivative and properties; change of coordinates and verifying equivalency among coordinate systems. 5. Review of divergence and properties; change of coordinates and verifying equivalency among coordinate systems. 6. Gradient of a tensor field; change of coordinates and verifying equivalency among coordinate systems. 7. Directional derivative of a tensor field; change of coordinates and verifying equivalency among coordinate systems. 8. Divergence of a tensor field; change of coordinates and verifying equivalency among coordinate systems. 9. Review of divergence theorem; change of coordinates and verifying equivalency among coordinate systems. 10. Divergence theorem of a tensor field; change of coordinates and verifying equivalency among coordinate systems. 11. Applications of the Levi-Civita symbol i. Definition and properties ii. Determinants iii. Vector cross product, curl & irrotational fields iv. Curl of tensor fields; change of coordinates & verifying equivalency among coordinates v. Review of Green’s theorem and Stokes theorem vi. Tensorial forms of Green’s Theorem and Stokes Theorem; change of coordinates & verifying equivalency among coordinates for the theorems 12. Will identify non-relativistic tensors in the physicals sciences and apply various coordinate transformations as practice. 13. Electromagnetism Review of Maxwell Equations Maxwell Equations in terms of electromagnetic potentials Verifying prior holds under coordinate transformations Is gauge invariance unique to coordinate transformations? Is gauge invariance preserved under coordinate transformations? --Orthogonalization of Functions 1. Why do we care about this in physics? 2. Proof of economical practicality in use 3. Seaborn, J. B. (2002). Orthogonal Functions. In: Mathematics for the Physical Sciences. Springer, New York, NY. 4. Gram-Schmidt Orthonormalization (functions) --Applications that make Complex Variables Relevant 1. Complex numbers 2. Is there any economical practicality in representing geometries or physical bodies with complex variables? 3. Should Complex Variables courses be turned back into conferences in rooms locked from the outside? Animal shelter selection or something. 4. Geometrical properties of complex variables (no representation of geometries because people have better things to do) 5. Complex exponential as a power series leading to Euler’s formula; cosine and sine expressed in terms of complex exponents. 6. What is so special about the complex conjugate outside of a math course in a classical physics sense? Get to the point with fast practicality. 7. Simple harmonic oscillator i. Modelling classical physical systems of SHM ii. Solutions of ODE of SHM (solutions in trigonometric & exponential form) iii. Damping & comparing solutions to ideal SHM (trigonometric & exponential forms) iv. Superposition of waves (trigonometric and exponential forms) 8. Eigenvalue Analysis of Vibrations Note: if I look at something and can’t make it out to be physics, don’t bother; boxes of numbers are not physics. Matrices are mundane algorithmic tools. If system requires matrices higher than 2 by 2, your graphing calculator skills and Mathematica should be relevant. If you have infinite time to doodle with matrix theory, go find a math department and stay there. Mechanics Systems One dimensional Membrane 3D Continuous media 9. Fourier Series i. Review of trigonometric integral identities and the associated complete orthogonal system ii. Periodic functions, definition of Fourier series and computations iii. Going from [-pi, pi] to [-L, L] via change of variables iv. Complex Fourier series v. Convergence criteria via Dini’s test and boundary conditions; with exemption functions examples. Calderon, C. P. (1981). On the Dini Test & Divergence of Fourier Series, Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society, 82(3), pp. 382-384 vi. Dini continuity and Dini criterion. vii. Recognising Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues through the method of separation of variables upon the linear wave equation and linear heat equation involving Fourier series. Eigenfrequencies of vibration and the eigenvectors as shapes of the vibrational modes. May consider representation in spherical and cylindrical coordinates as exercises. 10. Fourier Transform i. Differentiating between “series” and “transform” ii. Counterparts to Dini (test, continuity and criterion) for Fourier transform? iii. Differentiation and integration properties iv. Applications in geophysics 11. Heavyside Step function and the Dirac function i. Rectangular shifts and rectangular pulses ii. Function types in terms of Heaviside and Dirac functions iii. Applications Claude Wendell Horton; On the use of electromagnetic waves in geophysical prospecting. Geophysics 1946;; 11 (4): 505–517 Seismic data exploration iv. Show that particular functions (Gaussian, sinc, Airy, Bessel function of the first kind) all converge to the Dirac delta function for a specific limit. 12. Investigating of Mathematica functions --Overview of the Heat Equation and Wave Equation 1. Development of models 2. Basic solving method 3. Practical conditions for geophysics Initial Conditions and Boundary Conditions Resulting Solutions --Bessel’s Equation 1. Solving the Laplace equation in cylindrical coordinates 2. Solution of Bessel’s equation (first and second kind) via method of Frobenius and recurrence 3. General solution of Bessel’s equation of order p 4. Applications in physical settings 5. Investigating of Mathematica functions --Legendre Equation 1. Solving the Laplace equation in spherical coordinates 2. Solving the Legendre equation (first and second kind) via method of Frobenius and recurrence 3. Solving Helmholtz equation in spherical coordinates 4. Expansion of potentials and the physical roles of terms (gravitation and magnetospheres) Note: for gravitation, applying motion of inertia and McCullough’s formula with Legendre polynomials can prove to be very insightful. 5. Investigating of Mathematica functions --Eigenfunctions in Geophysics Concerned with a robust but intuitive exposure to Eigenfunctions arising naturally with geophysical phenomena and their meaningfulness; NOT a broken sewage line cascading mathematical gibbersh. Ben-Menahem A., Singh S.J. (1981) Asymptotic Theory of the Earth’s Normal Modes. In: Seismic Waves and Sources. Springer, New York L. Zhao, F. A. Dahlen (1993), Asymptotic Eigenfrequencies of the Earth's Normal Modes, Geophysical Journal International, Volume 115, Issue 3, Pages 729–758 L. Zhao, F. A. Dahlen (1995), Asymptotic Normal Modes of the Earth—II. Eigenfunctions, Geophysical Journal International, Volume 121, Issue 2, Pages 585–626 L. Zhao, F. A. Dahlen (1995), Asymptotic Normal Modes of the Earth—III. Fréchet Kernel and Group Velocity, Geophysical Journal International, Volume 122, Issue 1, Pages 299–325 Investigating Mathematica functions Prerequisites: General Physics I & II, ODE, Calculus III. Potential Field Methods in Applied Geophysics By the end of this class you will have: • Comprehension of the theory and application of gravity surveys in environmental studies • Understanding of the link between geophysical properties controlling gravity surveys and subsurface environmental parameters • Knowledge of field procedures for gravity surveys • Informed interpretation of gravity survey data sets • Comprehension of the theory and application of electric surveys in environmental studies • Understanding of the link between geophysical properties controlling electric surveys and subsurface environmental parameters • Knowledge of field procedures for electric surveys • Informed interpretation of electric survey data sets • Comprehension of the theory and application of magnetic surveys in environmental studies • Understanding of the link between geophysical properties controlling magnetic surveys and subsurface environmental parameters • Knowledge of field procedures for magnetic surveys • Informed interpretation of magnetic survey data sets • Comprehension of the theory and application of NMR surveys in environmental studies • Understanding of the link between geophysical properties controlling NMR surveys and subsurface environmental parameters • Knowledge of field procedures for NMR surveys • Informed interpretation of NMR survey data sets • Note: different methods can be combined or applied along each other (among electric, magnetic, electromagnetic, NMR) for geophysical analysis, surveys and prospecting. Students should recognise such and may be quizzed and/or tested on such. Typical Texts --> Potential Theory in Gravity & Magnetic Applications, by Richard J. Blakely Environmental & Engineering Geophysics, by P. V. Sharma, Cambridge University Press Recommended Texts and Resources: Applied Geophysics by W. M. Telford, L. P. Geldart Multivariable & Vector Calculus Texts Will also make use of journal articles Wolfram Mathematica: Apart from computation will also make use of Mathematica’s “Earth Sciences Data and Computation” and “Geographic Data & Entities”. Course Grade --> Homework Quizzes Computational & Data Assignments with Modelling 3 - 8 field/lab activities 2 Exams Course Outline --> I. Gravity Potential -Introduction to Fields -Math Review: vectors, scalars, vector multiplication and properties, spherical and cylindrical coordinates. -Math Review: partial derivatives, gradients, Laplacian, divergence, curl, conservation & non-conservative fields, differential equations -Math Review: Volume Integrals, Surface integrals, line integrals, divergence theorem -Introduction to gravitational potential and gravitational acceleration -Density of materials -Gravitational acceleration due to simple shapes -Gravity measurements -Earth’s Gravitational Field -Deriving the gravitational potential in terms of Gauss law, involving the Poisson equation in spherical coordinates towards a radial model. -Deriving the gravitational potential in terms of moment of inertia, namely, manipulated with McCullough’s formula and Legendre’s formula; identify the total potential decomposed into gravitational force, centripetal force and other possible following terms. Observation of gravitational potential for varying distance and latitude; convergence back to classical model. -Gravity survey- indirect (surface) means of calculating the density property of subsurface materials. -The Gal unit and cause of its variation. Gravity gradient. Gravity gradiometry. 1-component of the gravity field in the vertical direction versus full tensor gravity gradiometry measures (all components of the gravity field). Being the derivatives of gravity, the spectral power of gravity gradient signals is pushed to higher frequencies; this generally makes the gravity gradient anomaly more localised to the source than the gravity anomaly. Gravity anomalies and corrections. -Image subsurface geology to aid hydrocarbon and mineral exploration. Gravity surveys highlight gravity anomalies that can be related to geological features such as salt diapirs, fault systems, reef structures, Kimberlite pipes, etc. Types of gravity gradiometers. Transforming relative gravity survey measurements to absolute gravity values and gravity anomalies (will require some mathematical models). -Introduction to forward modelling and inverse theory -Forward modelling and inversion of gravity data Phelps, G. A. (2015). 2D Forward Modelling of Gravity Data Using Geostatistically Generated Subsurface Density Variations. American Geophysical Union Geoff Phelps, (2016), "Forward modelling of gravity data using geostatistically generated subsurface density variations," GEOPHYSICS 81: G81-G94. Will also include Mathematica assignments II. Geoids -Geoids. Comparison between ellipsoid, Earth’s surface, geoid and ocean. -Geoid + Ellipsoid = Earth. -Means to more accurately calculate depths of earthquakes, or any other deep object beneath the earth’s surface. -“WGS84” version (World Geodetic System of 1984). https://www.ngs.noaa.gov/GEOID/ https://beta.ngs.noaa.gov/GEOID/xGEOID/ III. Electricity -Self Potential Additional assist article guide: Jouniaux, Maineult, Naudet, Pessel, & Sailhac. (2009). Review of Self-Potential Methods in Hydrogeophysics. Comptes Rendus - Géoscience, 341(10-11), 928-936. There will be two experimental activities (with trials) to develop: 1. Rittgers, J. B. et al. (2013). Self-Potential Signals Generated by the Corrosion of Buried Metallic Objects with Application to Contaminant Plumes. Gophysics, VOL. 78, NO. 5, P. EN65–EN82 2. The following can article can used to develop field experimentation, where expensive and fancy equipment aren’t required, rather they can be developed and have data acquisition-- Leitch, A. M., & Boone, C. R. (2007). A Study of the SP Geophysical Technique in a Campus Setting. Atlantic Geology, 43, Pages 91 - 111. -Resistivity Additional guide: Herman, R. (2001). An Introduction to Electrical Resistivity in Geophysics. Am. J. Phys., Vol. 69, No. 9 Include the duality relation between resistivity and conductivity methods. Scenario Evaluator for Electrical Resistivity (SEER) Survey Pre-Modelling Tool: 1. Terry, Neil, Day-Lewis, F.D., Robinson, J.L., Slater, L.D., Halford, Keith, Binley, Andrew, Lane, J.W., and Werkema, Dale, 2017, Scenario Evaluator for Electrical Resistivity Survey Pre-modelling Tool: Groundwater 2. Terry, Neil, Day-Lewis, F.D., Robinson, J.L., Slater, L.D., Halford, K., Binley, A., Lane, J.W. Jr., and Werkema, D., 2017, The Scenario Evaluator for Electrical Resistivity (SEER) Survey Design Tool v1.0: U.S. Geological Survey Provisional Software Release Field operations of the resistivity method is feasible. One can succeed SEER with development of a field system without fancy and expensive instrumentation, but having data acquisition ability. Would like to compare field operations with data from professional sources, done in the environment of interest; experimentation with trials will be done regardless, and compared to SEER preliminary prediction. -Induced Polarization Additional interest: Wynn, J. and Roberts, W. (2009). "The Application of Induced Polarization Techniques to Detect Metal‐Bearing Offshore Anthropogenic Waste and Unexploded Ordnance," Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to Engineering and Environmental Problems Proceedings: 1104-1113 IV. Magnetic Potential -Introduction to magnetic potential -Magnetic susceptibility -Magnetic susceptibility of materials -Magnetic potential due to simple shapes -Magnetic measurements -Earth’s magnetic field -Major geomagnetic models -Secular Variation -Forward modelling and inversion of magnetic data With use of Mathematica with tasks -Magnetic surveying Field Experiments to implement: Tronicke, J. and Trauth, M. H. (2018). Classroom Sized Geophysical Experiments: Magnetic Surveying Using Modern Smartphone Devices, European Journal of Physics, Volume 39, Number 3 < https://archive.epa.gov/esd/archive-geophysics/web/html/magnetic_methods.html > IV. Electromagnetism --Ground penetrating radar Jol, Harry M. (2008). Ground Penetrating Radar Theory and Applications. Elsevier Science. For the following two sources with links the process is detailed, and will pursue data to be used for modelling, analysis, representation and prospecting purposes in the Mathematica environment: Forde, A.S., Bernier, J.C., and Miselis, J.L., 2018, Ground Penetrating Radar and Differential Global Positioning System Data Collected in April 2016 from Fire Island, New York: U.S. Geological Survey Data Series 1078 Zaremba, N.J., Smith, K.E.L., Bishop, J.M., and Smith, C.G., 2016, Ground-Penetrating Radar and Differential Global Positioning System Data Collected from Long Beach Island, New Jersey, April 2015: U.S. Geological Survey Data Series 1006 --Magnetotelluric method (MT) General Guide: Chave, A. D., & Jones, A. G. (Eds.) (2012). The Magnetotelluric Method: Theory and practice. New York: Cambridge University Press. Will pursue data to be used for data modelling, analysis, representation and prospecting purposes in/with the Mathematica environment: Tikhonov, A.N., 1950. in 1953, On Determining Electrical Characteristics of the Deep Layers of the Earth's Crust, Doklady, 73, 295-297 Cagniard, L (1953). Basic theory of the Magnetotelluric Method of Geophysical Prospecting. Geophysics. 18 (3): 605–635 Zhang, L. et al. Magnetotelluric Investigation of the Geothermal Anomaly in Hailin, Mudanjiang, Northeastern China. Journal of Applied Geophysics 118 (2015) 47–65 --Electromagnetic Waves for Prospecting Claude Wendell Horton; On the Use of Electromagnetic Waves in Geophysical Prospecting. Geophysics 1946; 11 (4): 505–517 Thiel, D.V. (1988). VLF Electromagnetic Prospecting. In: General Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Science. Springer, Boston, MA. --Induction There is additional interest besides what is found in textbooks. The given sources to serve as guide towards acquiring data from ambiances of interest towards data modelling, analysis and prospecting: Prinos, S.T., and Valderrama, Robert, 2016, Collection, Processing, and Quality Assurance of Time-Series Electromagnetic-Induction Log Satasets, 1995–2016, south Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2016–1194, 24 pages. Valderrama, R., 2017, Time Series Electromagnetic Induction-Log Datasets, Including Logs Collected through the 2016 Water Year in South Florida: U.S. Geological Survey data release V. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Introduction to Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) -NMR Theory and material properties -NMR measurements -Basic inversion of NMR data (will be both lecture-based and active use of real external data towards modelling analysis, representation and prospecting) Additional guides: Legchenko, Baltassat, Beauce, & Bernard. (2002). Nuclear Magnetic Resonance as a Geophysical tool for Hydrogeologists. Journal of Applied Geophysics, 50(1-2), 21-46. Legchenko, A., & Legtchenko. (2013). Magnetic Resonance Imaging for Groundwater. Somerset: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. Nicot, F. (2013). Link Between SNMR and Aquifer Parameters. In Focus Series (pp. 121-142). Hoboken, USA: John Wiley & Sons. Vouillamoz, J.M., Legchenko, A., Albouy, Y., Bakalowicz, M., Baltassat, J.M., & Al-Fares, W. (2003). Localization of saturated karst aquifer with magnetic resonance sounding and resistivity imagery. Ground Water, 41(5), 578-586 Prerequisite: Global Geophysics Seismology Classical seismology. Topics to be covered: theories of wave propagation in the earth, instrumentation, Earth's structure and tomography, theory of the seismic source, physics of earthquakes, and seismic risk. Emphasis will be placed on how quantitative mathematical and physical methods are used to understand complex natural processes, such as earthquakes. Note: Such a course is crucial towards any possible sociability or commerce with professionals in other areas such as physics and mathematics; else you will be bumped off by such entities and they will take your job or possible jobs because they know the mathematical modelling, etc. Such a course provides credibility towards graduate school. Conventional textbooks --> S. Stein & M. Wysession (abbreviated SW), “An Introduction to Seismology, Earthquakes, and Earth Structure” T. Lay & T.C. Wallace (abbreviated LW), “Modern Global Seismology” P.M. Shearer (abbreviated S), “Introduction to Seismology” Manuals --> Bormann, P. (Ed.)(2012): New Manual of Seismological Observatory Practice (NMSOP-2), Potsdam : Deutsches GeoForschungszentrum GFZ; IASPEI. Peterson, J. R. (1993). Observations and Modelling of Seismic Background Noise. U.S. Geological Survey. Series number 93- 322. Tools --> Mathematica HypoDD Waldhauser, F. (2001). hypoDD-A Program to Compute Double-Difference Hypocenter Locations. USGS 2001-113 CIG (computational Infrastructure for Geodynamics): https://geodynamics.org/resources/notebooks Unified Geodynamics Earth Science Computation Environment (UGESCE) USGS Earthquake Hazards Software Without such software incorporated professionally and applied consistently, seismology studies are not credible. Courses of such are never to be held hostage by pure mathematicians. Course will also emphasize heavy usage of real seismological data to develop practical and sustainable skills. Grades will be determined as 20% HW 20% Labs: Software and data activity 20% Exam 1 20% Exam 2 20% Final Exam Lab Components --> The following components will be done on multiple occasions, often with multiple components being connected on multiple occasions: --Basic plot generation with Generic Mapping Tools (GMT), and discussion of general patterns of earthquakes in space, time, and magnitude. --Will involve professional understanding, logistics, acquisition and implementation of data from various professional sources, technologies and software --Event and waveform databases. Applications will include an introduction to strategies for organizing data, available catalogs, principles of earthquake location, and hypocentral location software. --Seismic recording and seismograms. Applications will include time series analysis, digitization, filtering, and Seismic Analysis Code (SAC). --Seismogram plotting, and correlation detection. --Calculating background seismic noise reductions --Lienert, B. R., Berg, E. and Frazer, L. N. (1986). HYPOCENTER: An Earthquake Location Method using Centered, Scaled, and Adaptively Damped Least Squares. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 1986; 76 (3): 771–783 Concern for this article is the implementation of the method from manual build, say, in Mathematica and so forth. As well, comparing to method applied in HypoDD (qualitatively at least); will need supporting documentation for HypoDD --Determination of physical properties of media based on wave type and behaviour. --Will try to replicate to best of ability: Kennett, B.L.N. & Furumura, T. (2019). Significant P Wave Conversions from Upgoing S Waves Generated by Very Deep Earthquakes Around Japan. Prog Earth Planet Sci 6, 49 Study or more modern data is also expected Can also pursue other regions around the globe COURSE OUTLINE --> Overview of course, simple harmonic oscillator, elasticity (Readings: SW Chapter 1, 2.1-2.3) -Simple harmonic motion -Stress & strain -Hooke’s law; isotropic elasticity; transverse anisotropy -Moduli for different stress conditions (Young’s modulus, bulk modulus) Waves, ray solutions to the acoustic wave equation (Readings: LW Chapter 3, SW Chapter 3.1-3.3) -Acoustic (hydrostatic) wave equation in 1D, plane waves, velocity -2D/3D wave equation: Eikonal, Helmholtz & transport equations, WKBJ solution -Layer over a halfspace: Reflection/transmission coefficients, Snell’s Law, head waves -Continuous velocity with depth, tau-p analysis Full wave solutions, elastic waves (Readings: SW Chapter 2.4-2.6, 3.4-3.5) -Finite difference solutions, wavefield continuation & FK migration, Kirchoff migration -Elastic wave equation, potentials & separation into P&S waves -Reflected waves: Zoeppritz equations, Snell’s Law for P&S waves -Body waves in the earth (P, S, PcP, PKP, …) -Adams-Williamson equation Surface waves, travel-time tomography (Readings: SW Chapter 2.7-2.8, 7.3) -Love and Rayleigh waves, eigenfunctions -Dispersion, phase and group velocity -Tomography theory, inverse methods Normal modes, attenuation (Readings: SW Chapter 2.9, 3.7) -Modes in 1D, modes of a sphere, spherical harmonics -Torsional, spheroidal modes, synthetic seismograms -Attenuation, mode splitting, mode coupling Sensitivity kernels, determination of Earth structure (Readings: SW Chapter 7.4, LW Chapter 4.7) -Depth sensitivity kernels for surface waves, Mode sensitivity kernels -Sensitivity kernels for tomography, Fresnel zones Theory of seismic sources (Readings: LW Chapter 8) -Static and elastodynamic sources -Green’s function for seismic waves (straight to the point & nothing else) -Elastic dislocations, seismic moment, moment tensors Point source solutions (Readings: SW Chapter 4) -Double couple and radiation pattern -Retrieval of source parameters from body waves and long-period waves Finite-fault solutions and physics of earthquakes (Readings: LW Chapter 9) -Haskell model; Rupture directivity, stress drop, energy partitioning -Earthquake scaling relations, earthquake statistics Prerequisites: Global Geophysics, Mathematical Physics for Geophysics. Geodynamics The mechanics and dynamics of the Earth's interior and their applications to problems of Geophysics. This course considers several rheological descriptions of Earth materials (brittle, elastic, linear and nonlinear fluids, and viscoelastic) and emphasizes analytical solutions to simplified problem. Students will gain an in-depth understanding of the mechanics of the lithosphere, deformation, stress, fluid mechanics as it applies to the Earth's interior, including thermal convection. Students will derive analytical solutions to simplified problems that reveal the fundamental characteristics of more complex geodynamical models and provide a toolkit to interpret geological observations. Students will understand the relation between physics concept, especially continuum mechanics and (laminar) fluid dynamics, and geological observations (Interdisciplinary understanding). Note: Such a course is crucial towards any possible sociability or commerce with professionals in other areas such as physics and mathematics; else you will be bumped off by such entities and they will take your job or possible jobs because they know the mathematical modelling, etc. Such a course provides credibility towards graduate school. Homework --> Homework will involve (BUT NOT LIMITED TO) the following topics: --Various mathematical refreshers embedded in homework following. I am neither a @55hole nor jackass nor sentient virus from the math department) --Stress --Strain + dikes --Elasticity --Fluid Mechanics --Geophysical gravitational models Tidal Gravity Models Spherical Harmonics EGM 2008 and EGM 2020 Anomaly (Bouguer, free-air) --Plates --Asthenospheric flow --Isostatic rebound --Heat --Thermal catastrophe --Wave mechanics through various media --Rheology Note: occasionally, homework may sometimes require access to Internet tools, computer calculation and simple programming. Tools for Course --> Mathematica/Python/R OpenFoam OPM (opm-project.org) USGS Coulomb software Potent ( http://www.geoss.com.au/potent.html ) MODFLOW (+ Gridgen) HEC-HMS CIG (computational Infrastructure for Geodynamics): https://geodynamics.org/resources/notebooks Unified Geodynamics Earth Science Computation Environment (UGESCE) GPlates, GPlates data sets LABS --> Labs concern strong acquaintance with the given software tools in a professional manner. Emphasis on the following: Models in question Comprehension of uses of chosen software for course topic Software Logistics Implementation Group Term Project --> PART A The group term project should address some topic or issue in geodynamics. You will present an overview of your term project to the class. You are encouraged to think more broadly than simply reviewing the literature – Concerns outline an approach or approaches to addressing an unresolved question or towards premier interests in the field – Actually solve a problem or Investigation Develop procedure and logistics Perform some numerical calculations Lab experiments skills Come up with Mathematica-based activities, Apply geodynamics/geomechanics software listed (in software portfolio alongside Mathematica/Python/R), Interpret data with what we learned in class. PART B Data Oriented Gravitational Models. Describe (concept, history, process, data source to be applied, modelling of data, analysis of model, conclusion) Satellite gravimetry models (GRACE or GOCE) Inversion models Forward modelling (USGS gravmagsubs) Airborne Gravity Gradiometry Surveys Regardless of what you do, you will need to write term paper in the form of a scientific journal article; The final term project will be submitted in a format and length similar to Geophysical Research Letters papers. Templates and length limitations for these papers be downloaded by the journal homepage. Incorporate figures, tables and development with the applied tools. Done for both part A and part B. Grade Constitution --> Homework Labs 3 Exams Group Term Paper Course Text: Turcotte, D. L. and Schubert, G. (2013). Geodynamics, Cambridge University Press Note: physics and constructive, practical mathematical modelling based on prerequisites will be reinforced to properly treat geodynamics; other texts that don’t restrict such demands can support. COURSE OUTLINE: WEEKS 1 – 2 Plate Tectonics Introduction to geodynamics and plate tectonics Types of plate boundaries, triple junctions, Euler poles, plate tectonics on a sphere WEEKS 2 – 4 Stress, strain and elastic deformation Force, stress and pressure Strain and strain rate Elastic deformation Bending and buckling of plates Dynamics of basins 3 days: practical and constructive usage of Mathematica and other tools for geodynamics WEEKS 5 – 6 Heat Transfer Fourier's law Steady and unsteady heat transfer, moving boundaries WEEKS 6 – 8 Fluid Mechanics Channel flows, plumes, thermal convection, gravity currents High and low Re flows, and dimensional analysis Numerical simulations of mantle convection WEEK 9 Gravity Deformation of the Earth Gravity anomalies (free-air, Bouguer, ) WEEKS 10 Porous Media Darcy's law Aquifers Geothermal systems Magma migration WEEK 11 – 12 Biot Formulation & Generalised Biot Formulation (GBF) Biot Formulation Means of competently applying conditions and data to Biot formulation Highly porous, moderately porous, low porous Generalised Biot Formulation Means of competently applying conditions and data to GBF Highly porous, moderately porous, low porous WEEK 13 Mechanical & Acoustic Waves through Non-Porous Media Seismic Waves Types with velocity, reflection and refraction. Relevance to the exploration for oil and gas, engineering studies, and understanding the Earth's interior. Acoustic Waves Compressional Waves with similarities to P-waves in seismic contexts. Velocity Application to well-logging tools Elastic Properties Three types of modulus Poisson’s Ratio Stiffness and Compliance Attenuation Energy loss is seismic and acoustic waves Anisotropy Non-porous rocks can exhibit anisotropy, where wave velocities vary with direction. This can be due to the alignment of minerals or fractures within the rock. WEEK 14 – 15 Rheology of geological materials and faulting Diffusion and dislocation creep Rheological models Friction and faulting WEEK 16 Rotation, Nonlinear flow, Nonlinear corner flow Prerequisites: Historical Geology, Plate Tectonics, Global Geophysics, Numerical Analysis., Calculus III Computational Geomechanics Essential Attributes of course: (a) Theory, laws and governing equations (with expected solutions if practical) for field application in question. This is not a math course; you have real economical goals with time constraints. (b) Understanding structure, logistics, practicality and limitations of a respective numerical method. (c) Computational BVPs are simulated Manual construction of numerical process to problems Actual approximations/simulations by manually implementing numerical methodology Implementing given software to compare with manual constructions. Grading: Homework Exam 1 Exam 2 Projects Final Exam Homework assignments will include computational and simulation activities given to students based only on analytical set-up and logistics by instructor. For exams students will be required to provide analytical summary and logistics for computational and simulation requests. Exams will require simulation tasks. Exams are open book and open notes. Note: such a course is crucial towards any possible sociability or commerce with general physicists and mathematicians, so they can’t take your jobs. Software that will accompany Mathematica/Python with homework, projects and exams in course: OpenFoam OPM (opm-project.org) USGS Coulomb software Potent ( http://www.geoss.com.au/potent.html ) MODFLOW (+ Gridgen) HEC-HMS CIG (computational Infrastructure for Geodynamics): https://geodynamics.org/resources/notebooks Unified Geodynamics Earth Science Computation Environment (UGESCE) GPlates, GPlates data sets Note: there may be other geodynamics software listed in software portfolio. Course Topics: 1.Fluid Flow and Pressure Diffusion Finite Element Methods Conservation Equations and Galerkin Approximation 2D Triangular Constant Gradient Elements 1D Isoparametric Elements 2D Isoparametric Elements and Numerical Integration Transient Behavior - Mass Matrices Transient Behavior - Integration in Time 2.Mass Transport and Reaction Conservation of Mass and 1D Models 2D Constant Gradient Elements Sorption and Reactive Transport 3.Momentum Transport Fluids, Navier-Stokes Equations 4.Solid Mechanics 1D and 2D Elements Constitutive Equations Summary and Preamble for Coupled Systems 5.Coupled Multiphysics Systems Dual-Porosity-Dual-Permeability Models Coupled Hydro-Mechanical (HM) Models OpenFoam Models for HM Coupling 6.Alternative Solution Methods Note: not all will be done, rather choosing the most robust and versatile w.r.t. to field applications. Lagrangian-Eulerian Methods Level Set Methods Boundary Element Methods SPH - Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics LBM - Lattice Boltzmann Methods PFM - Phase Field Methods XFEM - Extended Finite Element Methods BEM - Indirect and Direct Boundary Element Methods DEM - Distinct Element Methods DLSM - Discrete Lattice Spring Methods PDM - Peridynamic Methods Prerequisites: Field Geology, Plate Tectonics, Global Geophysics, Potential Field Methods in Exploration Geophysics, Numerical Analysis, Fluid Mechanics Signal Analysis Any signal which is varying conveys valuable information. Therefore, to comprehend the information embedded in such signals, it’s necessary to 'detect' and 'extract data' from such quantities. Most geophysical data consist of “signals” which are sequences of measurements sampled in time (“time series”) or in space. Course would not be much if real data isn’t applied. There will be emphasis to apply topics and methods as tangibly, practical, fluid and constructive as possible. Talking and presenting mathematical frolic is one thing, but actually applying it to meaningful things is another. Practical skills are essential. Will be emphasized in lecturing, exercises and labs. In this course we will examine, and learn techniques for analysing signals containing random elements and study their applications in Earth Science. Course Assessment --> Exercises Labs NOTE: course will not be meaningful without incorporation of software involving use of data and computation within realms of interest. Extensive use of software accompanies modelling upon real data. Software applied in prerequisites will also apply to this course, crucially alongside signal analysis tools for this course. Labs --> Preprocessing (filtering and decimation); Time-Domain Analysis (amplitude measurement and arrival-time picking); Frequency-Domain Analysis (Fourier transform and spectral analysis); Waveform Analysis (waveform modelling and waveform cross-correlation); Spectral Ratios Analysis; Seismic Imaging (seismic tomography); Machine Learning (pattern recognition, clustering and classification); Event Location (hypocenter determination); Response Spectrum Analysis. SEISMOLOGY. Seismology interest will be one of the areas treated. Will reacquaint ourselves with selected topics and labs from the seismology course. Treatment and activities will be much more in depth with various methods and tools introduced in this course. Labs applied will be highly coherent and practical to course topics; multiple labs can apply for a single topic. Note: texts and manuals from seismology course may also be reviewed along with literature tailored to this course. Topics to be treated: NOTE: for each prior mentioned lab topic students will be working with real seismology data sets, else the process will not be sensible and economic. A fluid, constructive and sustainable work flow from one topic to the next with the seismology data. Despite course being signal analysis focused, the economic knowledge and skills acquired from the seismology prerequisite course should not be rotted out; you did a seismology course for a reason. POSSIBLE ADDITIONAL: insight into the possibility of occurrence of a natural calamity such as volcanic eruptions Delclos, C., E. Blanc, P. Broche, F. Glangeaud, and J.L. Lacoume "Processing and Interpretation of Microbarograph Signals Generated by the Explosion of Mount St. Helens" J. Geophys. Res., 95, 5,484, 1990. Cook, R.K. and Bedard, A.J. (1972). On the Measurement of Infrasound. Q.J. Roy. Astro. Soc. 67,pp 5-11 De Angelis, S. et al (2012). Detecting Hidden Volcanic Explosions from Mt. Cleveland Volcano, Alaska, with Infrasound and Ground-Coupled Airwaves: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 39, L21312, 6 p. Fee, D. (2010). Characterization of the 2008 Kasatochi and Okmok Eruptions Using Remote Infrasound Arrays: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 115, n. D00L10, 15 p. Fee, D. & Matoza, R.S. (2013). An Overview of Volcano Infrasound: from Hawaiian to Plinian, Local to Global: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 249, p. 123-139 Note: from raw infrasound data will like to implement the tools and techniques learnt in course to recognise possible volcanic eruptions. POTENTIAL FIELD METHODS. For chosen labs from the Potential Field Methods in Applied Geophysics course will investigate the possible role of signal analysis intimately. Labs from such prerequisite course with data applied will be highly coherent to course topics; multiple labs can apply for a single topic. Note: texts and manuals from the potential field methods course may also be reviewed along with literature tailored to this course. Magnetic fields and magnetometers Gravitational fields and gravitometers NOTE: for each prior mentioned lab topic students will be working with real potential field methods (PFM) data sets, else the process will not be sensible and economic. A fluid, constructive and sustainable work flow from one topic to the next with the PFM data. Despite course being signal analysis focused, the economic knowledge and skills acquired from the PFM prerequisite course should not be rotted out; you did a PFM course for a reason. EXPLORATION Geothermal Energy Mapping Fossil Fuel Exploration NOTE: for each prior mentioned lab topic students will be working with real exploration data sets, else the process will not be sensible and economic. A fluid, constructive and sustainable work flow from one topic to the next with the exploration data. Despite course being signal analysis focused, the economic knowledge and skills acquired from the PFM prerequisite course should not be rotted out; you did a PFM course for a reason. NOTE: each lab will have seismology, PFM and exploration activities. Course Topics --> Week 1-2: Geophysics Signal Analysis Overview of geophysical signals: seismic, electromagnetic, gravitational. Basic concepts of signals and systems. Week 3-4: Time-Domain Analysis TD representation of signals Discrete and Continuous Time Signals Signal Operation: convolution, correlation. Week 5-6: Fourier Transform and Frequency-Domain Analysis Fourier Series and Fourier Transform Power Spectral Density Filtering in the frequency domain Week 7-8: Sampling and discrete Signal Processing Nyquist Theorem and sampling Discrete Fourier Transform and Fast Fourier Transform Digital Filtering and Windowing Week 9-10: Signal Processing in Seismology, Potential field Methods and Exploration Week 11-12: Waveform Analysis and Filtering Techniques Waveform Modelling Deconvolution and convolution processing Week 13-14: Spectral Analysis in Gravity and Magnetic Data Analysis of gravity and magnetic signals Power spectral density estimation for potential field data. Application of Fourier analysis in gravity and magnetic data interpretation. Week 15-16: More Applications Time-frequency analysis methods (wavelet analysis) Non-stationary signal analysis Applications in subsurface imaging and exploration Prerequisites: Numerical Analysis; Data Programming with Mathematica; Mathematical Statistics; Global Geophysics; Potential Field Methods in Applied Geophysics; Mathematical Physics for Geophysics; Seismology Note: Geology endeavor will carry out the following listed particular technical field and lab exercises, independent of the lab and field exercises of designated courses. Some of the labs and exercises to be mentioned will also be done by Civil Engineering Students with a satisfactory or unsatisfactory designation. Will also incorporate Physics, Engineering and Computer Science constituents for certain cases. The given list exhibits activities administered during “Fall” , “Winter”, “Summer” and “Spring” semesters. Students will earn a satisfactory or unsatisfactory designation. All students will qualify for a number of activities based on the mathematics, physics, chemistry and geology courses successfully completed. Past participants are welcomed to participate in repeated of activities, dependent on approval and official class count for the respective semester. Activities repeated can be added to transcripts upon successful completion. Repeated activities later on can be given a designation such as Advance “Name” I, Advance “Name” II. As well, particular repeated activities serve to towards developing true comprehension, competency and professionalism. FOR ACTIVITIES IN THE “SUMMER” AND WINTER” SESSIONS ALL PARTICIPATING STUDENTS, ASSISTING/ADVISING INSTRUCTORS AND PROFESSORS MUST BE OFFICIALLY RECOGNISED; REQUIRES BOTH CIVILIAN ID AND STUDENT/FACULTY ID FOR CONFIRMATION OF INDIVIDUAL. THERE WILL ALSO BE USE OF IDENTIFICATIONS FOR ACTIVITIES FOR RESPECTIVE SESSION. SECURITY AND NON-PARTICIPATING ADMINISTRATION WILL ONLY IDENTIFY RESPECTIVE ACTIVITY BY IDENTIFICATION CODE. SECURITY AND NON-PARTICIPATING ADMINISTRATION MUST NEVER KNOW WHAT ACTIVITIES IDENTIFICATION CODES IDENTIFY: < Alpha, Alpha, Alpha, Alpha > - < # # # # # > - < session > - < yyyy > Such geology activities will also warrant criminal background check (CBC) in order to participate. Severely threshold may vary depending on administration. Administrators will provide dated letters of confirmation of thorough CBC to student affairs and other appropriate administration. Email and physical letters with data. Such CBC protocol will not explicitly identify any particular titles or descriptions of any activity, rather, will only convey code as above. It may be the case some activities can be grouped and given a major title together; however, detailed descriptions will be required. Activities will be field classified. Particular projects of interest being stationary: --Magnetic field experimentation and modelling Physics students welcomed 1. Comparing experimentation methods for measuring the Earth’s magnetic field. (i) Cartacci, A., and Strulino, S., Measuring the Earth’s Magnetic Field in a Laboratory, Physics Education, Volume 43, Number 4 (ii) Nelli, F. (2014). Arduino: Measuring the Earth’s Magnetic Field with the Magnetometer HMC5883L. Meccanismo Complesso: https://www.meccanismocomplesso.org/en/arduino-magnetic-magnetic-magnetometer-hmc5883l/ There may be generic alternatives to specified sensor hardware. Develop stations at different places when times are synchronized. Measurements will time continuous (iii) Then compare finds from both with known recognised data 2. Modelling the Earth’s magnetic field in terms of spherical polar coordinates (determine field potential) assuming the Earth’s magnetic dipole is aligned along the “z-axis”, then plot; find the field components and total field magnitude, and plot to view their respective behaviour. Boundary conditions: magnetic field at the north pole, south pole, and equator for the radial and latitudal magnetic field components respectively. What coordinate values applied to the magnetic field strength model makes it near to what was found with experimentation methods in (1)? 3. Comparing common experimentation methods for measurement of magnetic inclination (i) Arabasi, S., and Al-Taani, H., Measuring the Earth’s Magnetic Field Dip Angle using a Smartphone-Aided Setup: A Simple Experiment for Introductory Physics Laboratories, European Jounrnal of Physics, Volume 38 Number 2, 2016. (ii) Using a simple dip needle measure the three components of the Earth’s magnetic field and find your latitude. A dip needle can also be made. Compare findings with results from experimentation in journal article above. Constituents for the dip needle experiment: Magnetic Dip Needle, Protractor. Alternatively, you can make a dip needle with: Small bar magnet (~1 cm long), 20 cm Thread. To make a dip needle, tie the thread around the centre of gravity of the bar magnet. (For a bar magnet, this is the centre of the longest axis.) Secure the thread to the bar magnet with a dab of glue and let it dry. *Hold up the dip needle. Point out that it has three perpendicular axes, so that it can rotate freely in space. Ask a student to measure the dip of the needle with the protractor and write the value on the board. *Now slowly move toward the wall. Again, to measure and record the dip of the needle with the protractor. *Now slowly move toward a desk. Again, to measure and record the dip of the needle with the protractor. *Using the equation for latitude, find the latitude of your room from the dip of the needle. *Point out the large errors which you would get if you used the values from near the wall or desk. (iii) Then compare finds from both with known recognised data 4. Magnetic field in terms of Legendre polynomials (zonal and tesseral) and comparing to what was found in (2). Magnetic field components in terms of Legendre polynomials (zonal and tesseral) with significance and geometrical exhibitions. Time varying magnetic field components in terms of Legendre polynomials (zonal and tesseral) with significance and geometrical simulations. 5. Particle trajectories in Earth’s magnetosphere (modelling and simulation) based on (4). 6. Inductive Electric field in the Teresstrial Magnetosphere, and Multiscale Field‐Aligned Currents: Characteristics Part A --> Analyse modelling and replicate findings in a CAS such as Mathematica or other: Ilie, R. et al (2017). Calculating the Inductive Electric Field in the Teresstrial Magnetosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research Space Physics, Volume 122, Issue 5, pages 5391 – 5403 PART B --> Will pursue replication the following journal (includes use data from data sources) McGranaghan, R. M., Mannucci, A. J. and Forsyth, C. (2017). A Comprehensive analysis of Multiscale Field-aligned Currents: Characteristics, Controlling Parameters, and relationships. Journal of Geophysical Research Space Physics, Volume 122, Issue 12, pages 11931 - 11960 Are inductive electric fields in the teresstrial magnetosphere related to Multiscale Field-aligned Currents? Identify modelling that would agree or prove otherwise. As well, identify the source(s) or mechanism(s) for respective phenomenon. 7. Trapped particle radiation belts and models of the trapped proton and electron populations. Will use the following source for development with SPENVIS --> https://www.spenvis.oma.be/help/background/traprad/traprad.html#APAE 8. Secular Variation 9. Causes for short term variation in the magnetic field 10. Outstanding event: “Earth’s north magnetic pole has been skittering away from Canada and towards Siberia, driven by liquid iron sloshing within the planet’s core. The magnetic pole is moving so quickly that it has forced the world’s geomagnetism experts into a rare move”, Alexandra Witze, Nature.com, circa 9th January 2019. 11. Identifying major geomagnetic models and pursuit of an explicit mathematical description (if possible for independent computational experimentation), respectively. Anticipate activities with computational tool for modelling or forecasting that’s independent to what is given by recognised sources. However, independent establishments will be compared to what is given by recognised sources. Here are the major geomagnetic models: World Magnetic Model (WMM) International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF) BGS Global Geomagnetic Model (BGGM) Model of the Earth’s Magnetic Environment (MEME) Determine which above models are most appropriate to provide estimates of the average secular variation; linear extrapolations of the magnetic field from the observed change in the previous few years; comparing models directly and understanding of respective model time when comparing; comparing models to independent observatory data collected on the ground. Critical articles: Beggan, C., and Whaler, K., Forecasting Secular Variation Using Core Flows, Earth Planets Space, 62, 821-828, 2010 Finlay, C. C. et al. (2010). Evaluation of candidate geomagnetic Field Models for IGRF-11, Earth Planets Space, 62, 787–804 Satellite-derived geomagnetic field measurements: Aiken, P., et al, Geomagnetic Main Field Modelling with DMSP, Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Science, May 2014, Vol. 119 (5), pp. 4010-4025 Computationally implement such and compare with models above that have incorporated ground observatory data. 12. Magneticstorm comprehension and data collection For development or comprehension of the K-index and Kp-index the following literature to serve well Bartels, J., Heck, N. H. and Johnston, H. F. (1939). The Three Hour‐Range Index Measuring Geomagnetic Activity. Journal of Geophysical Research. 44 (4): 411–454 Fleming, J. A., Harradon, H. D. and Joyce, J. W. (1939). "Seventh General Assembly of the Association of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity at Washington, D.C., September 4–15, 1939". Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity. 44 (4). pp. 477–478, Resolution 2 Interested in the develpemnt of the A-index as well The NOAA has tools for planetary K index and Kp index (and also possibly academics or professional institutions). Will identify which index values gives the best chance to directly observe the northern and southern lights. With the Kp index will identify time coverages and coordinates for locations, and the Kp levels for such locations. Will differentiate between latitude and geomagnetic latitude. Will identify various sources (Mathematica included) to observe the magnetic storm activity; displays of (nano)Tesla versus (universal) time r distance). Will identify geomagnetic storm arrivals at satellites (ACE satellite is just one example): volatility, intensity, temperature, speed, density, Phi, Bz. How are such measureds determined? Determining estimated time of arrival at Earth for storm (based on magnetosphere graph). How is time of arrival determined? Journal articles useful for data research where students are expected to pursue coherency and consistency among them: M.S. Bobrov, (1973). Kp Index Correlations with Solar-Wind Parameters During the First and Second Stages of a Recurrent Geomagnetic Storm, Planetary and Space Science, Volume 21, Issue 12, Pages 2139-2147 Verbanac, G. et al (2011). Solar Wind High-Speed Streams and Related Geomagnetic Activity in the Declining Phase of Solar Cycle 23. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 533, A49 Elliott, H. A., Jahn, J. and McComas, D. J. (2013). The Kp Index and Solar Wind Speed Relationship: Insights for Improving Space Weather Forecasts. Space Weather, Vol. 11, 339–349 Hofmeister, S. J. et al. (2018). The Dependence of the Peak Velocity of High-Speed Solar Wind Streams as Measured in the Ecliptic by ACE and the STEREO satellites on the Area and Co-latitude of Their Solar Source Coronal Holes. Journal of Geophysical Research. Space Physics, 123(3), 1738–1753

--Measuring the diurnal variation of Earth’s magnetic field Concerns building a proton magnetometer. Will like to measure the Earth’s magnetic field continuously. Such may include stations at various places on Earth. Will like to have “long term” compare/contrast with professional data sources and possibly the professional magnetic models mentioned in prior activity. There may be some considerable physics with the mathematical support that need explaining to convince anyone. It’s very important that measurements are associated with reasonable dates and times. All data will be securely archived. The following are guides towards developing such a measuring apparatus --> 1. Ruhunusiri, Suranga & Jayananda, Malagalage. (2008). Construction of a Proton Magnetometer. Proceedings of the Technical Sessions, 24 (2008) 78-85 << http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.607.6035&rep=rep1&type=pdf >> 2. F. Mahboubian, H. Sardari, S. Sadeghi and F. Sarreshtedari, "Design and Implementation of a Low Noise Earth Field Proton Precession Magnetometer," 2019 27th Iranian Conference on Electrical Engineering (ICEE), Yazd, Iran, 2019, pp. 345-347. Article was observed through the IEEE database. 3. http://ilotresor.com/build-a-proton-precession-magnetometer/ Such three prior guides may or may not be efficient. However, articles and other sources with the intent of NMR construction usually are more detailed --> 1. Sato-Akaba, H., Itozaki, H. Development of the Earth’s Field NMR Spectrometer for Liquid Screening. Appl Magn Reson 43, 579–589 (2012). 2. The following informing source may be decent, but it may employ Python here and there: PyPPM: A Proton Precession Magnetometer for All << https://hackaday.io/project/1376-pyppm-a-proton-precession-magnetometer-for-all >> << https://github.com/geekysuavo/pyppm >> Further technical intelligence --> 1. Liu, H et al. (2018). A comprehensive study on the weak magnetic sensor character of different geometries for proton precession magnetometer. Journal of Instrumentation, 13(09), T09003-T09003. 2. Liu, H et al. (2017). Noise characterization for the FID signal from proton precession magnetometer. Journal of Instrumentation, 12(07), P07019. --Earth radius, gravity variations (gravitational field, average body shape) and use of satellite data immersion. Physics students welcomed. 1. Measuring the radius of the Earth with (i) Sunset method with multiple trials (ii) Carroll, J., and Hughes, S., Using a Video Camera to Measure the Radius of the Earth, 2013 IOP Publishing Ltd, Physics Education, Volume 48, No. 6 (iii) Then compare finds from both with known recognised data (iv) For methods (i) and (ii), if economical, consider such activities at different latitudes (chosen increments), with designated trials. 2. Gravitational force exerted by a solid sphere The following source is quite similar to the derivation found in a typical “Fundamentals of Physics” textbook --> https://www.gregschool.org/gregschoollessons/2017/10/30/gravitational-force-exerted-by-a-sphere-rdyjt-dcss2 The following concern is a “solid” spherical body that possesses layers with different densities. Extend prior to such. 3. Modelling gravitation potential in terms of a Legendre polynomial to identify significant terms that constitute the gravitational potential. 4. Deriving the gravitational potential in terms of Gauss law, involving the Poisson equation in spherical coordinates towards a radial model, to compare with (2). 5. Deriving the gravitational potential in terms of moment of inertia, namely, manipulated with McCullough’s formula and Legendre’s formula; identify the total potential decomposed into gravitational force contribution and centripetal force contribution, namely the geo-potential. Then compare such two terms in ratio w.r.t. to distance and latitude. 6. Derive Earth’s variable radius approximation w.r.t. mean radius, rotational velocity, mass, gravitational constant and latitudal angle (involving Legendre polynomial) and compare with other known forms of radius models (includes their instantaneous rates with respect to angle). Compare derived model to (1) to have some idea of your latitude location. 7. Acquire tesseral gravitational effects model. From such a model what effects apply to satellite orbits? 8. Gravity Gradient Modelling 9. GRASS GIS for gravity anomaly computation and mapping 10. Comparative Models: The following article to analyse and develop in a CAS such as Mathematica. How do the various given potentials affect orbits? Compare among each other along with the basic basic form Jesco von Puttkamer. (1967). Survey and Comparative Analysis of Current Geophysical Models. NASA George C. Marshall Space Flight Centre. Technical Memorandum X – 53677 --> https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19680007574/downloads/19680007574.pdf 11. The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) The references in the following (including time-varying modelling) link may be crucial in development: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRACE_and_GRACE-FO PART A (preliminary) -- Identification and History Physics, (relevant applied) mathematics, engineering technology behind grace gravity anomalies measurements, leading to determination of mass distribution around the planet and how it varies over time. Part B (Goals) -- NOTE: Mathematica will be one tool that may be highly integrable, having geosciences functions (with parameter calls) and data (also with parameter calls). However, it’s also likely that one will have to pull data from addresses or databases that are more exotic. NOTE: for satellite data use towards a respective goal it’s essential that one comprehends The technologies applied Logistics of systems in operation Physics, mathematics that make data development meaningful or possible for research interest The appropriate data analysis for modelling or representation The goals in mind: (i) Ability to acquire the needed data, and data analysis to develop the gravity anomaly map (ii) Detected changes in the distribution of water across the planet; interested in different time periods. Sea level rise (whether it is the result of mass being added to the ocean - from melting glaciers, for example - or from thermal expansion of warming water or changes in salinity (iii) Estimate ocean bottom pressure (the combined weight of the ocean waters and atmosphere); estimate monthly changes in deep ocean currents. Compare with ocean currents estimations by an ocean buoy network data. High-resolution static gravity fields estimated from GRACE data have helped improve the understanding of global ocean circulation. The hills and valleys in the ocean's surface (ocean surface topography) are due to currents and variations in Earth's gravity field. GRACE enables separation of those two effects to better measure ocean currents and their effect on climate. (iv) Use GRACE data to establish record of mass loss within the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica; Greenland has been found to lose 280±58 Gt of ice per year between 2003 and 2013, while Antarctica has lost 67±44 Gt per year in the same period. What level of sea rise does this amount to? Independently determine rather than chattering written facts, then compare results with structured mainstream data chat. Will also pursue 2014 to at least 2020. (v) Interest in groundwater depletion for various chosen areas. Annual hydrology for various critical reasons (Amazon basin is only one example). (vi) Glacial Isostatic adjustment). GIA signals appear as secular trends in gravity field measurements and must be removed to accurately estimate changes in water and ice mass in a regions (vii) Identify permanent gravitational changes due to past earthquakes (viii) Analyse the shifts in the Earth's crust caused by the earthquake that created the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami (and others). (ix) Improvement in models for corrections in the equipotential surface which land elevations are referenced from. This more accurate reference surface allows for more accurate coordinates. (x) GRACE is sensitive to regional variations in the mass of the atmosphere and high-frequency variation in ocean bottom pressure. These variations are well understood and are removed from monthly gravity estimates using forecast models (NWP) to prevent aliasing (relating to signal processing). Of latitude and longitude and for less error in the calculation of geodetic satellite orbits. (xi) Measure lunar tidal influence on mass orientation (land and earth); may or may not have coupling issues with possible solar tidal effects (and perhaps other celestial bodies and geological/geophysical activities). --Earth Rotation Variations For the given literature beneath to accomplish anything, analysis interest must be strong. One needs to convince themselves with various formulas or equations, to be in tune with the literature leading to sustainability. It’s imperative that for all figures in the literature students can replicate them with possible inclusion of modern data. It’s imperative that for all tables in the literature students can comprehend competently their use in models and means of developing or acquiring them (whether being from data sources, or numerical methods, or error analysis, or analytical means). Gross, R. S. (2007). Earth Rotation Variations – Long Period, in Physical Geodesy, edited by T. A. Herring, Treatise on Geophysics, Vol. 11, Elsevier, Amsterdam, in press --Geocenter Determination One major concern will be finding consistency among modelling, methods applied and analysis. This activity doesn’t concern perversions with matrix algebra because we are doing something quite meaningful overall where one’s use of time needs to be optimised. Use of a CAS for any matrix monstrosities. Don’t be intimidated or hoodwinked by someone’s perversion with symbolic matrix algebra, because above have the time they don’t know what such matrices really hold and how to acquire such elements for whatever data or modelling structure (unless you let them parasite off you). Whatever matrix structure encountered when directly recognised in development will be treated by geoscience professionals towards the prime directive. Whatever matrix algebra needs to be comprehended you will learn its task structure and how to acquire meaningful results when you need to do so. You have been applying vectors in physics for quite some time with accuracy and competence, so one doesn’t need some entity trying to make you look inferior over luxury frolic. What’s the point? AGAIN: one major concern will be finding consistency among modelling, methods applied and analysis. Physics of Geocenter Motion Guide --> -Wu, X., Ray, J. and van Dam, T. (2012). Geocenter Motion and its Geodetic and Geophysical Implications. Journal of Geodynamics 58, pages 44–61 The following journal articles are to be used for development. Will like to develop at least 2 schemes to compare with each other & other systems in operation. Mathematica will be one tool that may be highly integrable, having geosciences functions (with parameter calls) and data (also with parameter calls). However, it’s also likely that one will have to pull data from addresses or databases that are more exotic ore exotic --> -Swenson, S., Chambers, D., Wahr, J., 2008. Estimating Geocenter Variations From a Combination of GRACE & Ocean Model Output. J. Geophys. Res. 113. -Kang, Z., Tapley, B., Chen, J. et al. Geocenter motion time series derived from GRACE GPS and LAGEOS observations. J Geod 93, 1931–1942 (2019). -Razeghi, M. et al (2019). A Joint Analysis of GPs Displacement and GRACE Geopotential Data for Simultaneous Estimation of Geocenter Motion and Gravitational Field. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 124, pages 12241 – 12263 -F. Bouillé, A. Cazenave, J. M. Lemoine, J. F. Crétaux, Geocentre motion from the DORIS space system and laser data to the Lageos satellites: comparison with surface loading data, Geophysical Journal International, Volume 143, Issue 1, October 2000, Pages 71–82, Physics students welcomed. --“Local” Geoid Mapping with GPS Physics students welcomed. Numerical integration method Least-squares collocation method Point mass method There will be actual field experimentation for the mentioned three types of methods, and respective results will be compared. Example journal article guides: Novak, P. Geoid Determination Using One-Step Integration. Journal of Geodesy (2003) 77: 193 de Min, E. A Comparison of Stokes Numerical Integration and Collocation, and a New Combination Technique. Bulletin Geodesique (1995) 69: 223 Jekeli, C. and Kwon, J. H. (2002). Geoid Profile Determination by Direct Integration of GPS Inertial Navigation System Vector Gravimetry. Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth. Volume 107 Issue B10 Idhe, J., Schirmer, U., Stefani, F. and Toppe, F. (1998). Geoid Modelling with Point Masses. Proceedings of the Second Continental Workshop on the Geoid in Europe, Budapest, March, 199-204. Antunes, C., Pail, R. and Catalao, J. (2003) Point Mass Method Applied to the Regional Gravimetric Determination of the Geoid. Studia Geophysica et Geodaetica, Volume 47 Issue 3, pp 495 -509 Denker H., Torge W., Wenzel G., Ihde J., Schirmer U. (2000) Investigation of different methods for the combination of gravity and GPS/levelling data. In: Schwarz KP. (eds) Geodesy Beyond 2000. International Association of Geodesy Symposia, vol 121. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg Will then try to make use of software tools from the following links (if relevant to ambiance), and possibly compare with results from the three prior methods: https://www.ngs.noaa.gov/GEOID/ https://beta.ngs.noaa.gov/GEOID/xGEOID/ Determining Geoids with atomic clocks. In the future use of atomic clocks for geological and gravitational studies is the converging with the present. Primiarly concerned with a basic model to institute atomic clocks for such; means to experiment with atomic clocks may not be economic at this time, but comprehension is important: https://phys.org/news/2012-11-surveying-earth-interior-atomic-clocks.html https://phys.org/news/2012-10-atomic-clocks-good-earth-geoid.html The Earth's geoid – the surface of constant gravitational potential that extends the mean sea level – can only be determined indirectly. On continents, the geoid can be calculated by tracking the altitude of satellites in orbit. Picking the right surface is a complicated, multivalued problem. The spatial resolution of the geoid computed this way is low – approximately 100 km. Using atomic clocks to determine the geoid is an idea based on general relativity that has been discussed for the past 30 years. Clocks located at different distances from a heavy body like our Earth tick at different rates. Similarly, the closer a clock is to a heavy underground structure the slower it ticks – a clock positioned over an iron ore will tick slower than one that sits above an empty cave. Ultraprecise portable atomic clocks are on the verge of a breakthrough. An international team lead by scientists from the University of Zurich shows that it may be possible to use the latest generation of atomic clocks to resolve structures within the Earth. Guides: Ruxandra Bondarescu, Mihai Bondarescu, György Hetényi, Lapo Boschi, Philippe Jetzer, Jayashree Balakrishna, Geophysical applicability of atomic clocks: direct continental geoid mapping, Geophysical Journal International, Volume 191, Issue 1, October 2012, Pages 78–82 https://arxiv.org/abs/1209.2889 --> https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1209/1209.2889.pdf In the future “older methods” will be compared with use of atomic clocks. Be prepared. --Foucault’s Pendulum Physics students welcomed (i) Comprehend the derivation of the precession of Foucault’s pendulum, and derive the governing equations in terms of x and y components: newt.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/pendulumdetails.html (ii) Such also done in polar coordinates: http://www.sciencebits.com/foucault (iii) Use Newton’s law and vector calculus to verify that the speed and direction of the pendulum’s rotation depends only on latitude. Then use such to determine distance from the north pole. (iv) Simulate (i) and (ii) via use of appropriate numerical methods. (v) Build Foucault’s pendulum. Make use of long-lasting video display with timer that goes off upon release. Preference in length of pendulum need not be as long as what is described in video but must be considerably long, with sensible initial angle and small maximum angular velocity. A simple guide: Foucault’s Pendulum: Watch the World Turn -YouTube where students concern themselves with longer durations. Environment must always have adequate light. Environment must lack considerable air resistance or wind. Surface of contact in environment must have virtually no incline. Beginning with time duration in video and proceed. Then use three to five other larger duration trials, each approaching 24 hours. How well do the results compare with accepted professional measure? (vi) For what data acquired from built pendulum, does such coincide with simulation models? (vii) Observe the following video: Flat Earth and Foucaults Pendulum -YouTube Applying the pendulum at numerous different latitudes and analysis results, can such verify that the Earth is not flat? (viii) Role of Foucault’s pendulum in use with total relativistic precessions on Earth. What type of precession can Foucault’s pendulum account for in total relativistic precession? Will implement the experimental procedure (at different latitudes). --Analysis of various types of rocks and soils Can also be done by Civil Engineering Students. Vast sampling and examination of rocks (sedimentary, igneous, metamorphic, conglomerate) and soil through the following: 1. Minimal number of specimens for laboratory, and may warrant field investigation --> Gill, D. E. Corthesy, R. and Leite, M. H. Determining the Minimal Number of Specimens for Laboratory Testing of Rock Properties. Engineering Geology 78 (2005) 29 – 51 Note: such development prior may influence all following tasks 2. Mass and Density Evaluation of Various Rocks Direct methods by sampling 3. Estimating Rock Mass Strength. Field/lab experimentation may or may not be feasible --> Hoek, E. and Brown, E. T. Practical Estimates of Rock Mass Strength. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Vol. 34, No. 8, pp. 1165 - 1186, 1997 4. Brittleness of Rocks Meng, F., Zhou, H., Zhang, C. et al. Evaluation Methodology of Brittleness of Rock Based on Post-Peak Stress-Strain Curves. Rock Mech Rock Eng (2015) 48: 1787. Hajiabdolmajid, V. and Kaiser, P. (2003). Brittleness of Rock and Stability Assessment in Hard Rock Tunnelling. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, Volume 18 Issue 1, pp 35 - 48 Hucka, V., & Das, B. (1974). Brittleness Determination of Rocks by Different Methods. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and mining Sciences & Geomechanics Abstracts. Volume 111 Issue 10, pp 389 – 392 Kaunda, R. B. and Asbury, B. (2016). Prediction of Rock Brittleness using Nondestructive Methods for Hardrock Tunnelling. Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering. Volume 8 (2016) 533 -540 Note: would like to pursue lab tests for rock brittleness if feasible. However, in general, concerning journal articles of interest the analysis, models, rubrics and criteria are mandatory. 5. Rock Mass Modulus Experimentation may or may not be possible, but data sets for particular ambiances are accessible towards modelling. Hoek, E. and Diederichs, M. S. Empirical Estimation of Rock Mass Modulus. International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 43 (2006) 203 – 215 Sonmez, H., & Gokceoglu, C. (2006). Discussion of the paper by E. Hoek and M.S. Diederichs “Empirical Estimation of Rock Mass Modulus”. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 43(4), 671-676. Nejati, H., Ghazvinian, R., Moosavi, A., & Sarfarazi, S. (2014). On the use of the RMR system for estimation of rock mass deformation modulus. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, 73(2), 531 - 540. Ajalloeian, R., & Mohammadi, M. (2014). Estimation of limestone rock mass deformation modulus using empirical equations. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, 73(2), 541-550. 6. Rock Slope Stability Analysis Experimentation may or may not not be possible; if not data sets for particular ambiances are accessible towards modelling (particularly for the latter). Norrish, N. I. and Wyllie, D. C. Chapter 15, Rock Slope Stability Analysis. Landslides: Investigation and Mitigation. (1996). Issue Number 247. Transportation Research Board. ISSN 0360 – 859x Park, H., West, T., & Woo, I. (2005). Probabilistic analysis of rock slope stability and random properties of discontinuity parameters, Interstate Highway 40, Western North Carolina, USA. Engineering Geology, 79(3), 230-250. Roy, D., & Maheshwari, P. (2018). Probabilistic Analysis of Rock Slopes Against Block Toppling Failure. Indian Geotechnical Journal, 48(3), 484-497. 7. Continuum mechanics and bulk wave dynamics (stability/instability in oscillation, stress, strain, shear) due to travelling/forced/driven waves. Includes finite element modelling with such. 8. Estimating Rock Mass Properties using Monte Carlo Simulation. To develop all such with computational/simulation tools involving whatever data is required. However, to focus on ambiance of interest unlike article --> Sari, M., Karpuz, C., & Ayday, C. (2010). Estimating Rock Mass Properties using Monte Carlo Simulation: Ankara Andesites. Computers and Geosciences, 36(7), 959 - 969 9. Spectroscopy examinations of soil and rock samples 10. Rock weathering and resistance ability to such Physical types Chemical types Pedochemical types Some tasks (chemical and pedochemical may or may not require reapplication of (9). For physical types, apart from the description of the process and observation, examination of structure and composition may be necessary to recognise specimen that are not comprised with chemical type influences. Will choose various rocks based on their classification (sedimentary, igneous, metamorphic). As well, it may be difficult, but will like to develop physics models to simulate weathering or degradation by physical processes’ time of degradation will be of high interest. To compare with professional confirmed geological time scales of the respective environment. For chemical and pedochemical phenomena will choose various rocks based on their classification (sedimentary, igneous, metamorphic). Then consideration of a range of substances that may degrade rock integrity in a chemical nature. How to model the chemical reactions? Validate the reactions with chemistry knowledge fllwed by sftware verification. Such includes the types of molecular/compound decomposition with the energies required. Will pay care to identify the respective “conventional potency” in the environment towards determination of respective deterioration rate. Some hypotheses may require experimental verification, where some major issues of concern being: By-products Potency Energies involved in the chemical processes Time of degradation Influence of by-products to environment Ph after activity (may be time dependent and dynamic over time) Possible transportation methods of by-product (or pollutant) in to broader ranges (earth, rock, aquatic, air, vegetation) 11. Soil Ph levels. Field investigation involving various samples from various sites. Possible causes identified by (lab) observation based on field collections concerning the ideal composition of samples versus observed, and ambiance history with the influence of weather with surroundings, and human activity. --Measurement of Atmospheric Electricity PART A Bennett, A. J. and Harrison, R. G. (2007). A Simple Atmospheric Electrical Instrument for Educational Use. Adv. Geosci., 13, 11–15 Station developed must insulate equipment components that should not be exposed to moisture and precipitation. Data collection that can be geometrically displayed over time will be a huge triumph. It’s essential that one has precise coordinates of such developed station. Metrological satellite data providing atmospheric progression with applied time frame would be highly welcomed. As well accompanied by a weather station with chronological association (that also has cloud detection ability, say distance, altitude and velocity). Will also incorporate lightning strike data for the considered time frames. PART B Develop a station for the following -> Bennett, A. Measurement of Atmospheric Electricity During Different Meteorological Conditions. University of Reading http://www.met.rdg.ac.uk/phdtheses/Measurement%20of%20Atmospheric%20Electricity%20During%20Different%20Meteorological%20Conditions.pdf Data collection that can be geometrically displayed over time will be a huge triumph. It’s essential that one has precise coordinates of such developed station. Meteorological satellite data providing atmospheric progression with applied time frame would be highly welcomed. As well accompanied by a weather station with chronological association (that also has cloud detection ability, say distance, altitude and velocity). Will also incorporate lightning strike data for the considered time frames. --Reinforcement of Geochemistry labs and field studies Activities concern the reinforcement of the specified labs from the Geochemistry course. Thus, the Geochemistry course will be a prerequisite; activities will be more accelerated than course. Relevant lectures topics will be reviewed before lab operations. It may be quite constructive to professionally and permanently store and secure data with identification of location(s). One may find trends or consistencies with respect to location and seasons. Labs and field studies may be augmented, advanced, or new activities incorporated. --Reinforcement of Mineralogy labs and field studies Activities concern the reinforcement of the specified labs from the Mineralogy course. Thus, the Mineralogy course will be a prerequisite; activities will be more accelerated than course. Relevant lectures topics will be reviewed before lab operations. It may be quite constructive to professionally and permanently store and secure data with identification of location(s). One may find trends or consistencies with respect to location and seasons. Labs and field studies may be augmented, advanced, or new activities incorporated. --Seismic Recording, data storage and processing and filtering systems Can also be done by Civil Engineering Students. PART A Synopsis: Includes logistics and use of programmable boards with sensor integration and modelling for the novice (possibly both cooler tubes and brushless 30mm-92mm fans integrated); independent of Computer Science and Engineering curriculums. Recording data towards organisation and engagement with mathematical models (seismology, etc. incorporating the appropriate initial and boundary conditions), etc. Chronological readings for within 4-12 weeks, where also data will be thrown to mathematical models that consistently describe dynamics. For activity, the chosen island or region must be to scale with the models, etc. Location records are also crucial. The key components for an amateur seismographic station are the same as for the professionals: 1) the sensor 2) preamplifier 3) low pass filter 4) amplifier 5) analog-to-digital converter 6) computer programs and hardware for the (permanent) collection of data 7) computer and monitor for the display of the data 8) printer (or drum recorder), if you want to print the seismograms Note: Example software are WinSDR with WinQuake, Earthworm. Programmable boards must be shielded from high temperatures, moisture, dust and precipitation. With the following wave analysis review, one must practically and tangibly situate the prior mentioned 8 components (which may not flow in such given order): 1. Vibration principles (ideal models, superposition, impedance, resonance, scattering) 2. Fourier (representation & transforms) 3. Signal Analysis towards geophysical interests 4. Signal detectors, source requirements and design considerations. Digital recording systems. Analog-to-Digital signal converters. 5. Signals and noise Seismic signals are usually transient waveforms radiated from a localized natural or manmade seismic source. They can be used to locate the source, to analyse source processes, and to study the structure of the medium of propagation. In contrast, the term “seismic noise” designates undesired components of ground motion that do not fit in our conceptual model of the signal under investigation. What we identify and treat as seismic noise depends on the available data, on the aim of our study and on the method of analysis. Accordingly, data treated as noise in one context may be considered as useful signals in other applications. For example, short-period seismic noise can be used for microzonation studies in urban areas, and long-period noise for surface-wave tomography (Yanovskaya, 2012). Seismic noise conventionally relates to the following: Ambient vibrations due to natural sources (like ocean microseisms, wind, etc) Man-made vibrations (from industry, traffic, etc) Secondary signals due to wave propagation in inhomogeneous media (scattering) Effects of gravity (Newtonian attraction of atmosphere, horizontal accelerations due to surface tilt) The following guides can be used: Bormann, P. (Ed.)(2012): New Manual of Seismological Observatory Practice (NMSOP-2), Potsdam : Deutsches GeoForschungszentrum GFZ; IASPEI. Peterson, J. R. (1993). Observations and Modelling of Seismic Background Noise. U.S. Geological Survey. Series number 93- 322. The role(s) of (various) filters must be emphasized and implemented. Design of target-oriented signal detection. 6. Other causes of seismic noise that may become quite influential: Signals due to the sensitivity of seismometers to ambient conditions (temperature, air pressure, magnetic field, etc) Signals due to technical imperfections or deterioration of the sensor (corrosion, leakage currents, defective semiconductors, etc) Intrinsic self-noise of the seismograph (like Brownian noise, electronic and quantization noise) Artifacts from data processing Building seismometers: Seismometers will be built. Built seismometers concerning sensing, testing and calibration to be similar in the following link, but must meet all prior demands (synopsis, key components, the detailed wave analysis review, hardware & software): https://www.instructables.com/id/This-Seismometer-is-no-toy/ To compare seismology data from seismology/geology institutes or government administrations from multiple locations,of relatively near distances. Make use of wave mechanics, P & S wave analysis, etc., etc. Seismology readings are generally chronological, instantaneous and daily, with the ability to differentiate one day from another. Seismic wave recordings to be graphically exhibited with its counterpart from seismology or geology institutions and government administrations via common units scale. Field activities. Using data from professional sources data fit/calibrate models and acquire geometric representation of seismic wave forms (P, S, Love and Rayleigh), computation of epicenter and focus, extracting the critical properties or parameters, reflection, refraction for determination of matter (densities). Likely, will also involve some time series use to estimate parameters. As well, possibly to compare built seismometers to professional commercial seismometers (schematics only) for understanding of efficiency and sensitivity, and to contemplate resolutions of improvement. Some earthquake location assists: Waldhauser F. and W. L. Ellsworth, A Double-Difference Earthquake Location Algorithm: Method and Application to the Northern Hayward Fault, Bull. Seism. Soc. Am., 90, 1353-1368, 2000 Waldhauser, F., HypoDD: A Computer Program to Compute Double-Difference Earthquake Locations, USGS Open File Rep., 01-113, 2001. Araya, M., C., Application of the Double Difference Earthquake Relocation Algorithm Methodology using HypoDD at Four Seismic Sequences in Costa Rica, Revista Geológica de América Central, 57, 7-21, 2017 After engagement with such two articles and HypoDD, students will engage in comparative view between seismic operations done earlier and HypoDD. As well, computational comparative analysis with the following: Wu, H., Chen, J., Huang, X., and Yang, D., A New Earthquake Location Method Based on the Waveform Inversion, Commun. Comput. Phys., Vol. 23 (2018), pp. 118-141 Barmin, M., P., Levshin, A., L., Yang, Y., and Ritzwoller, M., H., Epicentral Location based on Rayleigh Wave Empirical Green’s Functions from Ambient Seismic Noise, Geophys. J. Int. (2011) 184, 869–884. << Mathematica is highly useful with Green functions >> Determining the complexity of paths of earthquake waves. The speed of sound varies for different media. Such is evident in elementary experiments with media ranging from solid to fluids. The paths of earthquakes curve because the different rock types found at different depths change the speed at which the waves travel. There are compressional waves (P), shear waves (S) and other types. S waves do not travel through the core but may be converted to compressional waves (marked K) on entering the core (PKP, SKS). Waves may be reflected at the surface (PP, PPP, SS). A pursuit is to develop the means to interactively study the Earth’s interior based on such seismic waves’ dynamics. All relevant aspects will be thoroughly applied --> Physics Mathematics Technologies Data sources Such four aspects will be thoroughly analysed, and integrated together in the most fluid, tangible and practical means. Mathematics will be applied as a tool with purpose and nothing more; activity has a meaningful objective. PART B International Atomic Energy Agency (2022). Methodologies for Seismic Soil–Structure Interaction Analysis in the Design and Assessment of Nuclear Installations, TECDOC Series, IAEA, Vienna (will generalise to habitats and surroundings of interest) --Plate Tectonics 1. Discovering Plate boundaries. A data rich exercise to assist students in discovering the processes that occur at plate tectonic boundaries. Observation and classification of data. < http://plateboundary.rice.edu/downloads.html > Note: GRASS GIS (with addons can apply). Elements in observation: a. Global data maps b. Earthquake location and depth c. Location of (recent) volcanic activity d. Sea floor age e. Topography & bathymetry Tools for observation: a. Seismology b. Volcanology c. Satellite Geodesy d. Geochronology 2. Subducting Plate Graphs i. Graph the longitude and depth of earthquakes associated to the continent in question. ii. Use such a graph to visualize the descending slab of oceanic crust at this subduction boundary. iii.compare the graphs for various latitudes and describe their similarities and differences. Note: can be in conjunction with 3D activity modelling. Observations about the depth of the earthquakes as you go further inland from the coast. What appears to be happening to meeting plates along the coast of (whatever continent in question) according to model? Description of the type of plate boundary believed to be present along the coast of (whatever continent in question) Explanation of trenches off coasts. 3. Hot Spot activity. The useful mechanism of measuring the age of different islands formed from a hot spot, and take the ratio of the distance to the age, to determine the rate of speed of the plate. Consider islands, outlets, shoals, reefs and banks for hot spots. Instructions: i. There will be a key for measurement conversion concerning the map(s). Use a ruler or other measuring device to measure the distance between the first volcano (which ever that may be) and the other island volcanoes. Conversion to kilometers or meters and record on a data table for the islands and outer seamounts. ii. Create a graph. Distance (in kilometers) on the vertical axis, while age (in millions of years) on the horizontal axis. Create best bit line from such dispersion. Slope of line distance over time will yield the speed of the plate (in kilometers per millions of years). Segregating the ages of islands and outlets into different age ranges w.r.t. distance can provide some idea of the rate of change in speed for an age range in question. One can determine roughly whether plate motion is increasing or reducing throughout existence; particular rates or drastic change in slope can likely be matched with major events if age ranging is chosen appropriately. Are findings consistent with professional data sources? iii. One can convert the speed from kilometers per millions of years to centimeters per year, and repeat (ii). iv. Hotspot hypothesis. Does trend conform to such hypothesis? v. Space geodetic techniques with focus on the theory and practice of the Global Positioning System (GPS). Hands-on experience using GPS data to address scientific problems in the Geosciences. Hands-on experience in data processing techniques, including programming a simple GPS data processing software. Measuring the movements of a house, other buildings, etc. GPS station positions change as plates move. By repeatedly measuring distances between specific points, geologists can determine the movement along faults or between plates. The separations between GPS sites are already being measured regularly around the Pacific basin. By monitoring the interaction between the Pacific Plate and the surrounding mostly continental plates, scientists are learning more about events that build up to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in the circumPacific “Ring of Fire”. Space-geodetic data have already confirmed that the rates and directions of plate movements, averaged over several years, compare well with rates and directions of plate movements averaged over millions of years. Students should be able to: Describe generally how GPS works Interpret graphs in a GPS time series plot Determine velocity vectors from GPS time series plots Explain relative motions of tectonic plates in Iceland Explore global GPS data. Example guides: http://www.earthscope.org/sites/default/files/escope/assets/uploads/misc/measuring-plate-motion-presentation-revised-20150801.pptx.pdf https://www.unavco.org Will make use of similar tools for determination plate movements. The mentioned guides are highly useful towards to strong foundation for understanding tectonic plates movement via GNSS/GPS. vi. The following literatures may or may not appear quite repulsive concerning detailed or attentive reading for proper analysis, however, the rewarding prime directive may be to either (1) Identify the data used to develop or proceed throughout. To find sources for such data, acquire them and develop modelling to confirm (the majors) findings of the literature (2) analyse analytical models and replicate findings Note: depending on publication or respective journal article one may not be restricted to the applied time frames used in the given journal articles. Can also be extended with more modern data. Crucially, for some articles it may be of great importance to compare more modern data with data for time frame observed in respective journal article. --Gibbons, A., Zahirovic, S., Muller, R.D., Whittaker, J., and Yatheesh, V. 2015. A Tectonic Model Reconciling Evidence for the Collisions between India, Eurasia and Intra-oceanic Arcs of the Central-Eastern Tethys. Gondwana Research --Beghein, C. et al. (2014). Changes in Seismic Anisotropy Shed Light on the Nature of the Gutenberg Discontinuity. Science, Vol. 343, Issue 6176, pp. 1237-1240 --Alec R. Brenner, Roger R. Fu, David A.D. Evans, Aleksey V. Smirnov, Raisa Trubko, Ian R. Rose. Paleomagnetic Evidence for Modern-like Plate Motion Velocities at 3.2 Ga. Science Advances, 2020; 6 (17): eaaz8670 https://science.sciencemag.org/content/suppl/2014/02/26/science.1246724.DC1 --For the following article, after analysis and logistics development is it possible to apply modelling to a GIS? Hayes, G. P et al. (2018). Slab2, A Comprehensive Subduction Zone Geometry Model. Science, eaat4723 --Mason, Ronald G.; Raff, Arthur D. (1961). "Magnetic survey off the West Coast of the United States between 32°N latitude and 42°N latitude". Bulletin of the Geological Society of America. 72 (8): 1259–66 --Raff, Arthur D.; Mason, Roland G. (1961). "Magnetic survey off the west coast of the United States between 40°N latitude and 52°N latitude". Bulletin of the Geological Society of America. 72 (8): 1267–70. --Volcanic Explosion Measures The given literature concerns methods to measure the explosion energy of volcanoes. Methods will range from analytical schemes to data analysis-data modelling. Note: there may be other methods from elsewhere to incorporate. 1. Analysis of the various methods 2. Logisitics for implementation 3. Implementation and compare/contrast The literature: Gorshkov, G. S. (1960). Determination of the Explosion Energy in Some Volcanoes According to Barograms. Bull Volcanol 23, pages 141–144 Steinberg, G. S. (1976). On the Determination of the Energy and Depth of Volcanic Explosions (paper dedicated to G. S. Gorshkov). Bull Volcanol 40, pages 116–120 Volcanic Explosivity Index Cmprehension of the development of such index is also warranted; critcisms as well --Magnitude–Frequency Distribution of Volcanoes PART A The given literature concerns only explosive volcanoes. Objectives are to analyses articles and pursue replication. Then consideration of other regions of interest to analyse. Nishimura, T., Iguchi, M., Hendrasto, M. et al. (2016). Magnitude–Frequency Distribution of Volcanic Explosion Earthquakes. Earth Planets Space 68, 125 Nishimura, T., Iguchi, M., Hendrasto, M. et al. (2017). Correction to: Magnitude–Frequency Distribution of Volcanic Explosion Earthquakes. Earth Planets Space 69, 143 PART B REMINDER: not all volcanoes are explosive. After analysis of the followng article pursue replication, then augment with more modern data and draw conclusions. Papale, P. (2018). Global Time-size Distribution of Volcanic Eruptions on Earth. Sci Rep 8, 6838 --Geodynamics and Seismology Software Immersion 1. Students to become well experienced with at least two Geodynamics software from what was provided. Choice must at least two since one software generally isn’t best in every area of geodynamics. Heavy physics and mathematical modelling will be premature phase before getting into software. 2. Students to become well experienced with seismology software. Concerns are the ability to intake seismometer data and structurally express it (seismographs and models); includes recognition of P, S, Love and Rayleigh waves. Include reflection seismology and refraction seismology. Heavy physics and mathematical modelling will be premature phase before getting into software. --Understanding Earth Neutrino Tomography without Nuclear & Particle Physics expertise Fiorentini, G., Lissia, M. and Mantovani, F., Geo-neutrinos and Earth’s Interior, Physics Reports 453 (2007) 117 – 172 Borriello, E., et al, High Energy Neutrinos to see inside the Earth, Nuclear Physics B (Proc. Suppl.) 190 (2009) 150–155 Winter, W., Atmospheric Neutrino Oscillations for Earth Tomography, Nuclear Physics B 908 (2016) 250–267 Matias M. Reynoso, M., M., Sampayo, O., A., On Neutrino Absorption Tomography of the Earth, Astroparticle Physics 21 (2004) 315–324 To then recall methods of Earth density variation determination by seismology, where error analysis level is compared to the error analysis level of the mentioned neutrino tomography methods. --Mapping and Classification of Rivers, Water sources and Vegetation A directive is to trace all rivers systems from start to end (including branches) towards a detailed mapping and the associated vegetation and weather variations. Will also aim to map such river systems, water sources, vegetation, with GIS in detail involving altitudes and coordinates. To also be compared with the official geological, environment, ecological mapping and data of the ambiance. Satellite data may or may not be applicable or tangible for cross reference. Software of interest --> Grass GIS (with addons) iRIC PRMS (Precipitation Runoff Modeling System) SWAT(http://swat.tamu.edu/) LANDIS II < http://www.landis-ii.org > PnET < http://www.pnet.sr.unh.edu > Use of Pnet Models and/with LANDIS II. One may need to be immersed with each separately before possible integration with each other. Gustafson, E. J. (2015). New LANDIS-II succession extension: PnET-Succession. LANDIS II.org. < www.landis-ii.org/blog/newlandis-iisuccessionextensionpnet-succession > Above source may have other crucial literature cited besides the following two: Aber JD, SV Ollinger, CA Federer et al.(1995). Predicting the effects of Climate Change on Water Yield and Forest Production in the Northeastern United States. Climate Research 5:207 - 222. De Bruijn A., Gustafson E.J., Sturtevant B.R., Foster J.R., Miranda B.R., Lichti N.I., Jacobs D.F. (2014).Toward More Robust Projections of Forest Landscape Dynamics Under Novel Environmental Conditions: Embedding PnET within LANDIS-II. Ecological Modelling 287:44–57. HEC-RAS activities All data involved in activity will be archived. (i) River classification guides: <Rosgen, D. L., A Classification of Natural Rivers, Catena 22 (1994) 169-199>. <Buffington, J. M., and Montgomery, D. R., 2013. Geomorphic classification of rivers; Source: Shroder, J. (Editor in Chief), Wohl, E. (Ed.), Treatise on Geomorphology. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, vol. 9, Fluvial Geomorphology, pp. 730–767>. For numerous rivers will physical identify source and ends (including all branches); such to include altitude data gathering with coordinates for chosen distance increments. Will also identify the vegetation variation around such rivers involving altitudes and coordinates. For a specific vegetation in the respective area one should identify the source of hydrological abundance that sustains it. All sources and ends must be physically observed. Note: man made tools, structures, alterations and pollution may or may influence the environment and locations, hence, one must carefully observe, recognise and consider such presence if any. It’s also vital that one recognises a credible theory on respective river (concerning formation and evolution). As well, historical geomorphology by official record keeping and chronological imaging consistently accounting for vast past dates will be invaluable. (ii) Location of lakes with altitudes and coordinates (to high degree). Geomorphic description of lake surroundings and lake beds, bed layers, etc. Pursuit of cause of respective lake and its age. Note: man made tools, structures, alterations and pollution may or may influence the environment and locations, hence, one must carefully observe, recognise and consider such presence if any. It’s also vital that one recognises a credible theory on respective lake (concerning formation and evolution). As well, historical geomorphology by official record keeping and chronological imaging consistently accounting for vast past dates will be invaluable when compared to field data. (iii) Wetlands Classification Will identify various international wetlands classifications systems and identify however they differ. Then, will observe numerous wetlands and gather data with respect to location and altitude (high accuracy). Formation with history. Water depths may or may not be useful. As well, be very specific with vegetation types and how a respective vegetation’s dispersion and density various w.r.t. numerous directions. Such can be and identification on climate and weather types. It’s also vital that one recognises a credible theory on respective wetland (concerning formation and evolution). As well, historical geomorphology by official record keeping and chronological imaging consistently accounting for vast past dates will be invaluable. Note: man made tools, structures, alterations and pollution may or may influence the environment and locations, hence, one must carefully observe, recognise and consider such presence if any. All such data gathered to be applied to the different wetlands classification systems and to analyse the respective strengths and informativeness of each classification.

--Stratigraphic Observation, Invertebrate and Vertebrate Palaeontology field activity Professional verbiage will be heavily instituted and reinforced. Requires a course in Stratigraphy and Paleontology. Observe the seriousness of the geomorphology activity described later on; such should provide an idea of the seriousness to take place. 1. Will identify the fossiliferous stratigraphic units and try to identify any uniqueness with location. Reference locations in relation to historical volcanic, seismic or plate tectonic activities. 2. Observation and data collection on the Tobago Volcanic Group of fossils. Will pursue identifying what geological and geomorphic regions of the island exhibit highly substantial data for designation of this group. Pursuit of Radiolaria and Ammonite fossils dating back to the Albian period. One should not eliminate the circumstance of finding other fossil types and the possibility of other geologic periods. Fossil pursuits can at times yield poor gains, nevertheless, preservation of sites will be a prime directive. Dated data gathering will also be augmented by other particular information such as Coordinate location, elevation Geological description of region and possible hydrology Rock or soil description Vegetation Such to be followed by input into a GIS (GRASS GIS with addons). GIS development will be securely archived and compared to future development in this activity. Will try to identify any contradictions between stratigraphic findings from (1) and palaeontology findings, with possible explanations for such and the evidence. Other places of interest can do such with the level of abundance available. --Field Geology reinforcement The Field Geology course will be prerequisite. This activity will likely impede one from taking taking any other activity concurrently, unless, the other activities (excluding paleontology) involve high amounts of time outdoors with GIS (GRASS GIS with addons) activity and so forth, in manner that other types of geological activity can be administered alongside. Such experience in course and repetition allows one to accumulate “fast” growing experience towards improving their knowledge and skills; for guides, instructors/professors such will be direct experience towards better planning, logistics and improved professionalism. Relevant lectures topics will be reviewed before operations. --Photonic dating Such activity is administered by the Physics administration. Check Physics post --Surface Exposure Dating The following are decent guides for the understanding and experiment development of Surface Exposure Dating: Ivy-Ochs, S. and Kober, F., Surface Exposure Dating with Cosmogenic Nuclides, E&G Quaternary Sci. J., 57, 179-209 Applegate, P. J. et al, Modelling the Statistical Distributions of Cosmogenic Exposure dates from Moraines, Geosci. Model Dev., 3, 293–307, 2010 Gliganic, L. A. et al, OSL Surface Exposure Dating of a Lithic Quarry in Tibet: Laboratory Validation and Application, Quarternary Geochronology 49 (2019) 199 – 204 Pursue the most economic but highly accurate means to orchestrate such forms of dating. One can possibly compare with results from the photonic dating activity. --Conventional Field Experiments and Measurement in Geomorphology NOTE: GRASS GIS with addons may serve well alongside other tools. NOTE: HEC-RAS may serve throughout well also. A. Slope morphometry Field Observation To evaluate the effect of substrate on slope morphology, map various geomorphologic features, and perform basic surveying techniques and slope profiles. B. Drainage bin morphometry To better appreciate the usefulness of topographic maps as tools for investigating drainage basins and to master several morphometric variables used to characterize and analyse drainage basins. Satellite imaging of high volume in frames for a respective duration would also help A Few Fundamental Basin Parameters Drainage Networks Hypsometric Curves Laboratory Exercise C. Quaternary Stratigraphy The objectives of this exercise are to learn how to describe unconsolidated sediments and to draw inferences about the depositional and weathering history of those sediments, based on their observable characteristics and the surrounding environment. We will be studying a roadcut exposed along a chosen site. D. Hypothesis testing and flume The principal objectives of this lab are to familiarize yourself with the concept of hypothesis testing and to learn some of the basic processes of stream flow and sediment transport. To accomplish the goals of this lab you will form small groups and formulate a hypothesis to test. The hypothesis must involve some aspect of stream flow or development, sediment transport, or related issues that may be tested using the flume in the lab location. Ideally, you will explore the controls on channel geometry as a function of discharge, slope, or sediment supply. After your hypothesis has been approved, you will investigate the validity of the hypothesis and the assumptions that underlie it. E. Fluvial landforms To review and observe drainage patterns, introduce fluvial landforms study and observations, as well as concepts of hydrographs and flood dynamics. Many of the exercises and observations focus on the relationship between flood and channel characteristics. 1. Drainage Patterns 2. Fluvial Landforms 3. Hydrologic concepts (analysing flood hydrographs, rating curves & flood frequencies) F. Fluvial and Karst Landforms (data) Involving Google Earth with USGS Topographic Maps Learn how to quickly and efficiently analyse topography using Google Earth and realize which applications it is and is not appropriate for. Critically ponder fluvial landscapes and the processes that shape them. Learn to recognize and think about karst topography. G. Eolian and Arid Region Landforms (data) The objective of this lab is to familiarize yourself with a few basic desert and eolian landforms. Answer the following problems completely. You may need to utilize the lecture text to supplement your answers. Google Earth with USGS Topographic Maps Analysis using stereographic photographs Eolian concepts Use of Entrainment Equations H. Glacial Features and Interpretation of Imagery To learn to recognize, analyse, and interpret glacial landforms, and to learn to map these landforms using aerial photographs and topographic maps. To learn to quickly extract elevation profiles from Google Earth for preliminary analyses. Likely to incorporate satellite imaging of high volume in frames for a respective duration 1. Identifying landforms produced by Alpine glaciation 2. Identifying landforms produced by continental glaciation 3. Mapping glacial topography in a chosen river 4. Analysing the chosen valley morphology via Google Earth with topographic profile related to prior chosen river, glacial erosion, etc. Use the cross-sections to measure the cross-sectional area eroded by fluvial processes and the cross-sectional area eroded by glacial processes. To do this, calculate the area by parcelling the profile into rectangles. Feel free to do this by hand. Or, use a CAS. According to the prior calculations, which process -- glacial or fluvial -- appears to have been the more effective erosive agent in the chosen river? Ratio of the amount of glacial erosion to the amount of fluvial erosion. Discuss the assumptions involved in this method of calculation and whether they appear valid here. Briefly describe and compare the morphologic processes that were involved in creating the two distinct morphologies represented by your cross sections. I. River Field Trip To gain field experience in measuring fluvial geomorphic variables and experience in analysing flow and sediment transport processes and controls on channel morphology. Data Collection: Form groups of 3 people. Each group will be responsible for surveying and describing one reach of the channel, following these steps: 1) Select a study reach. Your study reach should be several times longer than channel width, and should be distinct from reaches studied by other groups. Also select a cross section site to survey. 2) Each group member should make a sketch map of the site, including both a plan-view sketch showing the valley and channel morphology along your reach, and a cross-section view sketch of your cross section. The sketches should note particle-size characteristics of various sediment patches (visually estimated into size classes; see table at end of handout), bedforms, general dimensions (widths, depths, lengths), vegetation, flow characteristics, scale and orientation, and any other details that might improve your data interpretation after you leave this site. Use this sketch to focus on specific details of the study area. You can also use your sketch map as a guide or framework on which to note locations of data collection, which is critical during fieldwork. 3) Using a hand level, tape, and stadia rod, survey a cross section within your reach in order to characterize channel form. Survey the entire valley bottom along your cross section. Identify and survey the bankfull level, which may be evidenced by a break-in-slope, a change in vegetation characteristics, or other high-water marks. In addition, note any other indicators of past high flows (such as fluvial sediments, driftwood, or algae stains on the rocks bordering the channel) above the bankfull level. Your cross-section survey should also include data points at the channel edges, and survey points in the channel at ten percent intervals across the river (at one-tenth of active channel width, two-tenths, etc.). Record flow depth (using the stadia rod) at each survey point. 4) Measure the channel bed gradient of your study reach. To do this, complete a simplified longitudinal profile by surveying two points in the channel thalweg; one point at the upstream end of your reach and one point at the downstream end (using level, rod, and tape), and by measuring the distance between them with a tape. Gradient points should be on consistent bedforms (e.g. if your upstream measurement point is in a riffle, your downstream point should be as well, rather than in a pool). 5) Measure velocity at ten percent intervals across the channel along your cross section (at the same positions as you surveyed) using a current meter. At each position, measure velocity for one minute, and at a position 0.4*flow depth up from the bed (measurement at this position is intended to provide a rough approximation of vertically averaged velocity). 6) Characterize bed material: (a) Measure particle size on a bar along your cross section using a pebble count of 100 clasts. Select clasts for measurement using a random-walk or grid method. For sand-sized particles, record the size as < 2mm. For particle > 2mm measure the diameter of the intermediate particle axis in metric (mm). It’s essential to select an area where particles representative of your reach. Qualitatively characterise armouring of the bed material in the area of your pebble count; remove surface layer of clasts and visually estimate the dominate size of subsurface particles (sand, gravel cobble). Then compare the size of the subsurface clasts with that of surface particles. Such gives insight into the relationship between sediment supply and transport capacity in his reach. (b) Qualitatively describe embeddedness of the bed material along your cross section. Examine the interstices of coarse particles on the bed in terms of the degree to which they are filled with fine sediment. Assign a rating from 1 to 5, where 1 implies that interstitial space is entirely filled with fine sediment, and 5 indicates that no fine sediment is present in the interstices of larger particles. This is another way of examining the relationship between supply and transport capacity. Data Analysis (case example): 1) There is a gaging station located near our study site: USGS Station 06752000 (Cache La Poudre River at mouth of canyon, nr Ft Collins, CO). For the purposes of this exercise, you can assume the gage is representative of flows at our study site. Obtain the historic peak flow data for this site from the USGS: http://waterdata.usgs.gov/co/nwis/nwisman/?site_no=06752000&agency_cd=USGS Construct a flood frequency curve for this site, using the following steps: (a) Download annual peak data into a spreadsheet. Convert the data to metric (i.e., from cfs to m 3 /s; hint 35.3 cfs=1cms). Sort the data from highest to lowest peak flow, and assign each flow a rank (the highest recorded flood will have a rank of 1; the lowest will have a rank equal to the number of years in the period of record). (b) Calculate recurrence interval (RI) using the formula: RI=(n+1)/m, where n is the number of years of record and m is the rank. (c) Construct a semi-log plot of Q versus RI, with Q on the y-axis (normal scale) and RI on the x-axis (logarithmic scale). This is easily done in Excel by right-clicking the x-axis in your graph, selecting “Format Axis”, “Scale”, and checking the box for “Logarithmic scale”. Most of your data points should lie along something approximating a straight line. Fit a line to the data, either by hand or using Excel. 2) Plot your cross-section with no vertical exaggeration. Calculate mean flow depth, cross section area, and hydraulic radius (R) for field conditions at the time of the survey and for estimated bankfull conditions. Note that R=area/wetted perimeter. 3) Calculate cross-section averaged velocity from your current-meter data. 4) Using your field measurements of channel dimensions and velocity, calculate discharge at the time of the fieldtrip using the continuity equation: Q = wdv, where Q is discharge (m3 /s), w is width (m), d is depth (m), and v is mean velocity (m/s); Compare your estimate of Q with the Q recorded at the gaging station for the day of your survey. You can find the provisional flow data for the day of our survey at either http://www.usbr.gov/gp/hydromet/claftcco.htm http://dwr.state.co.us/Hydrology/flow_search.asp 5) Determine bed slope for your reach based on your survey data. Then calculate boundary shear stress at the time of the field survey and for bankfull conditions (the formulas below should have numerous Greek letters; see TA for help if yours don’t print out properly). Next, calculate stream power per unit area for bankfull conditions. 6) Analyse pebble count data as follows: (a) Enter particle size data into a spreadsheet (for particles < 2mm, enter the size as 1mm) (b) Sort particle sizes from smallest to largest (c) In a new column adjacent to the sorted particle size data, rank the particle sizes from 1 to 100 (or higher if you counted more than 100 clasts) (d) If you counted more or less than 100 particles, in a new column, calculate % finer for each particle as follows: % finer = (n/m)*100, where n is the rank of the particle and m is the total number of particles counted. If you counted 100 particles, n=% finer. (e) Plot % finer (y axis, normal scale) versus grain size (x-axis, log scale). Determine D50 (median grain size) and D84 (the particle size for which 84% of particles are finer). 7) Calculate critical boundary shear stress (the shear stress associated with initial movement of bed sediment) for the bed material in your reach 8) Based on your field identification of bankfull level and the continuity equation Q=wdv, calculate Qbf. Use field estimates of bankfull width and depth, and calculate bankfull velocity using 2 methods: a) Estimate Manning’s n resistance coefficient using the table from Van Haveren (1986) (provided in lab), calculate Rbf from your cross-section, and calculate velocity from the Manning equation. b) Assume the velocity you measured in the field equals bankfull velocity. This will result in 2 estimates of bankfull discharge. Determine the frequency (RI) of these discharges at the USGS gaging station. Bankfull discharge (Qbf) is often approximated as having a 1.5-year recurrence interval. Use your flood frequency curve to determine Q1.5 (the discharge with RI=1.5) at the USGS gage. Questions: 1) Discuss uncertainty in your field estimate of Q at the time of the survey. Among other things, consider whether the assumption that the gage data are representative of our field site is appropriate. 2) Using your results from (5) and (7), compare your calculated values for τ bf (boundary shear stress at bankfull conditions) and τc (critical boundary shear stress). Does your analysis suggest that bed sediments at this site are mobilized at close to bankfull discharge, or at some lower or higher flow level? How does this result compare to your field observations about grain size and channel morphology in the Poudre? 3) Compare the 3 discharge estimates developed in (8) above and discuss the results of this analysis. This discussion should, at the least, address the following points: (a) What are sources of error/uncertainty in the methods of estimating Qbf? (b) Do your estimates of Qbf based on field estimates seem reasonable? (c) How do these estimates compare to Q at the time of the survey? (d) Do you think that approximating the bankfull discharge as the 1.5-year event is reasonable in the Poudre River? 4) Discuss the controls on channel and valley morphology at the Poudre River field site, incorporating your data, your observations in the field, other knowledge of the Poudre, and what you have learned in lecture and lab about fluvial geomorphology. Consider the driving and resisting forces at work here, including geology, climate, anthropogenic impacts, etc. Discuss how stable you think the present channel configuration is -- if you were to return to this spot in 10 years, or 50 years, how might it appear different? Be specific about potential changes or lack thereof in channel characteristics (grain size, width, planform). 5) Discuss your observations of bed material, including dominant size class of your bed material, qualitative assessment of armouring, and embeddedness. Based on your observations, do you think your reach is supply-limited (i.e., sediment transport capacity exceeds sediment supply) or transport-limited (i.e., the supply of sediment to the channel exceeds the ability of the channel to transport that material downstream)? 6) Channel classification can be a valuable tool for describing a stream in a way that can be easily communicated to others. Classify your study reach using the Montgomery-Buffington classification system. Justify the classification you selected, and discuss whether you think this classification system is appropriate for describing this channel. 7) Does this channel appear to be in need of “restoration”? That is, based on what you have learned about fluvial forms and processes, is there evidence that this site has been altered by human activities in a way that could/should be reversed, or does the channel appear to be functioning reasonably? If you do think that restoration measures are merited here, what types of measures would you advocate? 8) The City of Fort Collins and other parties are planning on raising Halligan Dam on the North Fork Poudre River, which enters the main Poudre a few miles upstream of our study site, in order to increase storage capacity. Do you think that this will affect channel morphology at our study site? If so, how and why? If not, why not? In following hours or days, we will go over and provide time to work on the data analysis requested above. You will need to bring data to move forward with other analysis. At a minimum, you should bring the following data to lab next week: flood frequency analysis particle size data, including calculated D50 and D84 survey data (cross section and long profile), including calculated bed slope, channel width, and channel depth In addition to answers to the questions above, your report should include the following: sketch maps (from each person in your group) (plan-view and cross-section view); flood frequency curve cross-sectional plot of channel, showing the active channel width, bankfull width, labels, title, etc (no vertical exaggeration); Summary table describing physical characteristics (measured and calculated) of channel Reach and various discharge estimates Appendix showing all calculations Raw data (survey, pebble count, velocity). I. Coastal Processes (example): https://sites.warnercnr.colostate.edu/g454/wp-content/uploads/sites/93/2016/12/Lab-12-DS.pdf --Reinforcement of Hydrology labs and field studies Activities concern the reinforcement of the specified labs from the Hydrology course. Relevant lectures topics will be reviewed before lab operations. Thus, the Hydrology course will be a prerequisite; activities will be more accelerated than course. One may find trends or consistencies with respect to location and seasons. Labs and field studies may be augmented, advanced, or new activities incorporated. --Influence of Floods on Landscapes PART A NOVA – Killer floods (Season 44 Episode 18, 2017) The USGS has software that can simulate large floods over large terrains; complemented by GIS (GRASS GIS with addons) RHESSys, HEC-HMS, HEC-RAS, HEC-FIA. iRIC, MODFOW + MT3DMS, PRMS (Precipitation Runoff Modelling System) First step is analyse supporting document for such software. Second Step is to run such application(s) over terrains of preference to observe the impact on landscapes. Perhaps, such mentioned software provides references and/or modelling and development papers. As well, a few guides that may assist: -Haider S. et al, Urban Flood Modelling Using Computational Fluid Dynamics, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Water and Maritime Engineering 2003 156:2, 129-135 -Rojas, S. G. S. et al. (2014). Macquarie River Floodplain Flow Modelling: Implications for Ecogeomorphology. In: A. J. Schleiss, G. de Cesare, M. J. Franca, & M. Pfister (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference on Fluvial Hydraulics, RIVER FLOW 2014 (pp. 2347-2355). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press/Balkema. -Grenfell, M. C., Modelling Geomorphic Systems: Fluvial, Geomorphological Techniques, Chap. 5, Sec. 6.4 (2015) -Guan, M, Wright, NG and Sleigh, PA (2015). Multiple Effects of Sediment Transport and Geomorphic Processes Within Flood Events: Modelling and Understanding. International Journal of Sediment Research, 30 (4). pp. 371-381. -Biscarini, C. et al, On the Simulation of Floods in a Narrow Bending Valley: The Malpasset Dam Break Case Study, Water 2016, 8, 545 -Tamminga, A., Linking Geomorphic Change due to Floods to Spatial Hydraulic Habitat Dynamics, Ecohydrology Volume 11 issue 8 December 2018 PART B Counterpart to part A The USGS has software catering to landslide hazards: https://www.usgs.gov/programs/landslide-hazards/software Further pursuits: Dai, F.C & Lee, C.F & Ngai, Y.Y. (2002). Landslide risk assessment and management: An overview. Engineering Geology. 64. 65-87. Pardeshi, S.D., Autade, S.E. & Pardeshi, S.S. (2013). Landslide hazard Assessment: Recent Trends and Techniques. SpringerPlus 2, 523 --Modelling History and Evolution of River Systems Will pursue modelling of very dynamic river systems, such as the Amazon and the Orinoco. Will pursue models with initial conditions for such systems and simulate. An example: Coulthard T. J. and Van De Wiel M. J. Modelling River History and Evolution, 370, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences Note: other models likely will be applied for comparatve analysis Software to compare development with --> GIS (GRASS GIS with addons) iRIC RHESSys HEC-HMS HEC-RAS HEC-FIA MODFOW + MT3DMS WILL try to match and/or compare development cases with satellite data (high volume of frames per duration) --Avalanche Models & Simulation PART A1 Beginning with analytical structure for model avalanches. Hopefully such two articles are not that highly conflicting leading to great confusion and lost of direction. Additionally, will pursue “microscale” experiment setups and try to confirm theory with experimentation based on such articles. Bartelt, P., Salm, B., & Gruber, U. (1999). Calculating Dense-Snow Avalanche Runout Using a Voellmy-Fluid Model with Active/Passive Longitudinal Straining. Journal of Glaciology, 45(150), 242-254. Faug, T., Naaim, M. and Naaim-Bouvet, F. (2004). An Equation for Spreading Length, Centre of Mass and Maximum Run-Out Shortenings of Dense Avalanche Flows by Vertical Obstacles, Cold Regions Science and Technology, Volume 39, Issues 2–3, Pages 141-151 Note: the following may be used as cross reference Savage, S. and Hutter K. (1989). The Motion of a Finite Mass of Granular Material Down a Rough Incline. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 199: 177-215. Balmforth, N. J. and Provenzale, A. (2001). Geomorphological Fluid Mechanics. Springer Berlin, Heidelberg Ancey C (2001) Snow Avalanches. Geomorphological Fluid Mechanics, Springer, In, pp 319–338 PART A2 Being aspiring geologists, hence, with the “natural” ability to acquire topography and elevation measures for various landscapes, where elements in data are quite "compact” with each other, say, not being highly discrete w.r.t. to each other. Can such models be extended for the elevation z = f(x, y) in question? After findings for above question, pursue analysis of the following article, then pursue replication or emulation Li, X., Sovilla, B., Jiang, C. et al. (2021). Three-Dimensional and Real-Scale Modelling of Flow Regimes in Dense Snow Avalanches. Landslides, 18, pages 3393–3406 PART B Simulation development. Comparative development and simulation based on the given journal articles. Norem, H., Irgens, F., & Schieldrop, B. (1989). Simulation of Snow-Avalanche Flow in Run-Out Zones. Annals of Glaciology, 13, 218-225. Sartoris, G. and Bartelt, P. (2000). Upwinded Finite Difference Schemes for Dense Snow Avalanche Modeling, Int. J. Numerical. Methods. Fluids, 32, pages 799-821. Norem, Harald & Irgens, Fridtjov & Schieldrop, Bonsak. (1989). Simulation of Snow-Avalanche Flow in Run-Out Zones. Annals of Glaciology. 13. 218-225. Zugliani, D. and Rosatti, G. (2021). TRENT2D❄: An Accurate Numerical Approach to the Simulation of Two-Dimensional Dense Snow Avalanches in Global Coordinate Systems, Cold Regions Science and Technology, Volume 190, 103343 Note: the following may be used as cross reference Savage, S. and Hutter K. (1989). The Motion of a Finite Mass of Granular Material Down a Rough Incline. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 199: 177-215. Balmforth, N. J. and Provenzale, A. (2001). Geomorphological Fluid Mechanics. Springer Berlin, Heidelberg PART C Models for Snow Avalanche Runout. Among the articles it’s important that the the model process (variables choice, estimation, validation, etc.) be probed, despite such articles now being appreciated by consensus; self assurance of models thrown at you. Regardless, goal will be comparatively applying recognised models from each article to different terrains and determine how well they performed based on determined modern data as test/validation sets. Bovis, M. J., & Mears, A. I. (1976). Statistical Prediction of Snow Avalanche Runout from Terrain Variables in Colorado. Arctic and Alpine Research, 8(1), 115–120. Bakkehoi, S., Domaas, U., & Lied, K. (1983). Calculation of Snow Avalanche Runout Distance. Annals of Glaciology, 4, 24-29. Lied, K. & Toppe, R. (1988). Calculation of Maximum Snow-Avalanche Run-Out Distance by use of Digital Terrain Models. Annals of Glaciology. 13. pages 164-169. McClung, D.M. (2000). Extreme Avalanche Runout in Space and Time. Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 37(1): 161-170. McClung, D. M. (2001). Extreme Avalanche Runout: A Comparison of Empirical Models. Can. Geotech. J. 38: 1254–1265 Delparte, D., Jamieson, B. and Waters, N. (2008). Statistical Runout Modelling of Snow Avalanches Using GIS in Glacier National Park, Canada, Cold Regions Science and Technology, 54(3), pages 183 -192 Oller, P., Baeza, C., & Furdada, G. (2021). Empirical α–β Runout Modelling of Snow Avalanches in the Catalan Pyrenees. Journal of Glaciology, 67(266), 1043-1054. Note: the follwing may be pursued later on Sinickas, A. and Jamieson, B. (2014). Comparing Methods for Estimating β points for Use in Statistical Snow Avalanche Runout Models. Cold Regions Science and Technology, Volumes 104–105, Pages 23-32 McClung, D. M. (2022). The Scale Effect in Extreme Snow Avalanche Runout Distance. Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 59(5): 625-630. --Scaled Physical Models for Lab Experimentation 1. Flume construction and channels Consideration of types of flumes for use. Well built to accommodate experimentation with formulas, and prediction for real natural systems. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/flume-experiment Assisting literature and resources Wahl, T. L. Equations for computing submerged flow in Parshall flumes, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado, USA: https://www.usbr.gov/tsc/techreferences/mands/wmm/new/chap08/eqsubmergedparshall.pdf Recking, A. (2010). A Comparison Between Flume and Field Bed Load Transport Data and Consequences for Surface-Based Bed Load Transport Prediction, Water Sources Research, 46(2) Wyss, C. R. et al (2016). Laboratory Flume Experiments with the Swiss Plate Geophone Bed Load Monitoring System: 1. Impulse Counts and Particle Size Identification, Water Sources Research, 52(10), pp 7744-7759 Wyss, C. R. et al (2016). Laboratory Flume Experiments with the Swiss Plate Geophone Bed Load Monitoring System: 2. Application to Field Sites with Direct Bed Load Samples, Water Sources Research, 52(10), PP 7760-7778 Heyrani, M., Mohammadian, A., Nistor, I., & Dursun, O. F. (2022). Application of Numerical and Experimental Modeling to Improve the Efficiency of Parshall Flumes: A Review of the State-of-the-Art. Hydrology, 9(2), 26. Ishihara, M. and Yasuda, H. (2022). On the Migrating Speed of Free Alternate Bars. JGR Earth Science, 127(10), e2021JF006485 2. Lillquist and Kinner - Stream Tables and Watershed Geomorphology Education 3. Analogue modelling Used to simulate different geodynamic processes and geological phenomena, such as small-scale problems – folding, fracturing, thrust faulting, boudinage and shear zone. Large-scale problems – subduction, collision, diapirism and mantle convection. One must identify the rock dynamics, sub-crust dynamics or type of (compressional, extensional, strike-slip) tectonics in play for the respective phenomena. Note: each geodynamical process orchestrated in the field/lab will be accompanied by identification of the chemistry, physics and mathematical modelling that governs them. Crucial concerns: Scaling Open and closed systems Constructing experimental apparatuses Materials for respective apparatus to exhibit particular phenomenon Pursue development of articles in the most constructive sequence: -Ranalli, Giorgio (2001). "Experimental tectonics: from Sir James Hall to the present". Journal of Geodynamics. 32 (1–2): 65–76. -Mead, Warren J. (1920). "Notes on the Mechanics of Geologic Structures". The Journal of Geology. 28 (6): 505–523. -Schellart, W. P. and Strak, V. (2016). A review of analogue modelling of geodynamic processes: Approaches, scaling, materials and quantification, with an application to subduction experiments". Journal of Geodynamics. 100: 7–32 -Konstantinovskaia, Elena; Malavieille, Jacques (2005-02-26). "Erosion and exhumation in accretionary orogens: Experimental and geological approaches". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 6 (2): Q02006 -Kincaid, Chris; Olson, Peter (1987-12-10). "An experimental study of subduction and slab migration". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 92 (B13): 13832–13840. -Koyi, H. (2007). Analogue modelling: From a qualitative to a quantitative technique — A historical outline". Journal of Petroleum Geology. 20 (2): 223–238. Analogue modelling involves the simplification of geodynamic processes, of consequence there are some disadvantages and limitations (discussed in given articles): A. Concerning natural rock properties, the more accurate the input data, the more accurate the analogue modelling. B. Likelihood of heterogeneous systems involving isostatic compensation, erosion, other unknown factors, etc. Such can make simulations difficult to replicate systems. C. The variation of natural rocks is greater than in simulated materials, hence it’s difficult to fully model the real situation. D. Analogue modelling cannot simulate chemical reactions E. There are systematic errors in the apparatus, and random errors due to human factors. Analogue modelling have neat displays, however, it’s crucial that the phenomena of concern can be represented by geophysical modelling in a tangible and practical manner, else geological dynamics study would be extremely limited. 4. The following articles will be applied towards quantitative comparison between conventional natural geodynamics and ideal microscale lab experiment representations Articles to be used on comparative terms with natural geodynamical processes. Such articles concern fitting models described with acceptable parameters for the scale of the experiments. Note: it may be highly constructive to have an idea on the applied forces and applied displacements pertaining to experiments of relevance. Likely, due to the materials used in experiments there will inconsistencies to considered real geodynamic behaviour; computational/quantitative determination of the lack of character to real geodynamic behaviour for chosen particular physical characteristic measures--> Green, D. L., Modelling Geomorphic Systems: Scaled Physical Models, Geomorphological Techniques, Chap. 5, Sec. 3 (2014) Li, Z., & Ribe, N. (2012). Dynamics of free Subduction from 3‐D boundary Element modelling. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 117(B6), N/a. Yoshida, M. (2017). Trench dynamics: Effects of dynamically migrating trench on subducting slab morphology and characteristics of subduction zones systems. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 268, 35-53. Göğüş, O., Pysklywec, R., Corbi, F., & Faccenna, C. (2011). The surface tectonics of mantle lithosphere delamination following ocean lithosphere subduction: Insights from physical‐scaled analogue experiments. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 12(5), N/a. --Earth’s Interior & Consequences of Earth’s Radioactive Power Part A Probing Earth’s interior with neutrinos << Fiorentini, G., Lissia, M. and Mantovani, F., Geo-neutrinos and Earth’s Interior, Physics Reports 453 (2007) 117 – 172 >> Part B 1. The following are decent guides towards discussion and development for the study of Earth’s radioactive power: Korenaga, J. (2008). Urey Ratio and the Structure ad Evolution of Earth’s Mantle, Reviews of Geophysics, 46, RG2007, 32 pages Dye, S. T. (2012). Geoneutrinos and the Radioactive Power of the Earth, Reviews of Geophysics, 50, RG3007, 19 pages Sramek, O., McDonough, W. F. and Learned, J. G., Geoneutrinos, Advances in High Energy Physics, Volume 2012, Article ID 235686, 34 pages Sramek, O. et al, (2013). Geophysical & Geochemical Constraints on Geoneutrino Fluxes from Earth’s Mantle, Earth & Planetary Science Letters, Vol 361, pages 356 – 366 Ludhova, L. and Zavatarelli, S., Studying the Earth with Geoneutrinos, Advances in High Energy Physics, Volume 2013, Article ID 425693, 16 pages Huang, Y. et al A Reference Earth Model for the Heat Producing Elements and Associated Geoneutrino Flux. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. Volume 14, Issue 6, Jun 2013, pages 2003 - 2029 2. Will pursue means of acquiring data from KamLAND, SNO and other possible sources. Will review how each experimentation site works, the logistics with making use of data, interpretation of data or application of data to models of: Earth’s radioactive power Thermal history Mantle evolution Note: operations with data will be interactive. 3. Radioactive emissions from lava (apart from infrared)? 4. Why are life forms not exposed to hazardous (amounts of) geo-radioactive emissions? National Research Council (US) Committee on Evaluation of EPA Guidelines for Exposure to Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials. Chapter 2, Natural Radioactivity and Radiation. In: Evaluation of Guidelines for Exposures to Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials. National Academies Press (US), Washington DC, 1999, Pages 25 - 61 5. Consider construction of “Geiger counters” where students investigate the possibility of residing radioactive rocks and other geophysical bodies. Signalling should be processed and stored as possibly time series data. One must be careful to mark or identify the sector of observation to avoid confusion and overlaps; spots must be assured and marked, also date logging (and possibly GIS inputs) should be considered. Time series for respective sector and duration with date must be recognisable always. 6. Identify places on the planet with high access to natural radioactive elements in abundance. For such places one can investigate the origins of such elements, geophysical structure of environment, geochemistry of such locations and continental geological history. 7. Origins of radioactive sources inside Earth. Are any conditions, models or theories ranging from early solar planetary formation to current time sufficient to create radioactive isotopes? Identify conditions, natural environments, activities, phenomena, models for sufficient conditions towards nucleosynthesis of radioactive isotopes. Generally where is all such found? 8. Pursue data for unique radioactive signatures from astronomical observation. How refined are such unique radioactive signatures compared to other celestial bodies? In current times ease in observing such unique radioactive signatures w.r.t position may not be convincing. However, for earlier times of the universe are there models that strongly support dispersed sources of unique radioactive signatures and the appropriate nucleosynthesis parameters for radioactive isotopes? 9. Neutrino tomography can probe the Earth’s interior. As well, recall that the Earth’s interior can also be probed by use of seismic waves. One will like to determine how well seismic analysis of Earth’s interior is consistent with neutrino tomography. One will like to analyse the respective models, parameters, data, etc., etc. to establish any consistency. --Immersion with the International Monitoring System (IMS) and Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO) 1. History of IMS 2. Analysis of the components of IMS 3. History of CTBT 4. Idea of its CTBTO applications Mialle, P. et al (2018). CTBTO International Monitoring System Data for Science and the virtual Data Exploitation Centre (vDEC). American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2018 5. To concern ourselves with the means of event recognition from data Nuclear explosive tests Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes Meteorological events Tools and techniques will be much detailed and implemented Data will stem from the following source: virtual Data Exploitation Centre (vDEC) https://www.ctbto.org/specials/vdec/ Naturally, identifying past events and identifying data in the time neighbourhood of occurrence for each event. --Bayesian Decision Theory for Disaster Management Hopefully can be geared towards geology interests Structure of Bayesian Modelling and Evaluation The following articles serve as robust structure. Will be making use of ambiance data of interest and will pursue means of determining accuracy: Simpson, M. et al. Decision Analysis for Management of Natural Hazards. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 2016 41:1, 489-516 Guides to develop models and evaluation for places of interest: Economou, T., Stephenson, D., Rougier, J., Neal, R., & Mylne, K. (2016). On the Use of Bayesian Decision Theory for Issuing Natural Hazard Warnings. Proceedings. Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences, 472(2194), 20160295. Economou, T.; Stephenson, D. B.; Rougier, J. C.; Neal, R. A.; Mylne, K. R. (2016): Data and Loss Function Tool On the Use of Bayesian Decision Theory for Issuing Natural Hazard Warnings. The Royal Society. S Taskin & E J Lodree, Jr (2011) A Bayesian Decision Model with Hurricane Forecast Updates for Emergency Supplies Inventory Management, Journal of the Operational Research Society, 62:6, 1098-1108 --Detecting, Extracting, and Monitoring Surface Water from Space using Optical Sensors The given journal article can serve well towards development of water detection from satellite data and technology tools. Such may be extendible to celestial bodies. Students can test out their development on the Serengeti Plain as an example to compare the different seasons; other geography should be considered as well that doesn’t rely on such a vast time scale. Huang, C. et al (2018). Detecting, Extracting, and Monitoring Surface Water from Space using Optical Sensors: A Review. Reviews of Geophysics, 56(2), 333–360. --Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM) and transcendence Thoroughly identify and analyse GUM. Our goal is to develop a logistical framework that’s universal with any experimentation in science. developing competence to important is quite important. Re-orchestrating some basic physics and chemistry labs students may encounter uncertainty treatment. Will like to extend to such particular labs with the analysis from part A. PART A Analysis from the following guides --> 1. Evaluation of measurement data — Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement — JCGM 100:2008 https://www.bipm.org/utils/common/documents/jcgm/JCGM_100_2008_E.pdf 2. Evaluation of measurement Data – Supplement to the “Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement” – Propagation of Distributions using a Monte Carlo Method. JCGM.101: 2008 3. Barry N. Taylor and Chris E. Kuyatt (1994). guidelines for Evaluating and Expressing the Uncertainty of NIST Measurement Results. NIST Technical Note 1297. 4. https://isotc.iso.org/livelink/livelink/Open/8389141 5. Ferrero, A., & Salicone, S. (2018). A Comparison Between the Probabilistic and Possibilistic Approaches: The Importance of a Correct Metrological Information. IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, 67(3), 607-620. Other applications Krouwer, J. (2003). Critique of the Guide to the expression of Uncertainty in Measurement Method of Estimating and Reporting Uncertainty in Diagnostic Assays. Clinical Chemistry, 49(11), 1818-21. Velychko, O., & Gordiyenko, T. (2009). The use of Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement for Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 3(4), 514-517. --Geography Technology Development Concerning geology one can’t be every for whatever time period considered. Technology and credible community development are key for studies in geophysics. Hence, our concerns in this activity are the following data: maps, charts and geospatial data from global sources in all categories: topographic, 3D, DEM, GIS, vector, nautical, aeronautical, geological, scientific, and imagery (to include LIDAR). There are three possible means towards goals: PART A 1. Open Source GIS --> SAGA GIS, ILWIS, MapWindow GIS, uDig, GRASS GIS, QGIS, Whitebox GAT, JUMP GIS, BeeGIS + GeoPaparazzi. GRASS GIS with addons may or may not be preference. PART B Fieldwork can be integrated well with BeeGIS + GeoPaparazzi De Donatis, M. et al (2010). BeeGIS: A New Open-Source and Multiplatform Mobile GIS. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2010–1335 NOTE: this GIS generally makes no default choice upon part A, comprehending that the other GIS mentioned in part A have unique and powerful features. -- Geospatial Processing Service --> Google Earth Engine (GEE) This service likely will not be learning to tie different knots. Requires much focus and dedication. Students who are competent with coding may find GEE less challenging. Crucial steps are: I. Comprehending what GEE is and what it can do for you II. Immersion strictly based on a practical, tangible and fluid beginner tasks to complete. With such a complex tool, asking you to explore carefree may or may not be productive. Tasks that are crucial: Set goals/objectives and end result expectations Analytical schemes/drafting and how GEE works with such Understanding data: where from and how to integrate Analytical idea of algorithms in play subject to prior Prior two elements may be applied multiple times in one objective Sequential interests Embedding or integrations Successful completion of a particular goal/objective doesn’t guarantee future success because the development spectrum in very broad with various intricacies for a respective pursuit. There are beginner video tutorials, however, you will not accomplish much without further drive, imagination and innovation. Overall, GEE can be a high reward investment if you can maintain value to audiences of interest. Also, the USGS can be augmented with data towards GEE. Additionally, there’s the rgee R package. --Environmental Restoration Economic Modelling and Evaluation For environmental perturbations of interest (mainly geological) to develop economical modelling and evaluation. Concerns for developing and/or mining. Note: will be making use use of professional literature (ISO, UN, gov’t published, peer reviewed journal articles). PHASE 1(Life Cycle Assessment) Environmental burdens connected with a product or service have to be assessed, back to the raw materials and down to waste removal. LCA will be identified and analysed Development or mining site(s) in question to be analysed Depletion and/or wastes and/or contamination Developing LCA model(s) for site(s) in question Logistics for LCA implementation for respective site Implementation of the LCA Results and analysis Software: OpenLCA, ACV-GOST, OpenIO, One Click LCA, etc. PHASE 2 (Restoration Alternatives) The choice of restoration alternatives and the methodology for implementing them depend on the specific environmental issues, site characteristics, and desired outcomes. Note: methods such as Economic Valuation of Ecosystem Services, Net Environmental Benefit Analysis (NEBA), Hedonic Pricing, Habitat Equivalency Analysis (HEA) and Resource Equivalency Analysis (REA) should be properly incorporated. Here is a general methodology for evaluating and implementing environmental restoration alternatives -- Site Assessment: Conduct a thorough site assessment to understand the nature and extent of environmental degradation. Identify the contaminants, pollutants, or ecological imbalances present. Evaluate the historical land use and potential sources of pollution. Ecological Risk Assessment: Assess the risks to ecosystems and human health associated with the environmental degradation. Evaluate the potential for ecological harm and prioritize restoration efforts based on risk levels. Stakeholder Involvement: Engage stakeholders, including local communities, regulatory agencies, and environmental organizations. Consider their perspectives, concerns, and input throughout the restoration process. Define Restoration Goals and Objectives: Clearly define the goals and objectives of the restoration project. Identify specific ecological, social, and economic outcomes that the restoration aims to achieve. Restoration Alternatives Analysis: Identify and evaluate various restoration alternatives based on their feasibility, effectiveness, and cost. Consider both natural and engineered solutions, such as bioremediation, phytoremediation, habitat restoration, or engineered containment. Cost-Benefit Analysis: Conduct a cost-benefit analysis for each restoration alternative. Evaluate the economic feasibility of different approaches, considering short-term and long-term costs and benefits. Technical Feasibility: Assess the technical feasibility of each restoration alternative, considering factors such as available technology, infrastructure, and expertise. Environmental Impact Assessment: Evaluate the potential environmental impacts of each restoration alternative. Consider the short-term and long-term effects on soil, water, air quality, and biodiversity. Regulatory Compliance: Ensure that the chosen restoration alternative complies with relevant environmental regulations and permits. Consult with regulatory agencies and obtain necessary approvals. Implementation Plan: Develop a detailed implementation plan for the chosen restoration alternative. Define the step-by-step process, timeline, and milestones for implementation. Monitoring and Adaptive Management: Implement a monitoring program to track the progress of the restoration. Incorporate adaptive management strategies to adjust the restoration approach based on monitoring results. Community Education and Outreach (only discuss general ideas): Educate the local community about the restoration project. Provide updates on progress and involve the community in stewardship efforts. Long-Term Maintenance and Management: Plan for the long-term maintenance and management of the restored environment. Consider strategies to ensure the sustainability of the restored ecosystem. Documentation and Reporting: Document all aspects of the restoration process, including methodologies, data, and outcomes. Prepare regular reports for stakeholders and regulatory agencies. Post-Restoration Monitoring and Evaluation (may not be implementable in this project): Conduct post-restoration monitoring to assess the success of the restoration efforts. Evaluate whether the goals and objectives have been achieved and identify any lessons learned for future projects.

An invaluable textbook for geosciences with Mathematica: “Computational Geosciences with Mathematica”, by Willian C. Haneberg. The provided CD may be outdated but the book itself with Mathematica is a good resource. Sources and software for Geology Data: UN Geo Data Portal The provided ESA and NASA sources may prove beneficial as well. Such software and data sources can be used for lecturing, lab seminars coordinated and/or scheduled appropriately, without compromising the designating core courses, time and scheduling of the designated core courses. JBA Trust: https://www.jbatrust.org OTHER POWERFUL COMPUTATIONAL GEOLOGY SOFTWARE 1. Computational Infrastructure for Geodynamics (CIG): https://geodynamics.org/cig/software/ 2. EPA (SWMM, VLEACH) 3. MINTEQA2 4. PHREEQC 5. Generic Mapping Tools (GMT) 6. GPlates 7. Energy Data Exchange (EDX) from the National Energy Technology Laboratory: https://edx.netl.doe.gov/tools Other software to be found in first part notes of structure. Note: Towards the planetary sciences, the Wolfram environment greatly provides computation, programming, simulation, data management (import, manipulation and visualization). Data mentioned throughout can be incorporated as well. Examples of the Wolfram platforms: Environmental Sciences Geosciences 8. Forest landscape processes (Landis-II) 9. General CMIP5 models and competing alternatives 10. USGS Water Resources Software: https://water.usgs.gov/software/lists 11. USGS Design Ground Motions: https://earthquake.usgs.gov/hazards/designmaps/

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