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hedgehogsofasgard · 7 years ago

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Hedgehog nutrition

Hedgehog nutrition is probably one of the most widely debated topics when it comes to hedgehog care. Why? It’s because we don’t really know what hedgehogs need. We know what they eat, but breakdowns of ratios and percentages of their nutritional requirements are still unknown or very vague, or too difficult to replicate in captivity. Very little research has been done towards pet hedgehog nutrition so a lot of what’s recommended right now has been discovered through trial and error over the years and by looking at their natural diet and attempting to recreate it as best as we can.

In the wild

Hedgehogs are not just insectivores (and definitely not rodents!) but more like opportunistic omnivores: scavengers who will eat nearly everything they find, but the staple of their diet consists of invertebrates. The term that would describe them best would probably be ‘insectivorous omnivores’.

The studies that have been done on hedgehog diets in the wild mainly look at the frequency of occurrence of certain food types. While this works well for large sample sizes and makes it easier to compare various studies, it doesn’t give us full insight when it comes to the importance of different foods; it is more difficult to say which foods are actively selected or avoided by the animals in question. A single small arthropod occurring in twenty stomachs might show as a 20% occurrence, while twenty large arthropods in one stomach might be a 1% occurrence, even though they form a much larger proportion of the diet (Yalden, 1976). This is illustrated in the following figure:

(Source: The food of the hedgehog in England by D. W. Yalden, 1976)

This is one of the problems we’re facing: we do know what hedgehogs eat, but we’re unsure about the specific ratios and the nutritional importance of those various food types in relation to the hedgehog. Still, these studies can give us important insight and can help us recreate the most natural diet for our pets.

Invertebrates

Researchers in the Waitaki Basin, New-Zealand kill-trapped European hedgehogs (which are an invasive species in NZ) to examine the contents of their guts and found the following percentage occurrence:

Image source: Diet of hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) in the upper Waitaki Basin, New Zealand: Implications for conservation by C. Jones et al. (2005)

From left to right: beetles (Coleoptera); butterfly and moths (mainly larvae) (Lepidoptera); bees, wasps and ants (Hymenoptera); grasshoppers, locusts and crickets (Orthoptera); flies (Diptera); birds; spiders (Arachnida); lizards; larvae (excl. Lepidoptera); eggshell; true bugs (Hemiptera); dragonflies (Odonata); worms (Annelida); stoneflies (Plecoptera) and alderflies, dobsonflies and fishflies (Megaloptera).

With the exception of birds, lizards and eggshells, these are all invertebrates. This includes the first five food types found in the highest occurrence. The ratios per hedgehog differed and some invertebrates were found in large quantities: three hedgehogs had consumed over 30 butterfly/moth larvae (and one over 52)! One animal contained 40 bumblebee legs and 52 spider wasp wings were found in another. Another study found the remains of 85 beetles in a single stomach. This abundance of one or two particular food types suggests the ability to focus on and exploit a locally abundant food source, a good example of the hedgehog’s opportunistic nature.

This corresponds with data from other studies (from Europe, Africa, Asia and NZ), such as that of Yalden (see first figure), or Jones and Norbury (2010) who examined faecal matter of NZ hedgehogs in an arid habitat and found “the most commonly eaten foods were beetles, including rare native species (in 94% of droppings), earwigs (92%), spiders (25%) and native skinks (14%)”.

Image source: Feeding selectivity of introduced hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus in a dryland habitat, South Island, New Zealand by C. Jones and G. Norbury, 2010

While we might not know all the details about hedgehog nutrition yet, every study agrees on the following basis: the hedgehog displays an opportunistic, omnivorous nature but with a strong reliance on invertebrate prey with it being the staple of their diet.

Vertebrates and eggs

The amount of vertebrates found in several studies is quite low and they do not seem to make up a very large part of the hedgehog’s diet. Yalden (1976) notes an occurrence of 12% when it comes to mammals, 16% for birds and 11% for eggs. Those numbers are most likely higher than usual since the trapped hedgehogs were mainly baited with (dead) rabbits, hares and eggs. Most mammalian remains found in other studies came from small animals such as mice and shrews and ranged from small bone and fur fragments to (although rare) entire mice skeletons. Fly eggs and maggots found in hedgehog stomachs suggest the feeding on carrion as does the occurrence of larger mammal remains.

Most occurrences of birds are based on just a few feathers. It is difficult to say whether or not these all belonged to avian prey; the feathers could have been ingested while raiding nests e.g. those of bumblebees which sometimes use them for nest lining, as the remains of those nests were found in some stomachs as well (Yalden, 1976). However, in several instances skin was still attached to the feathers.

When it comes to eggs it is difficult to say whether or not the eggshells found in faeces or guts are a good estimate because hedgehogs are more likely to leave the shells and only eat the contents of the egg (which is difficult to retrieve from stomachs or faeces).

One study found that adult female guts contained three times as many lizard remains than those of adult males (with a combined percentage occurrence of 6%). This might relate to higher energetic demands (protein) of the female during breeding season (Jones et al., 2005). Some studies didn’t find a noticeable difference between males and females. Identifiable lizard remains ranged from a few scales to whole feet and bone fragments (Jones and Norbury, 2010).

Plant matter

Since the hedgehog is considered to be somewhat omnivorous some plant matter in its diet was expected. Yalden (1976) found a percentage occurrence of 44%; however, the vast majority came from finely chewed plant matter from the guts of ingested invertebrates (mainly caterpillars). Most other plant matter, such as grass or pine needles, seemed to have been accidentally ingested. In most stomachs the quantity of plant matter was not or barely noticeable. In the stomachs where more and larger plant matter was found it had not been chewed nor digested; even though animal remains in those same stomachs were reduced to nothing more than bits of fur, feather and exoskeleton. Other studies reached a similar conclusion, with undigested plant matter found in both faeces and guts (Jones and Norbury found it in 49% of samples): it seems that most plant matter is not deliberately eaten and hedgehogs might not be able to digest it very well. Hedgehogs have a very simple gut system with no external distinction between large and small intestine and no caecum, the part where cellulose is digested in herbivores. There’s an exception to be made for fruit (and possibly young shoots); several studies have found fruit and seed remains in larger quantities, although never in many animals.

No plant matter was found in long-eared hedgehogs (Maheshwari, 1983).

The African pygmy hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris)

All studies cited here - except for one - have been done on European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus). Other studies with different species show corresponding results: a primarily insectivorous diet and an opportunistic nature. This goes for the most common pet species as well, the African pygmy hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris). Not many studies have been done on this species but their results suggest a similar diet selection: a staple of invertebrates, primarily termites, beetles, worms, millipedes, ants, grasshoppers and slugs as well as small vertebrates such as reptiles (both snakes and lizards), frogs, and young and eggs of ground-nesting birds (Cansdale 1960; Haltenorth and Diller 1988). They might eat some fruits, roots, groundnuts and fungi as well.

In captivity

Based on the information above one might expect a diet of primarily invertebrates with some meat and a little plant matter (fruit). However, this is not the standard. In most places the recommended diet for hedgehogs is high quality cat food with insects and other things as treats. This recommendation is based on the easy and relatively cheap availability of cat food and the simple fact that there currently isn’t a better, nutritionally balanced option when it comes to commercially available processed foods.

Commercially available foods

Cat food has been fed to hedgehogs for a long time even though it is not made for them and therefore in several ways ill-suited. When pygmy hedgehogs were first domesticated in the US a lot of the info about hedgehog care came from British hedgehog rescues working with European hedgehogs. In Europe it is common to feed rescue hedgehogs cat food (wet food) because it is a cheap and easy option and a good way to fatten them up when they are malnourished and sickly. With nothing better on the market, the cat food diet stuck with the pet hedgehog community through the years and kibble is still the most commonly used staple food around the world.

Cat or dog food?

Both cat and dog food can be given to hedgehogs but most people give cat food because of the smaller kibble pieces. Dog kibble can be crushed to an appropriate size before feeding. When considering the more omnivorous nature of the hedgehog and not counting the insectivorous part they might more closely resemble canids than felids in terms of dietary needs; specific problems linked to obligate carnivores (such as taurine deficiency) have not been seen in hedgehogs. There is the possibility dog kibble might actually be a more suitable food for the hedgehog (out of what’s available at the moment).

Because cat and dog foods are not made with the intention to be eaten by hedgehogs, not all kibble is suitable. The current recommended percentages for protein, fat and fibre are as follows:

Protein: 28%-35%

Fat: 10%-15%

Fibre: as high as possible

These percentages have been estimated through trial and error in the past. Common food-related problems in hedgehogs are obesity, FLD (fatty liver disease), diabetes and renal problems, amongst other things (it has to be noted that it can be difficult to pinpoint whether or not a condition is completely diet-related).

Why most hedgehog food isn’t good for hedgehogs

In some countries special hedgehog or insectivore food is available (such as Exotic Nutrition or Mazuri), so why not feed those? Because the majority of these foods are of very bad quality. Unfortunately hedgehog food is often recommended by vets - though this is usually through no fault of them, since many (including exotic vets) often know very little to nothing about hedgehog nutrition as hedgehogs are not a common pet and most medical (US) papers on hedgehog nutrition are outdated. Hedgehog foods tend to contain lots of useless fillers and there are plenty of cat (and dog) foods of higher quality with better ingredients. The only plus side of some of the hedgehog/insectivore foods is the higher fibre content, but with such low quality ingredients and the fibre mainly or only coming from powdered cellulose it’s usually not worth it (or only as part of a mix) as fibre can be supplemented in other, healthier ways, such as feeding your hedgehog insects.

The importance of good ingredients

Not all kibble is created equal! There are huge differences in quality of ingredients when it comes to both cat and dog food. Many of the cheaper foods (although price doesn’t always guarantee quality) contain mostly fillers. Fillers such as grain, corn, potatoes and rice, which will fill your hedgehog’s belly but have very little nutritious value. What you’re looking for in a good food is meat in the first or preferably first few spots of the ingredient list. Don’t look at pretty labels and advertising, because companies - even those of so called ‘high quality’ foods - often have great marketing while the food in question might not be that great.

In general, things you want to avoid as a main ingredient are: corn, wheat, brewer’s rice, unnamed meats, unnamed meat meals, unnamed fats and by-products. Those are fillers or can be ‘waste’ like feet or intestines or other animal parts with very little nutritious value. Unnamed meats and such don’t necessarily have to come from animals slaughtered for the pet food industry so it’s a good idea to stay clear of vague unnamed ingredients. Ingredients to watch out for because they might be linked to health issues in cats or dogs are BHA, BHT, ethoxyquin, menadione sodium bisulfate and food dyes.

Good ingredients are: named meats (e.g. chicken, lamb, turkey etc.), named meat meals, named fat, minimal amounts of grain and foods with multiple sources of protein. Another way to provide multiple protein sources is by mixing different foods together. Since we know so little about hedgehog nutrition, offering a wide variety increases the chances of including the right things. Ideally, you want the first few ingredients on the list to be meat or meat meal, since the first ingredients (up till the first fat/oil) make up the bulk of the food. Be wary however of grains listed after the meat(s) - if it lists a lot of different fillers, such as corn, rice, barley, etc. all those grains together probably still make up more of the food than the meats. Manufacturers of ‘grain free’ foods sometimes trick their customers by splitting their ingredients on the label (e.g. dried potatoes and potato protein) while it’s essentially the same thing.

Both dry kibble and wet food can be fed, although the latter tends to make the poop smellier. When feeding wet food it can be a good idea to calculate the dry matter basis (DMB) for protein and fat since the percentages listed don’t account for the extra moisture in the food, and the protein/fat recommendations for hedgehogs are based on the DMB percentages of kibble. Canned foods are often very high in protein and fat so this is especially important if you’re using wet food as a staple - the only way to compare a dry food to a canned food is to compare their DMB values. You can calculate the DMB with the following formula:

100% - moisture content = dry mass % fat or protein % / dry mass % = fat or protein DMB %

Protein

It is recommended to keep protein levels below 35% because dry food with high protein can be hard on the kidneys. With wet (canned) foods or other high protein foods such as meat and insects this is less of a concern because the moisture in the food helps flush everything out - in the wild, animals rarely eat food as dry as kibble, so their bodies are made for a diet with more moisture. This means that when they’re eating a dry kibble diet they do not always drink the needed extra water. Because of this it is best to err on the side of caution and don’t go (far) over the 35% protein limit when choosing a dry food (for wet food it’s wise not to go too high either, just to be safe). Pregnant and nursing females might benefit from higher protein (preferably from meat and/or insects).

Fat

Hedgehogs in captivity have the tendency to become overweight which is why a low fat percentage is recommended: under 15%, but preferably under 12%. This depends on the hedgehog in question though, as some are more active than others and might benefit from a higher fat percentage, as do nursing mothers and hoglets under 4-6 months old who can be fed food with 15%-20% fat. It is important to keep an eye on the weight and body shape of your hedgehog and adjust diet/feeding accordingly.

The fibre issue

In the wild hedgehogs seem to have a relatively high fibre diet. Feeder insects have a fibre content between 14% and 52%, and it’s likely the insects consumed by wild hedgehogs contain similar amounts of fibre. Most cat (and dog) food however has a much lower fibre content, usually around 2-4% and rarely above 6%. This lack of fibre in the diet of pet hedgehogs might be linked to common dietary problems, such as obesity. A small-scale study has tested the ability of hedgehogs to digest two types of fibre: chitin (from crab shells) and cellulose (powdered cellulose). Hedgehogs possess chitinases which implies they can use chitin, which is found in the exoskeletons of invertebrates, as a source of dietary fibre. The animals in the study were either given the control diet (no added fibre), added chitin or added cellulose. 64% to 68% of the dietary fibre added as chitin was digested, compared to 38% of the added cellulose (Graffam et al., 1998). Another thing that stood out was how the digestibility of fat increased with the diet where the highest amount of chitin was added (25% in dietary dry matter). This suggest there might be some interaction between the chitin and the fat because this diet also showed the highest fibre digestibility (as well as the lowest faecal ash content, suggesting some fibre/mineral interaction as well). Visually, the quality of the faeces also appeared to improve with added fibre. While this preliminary study was too small to draw any hard conclusions from, its results in combination with the natural diet of the hedgehog suggest a preference for chitin and adding insects to your hedgehog’s diet (and/or like this study, ground crab shells) might create a more nutritionally appropriate diet and could possibly help against common diet-related issues.

Ca:P

Ca:P (also written as Ca/P sometimes) stands for the calcium:phosphorus ratio. Calcium and phosphorus are important minerals and deficiencies can affect the body in a negative way. A 1:1 ratio would mean calcium and phosphorus are found in equal quantities, 0.5:1 means there’s half the amount of calcium versus phosphorus. Calcium is absorbed by phosphorus - but excess phosphorus binds calcium and impairs its absorption by the intestines. On top of that, the excess phosphorus can actually start to take calcium that’s already present in the body: for example from the bones or teeth. An imbalanced Ca:P ratio in an animal’s diet where the phosphorus is too high can lead to diseases such as MBD (metabolic bone disease) or tooth decay, amongst other things. Deformed bones due to a lack of calcium are quite commonly seen in animals that are fed primarily insects, such as lesser hedgehog tenrecs and some reptile species. In Husbandry and Nutrition of Hedgehogs (Smith, 1999) a ratio of 1.2-1.5:1 is recommended. With regards to the little info we have on hedgehog nutrition and the recommended ratio for most other vertebrates (1.5-2:1) it might be best to stick around 1.5:1. When feeding a lot of insects or a raw diet it is extra important to check the Ca:P ratio, since many feeder insects and deboned meat have an imbalanced Ca:P ratio. Calcium can be supplemented by adding bonemeal, ground eggshells or commercially available calcium powder to the food. While calcium deficiency is more common than calcium overdose it is a possibility so keep an eye on the recommended ratio when using a calcium supplement.

(Live) insects should not be optional: they are a staple

This is something that cannot be stressed enough: considering the importance of invertebrates in the hedgehog’s natural diet, insects are a must for hedgehogs in captivity. Unfortunately many hedgehogs only get insects as a minor treat and some never get them at all. Insects are often (falsely) accused of making hedgehogs fat or people are simply told they are not necessary because “hedgehogs do just fine on cat food”. However, doing just fine doesn’t mean an animal’s natural needs are met (all the dietary problems found in hedgehogs are a good example). Depriving insectivores of insects may cause malnutrition and allow opportunistic pathogens to become active (Campbell, 1997). Opportunistic viruses and bacterial infections are given a change to infect an animal when it has a weakened immune system or disrupted gut flora, while those same pathogens usually don’t cause sickness in a healthy animal.

Mealworms are the most commonly fed insects but there are many more (and better) feeders available. Some are more nutritious than others; while insects such as wax worms are quite high in fat and might not be ideal for hedgehogs which gain weight easily or are already overweight, there are plenty of other options available. While live insects are best there’s also canned insects or freeze dried ones, although the latter should be fed in moderation since they can cause impaction. See ‘Feeder insects for hedgehogs’ for more information about adding insects to your hedgehog’s diet.

Live insects do not only have nutritional value - such as the importance of chitin-based fibre - but also provide and stimulate mental and physical activity (like foraging). No animal should be deprived of the staple food of its diet!

Variety is key: the “ideal”diet

The hedgehog is an opportunistic, insectivorous omnivore - so let’s feed them accordingly, as best we can! Based on their natural needs and everything we’ve learned over the years through trial and error, the ‘ideal’ diet (with what’s available to us right now) would look something like this:

(Live) insects daily or at least several times a week (and as much variety as possible)

Another staple ‘backup’ food (kibble)

Eggs and some meat (f/t pinkies, mice, day-old-chicks, (raw) meat)

Very minor amounts of plant matter (preferably fruit or veggies that are easy to digest)

Insects are, as mentioned before, an important staple of the diet. Kibble has many downsides - so why still feed it? The simple answer is because it doesn’t seem to be awfully bad (if meeting the right requirements) and given how little we know about hedgehog nutrition, it functions as a ‘backup’ food nutrition-wise: since hedgehogs are able to survive on it it must have some good things too. This doesn’t mean a diet where kibble is the only food (except for occasional treats) is a great diet for hedgehogs. Taking their natural needs into account it should be clear it isn’t: a primarily kibble-based or kibble-only diet might be able to sustain a hedgehog, but is not ideal.

A much more natural diet can be created by adding (live) insects as a staple food, together with kibble and meat. Feeding just insects creates an unbalanced diet as there are only a few species available as feeders as opposed to the wide variety hedgehogs encounter in the wild (not to mention the other things they eat). Portions of (raw) meat can be fed; the most natural would be f/t pinkies or mice and day-old chicks as well as meat from chicken and other poultry and rabbit/hare. Eggs can be fed too, as well as very minor portions of vegetable matter. Considering the seemingly limited ability of the hedgehog to digest cellulose, and their inclination towards consuming fruit, feeding vegetables and fruits that are easy to digest might be the best option (watch the high sugar content of fruit). The easiest way to add some plant matter to your hedgehog’s diet is by gut loading insects with vegetables and fruits before feeding them.

Raw/home-made diets

Another option is feeding an entirely raw/home-made diet where the kibble is left out and replaced by other foods such as raw meat. Special raw diets for cats, dogs and ferrets can be used for hedgehogs too. Because there is no kibble in the diet to work as a ‘safety net’ against deficiencies, a 100% raw diet should only be considered after thorough research. Because there’s so little known about hedgehog nutrition it is more difficult and time-consuming to set up a completely raw diet that’s properly balanced. A separate post about raw feeding will go into more detail about this way of feeding pet hedgehogs.

We still have a long way to go before we will know everything about hedgehog nutrition. While this means hedgehogs aren’t an easy pet to feed with no commercially available diet (yet) that covers all their needs, the little research we have as well as the trial and error from the past forms a stable basis which will hopefully lead to more research and maybe even a proper hedgehog food in the future. For now, the key to a happy, healthy hedgehog seems to lie in high fibre, low fat, a varied diet and lots of insects!

Sources: - Diet of hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) in the upper Waitaki Basin, New Zealand: Implications for conservation by C. Jones et al. (2005) - The Impact of Molluscicide Application on Hedgehog Populations: A Review by J. Bunner (2002) - The Food of the Hedgehog in England by D. W. Yalden (1976) - Feeding selectivity of introduced hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus in a dryland habitat, South Island, New Zealand by C. Jones and G. Norbury (2010) - Atelerix albiventris (Erinaceomorpha: Erinaceidae) by E. M. Santana et al. (2010) - Intestinal candidiasis in an African hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris) by T. Campbell (1997) - Beginner’s Guide to Hedgehog Nutrition - Feeding behaviour and nutrition of the African pygmy hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris) by E. S. Dierenfeld (2009) - Necropsy and histopathologic findings in 14 African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris): a retrospective study by J. T. Raymond et al. (1999) - Husbandry and Medical Management of African Hedgehogs by M. Mori and S. E. O’Brien (1997) - Fiber Digestion in the African White-Bellied Hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris): A Preliminary Evaluation by W. S. Graffam et al. (1998) - Husbandry and Nutrition of Hedgehogs by A. J. Smith (1999)

#hedgehog #african pygmy hedgehog #hedgehog nutrition #nutrition #hedgehog diet #petblr #hogblr #long text #large

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naivelocus · 6 years ago

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On choosing the 25 species for the 25 Genomes Project

By: Dan Mead, the 25th Anniversary Sequencing Project Coordinator Date: 08/01/2018

For those that don’t know (and until recently I could include myself in this group) there are A LOT of species on and in the earth. Currently it’s estimated that there are 2 billion! (2,000,000,000; see http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/693564 for details). Most of these are bacteria, and we’re not looking at those for the 25 Genomes project, but this still leaves about 450 million to choose from.

To make it easier for ourselves, we also decided to limit ourselves only to the 1.5 MILLION species that have currently been described and catalogued. And, to help us along a bit more, we decided that only species found in the UK would count. According to the National Biodiversity Network, that brings the number down to ‘only’ 56,674. Now if you choose to only look at the local area surrounding the Sanger Institute then it’s a much more manageable 318.

However, it wasn’t going to be that easy. In the spirit of the Sanger’s inclusive approach to science, the Steering Group for the 25 Genomes project were concerned that such a narrow list was ‘too parochial’ and directed that the species sequenced should be a representative group of organisms from the whole of the UK.

So, how do you filter more than 56,000 species down to just 25?

The first thing to do was to break down the problem and the idea of a 5×5 matrix was mooted, discussed and agreed upon surprisingly quickly. Rather unsurprisingly coming up with five different categories was not as straightforward as it might first appear. While some were no-brainers (iconic species for instance), getting all five nailed down was tricky.

The wisdom of crowds

So we put out a call for suggestions to the whole Wellcome Genome Campus, to draw on the collective wisdom of the more than 2000 people who work here.

The results were, by turns, pleasing, odd, not-at-all-answering-the-question and esoteric. Here are some examples:

Species for which Britain has major global richness and conservation responsibility

Female emancipation in the wild

Unusual in terms of genetic load accumulation rate and mechanism

The three-toed sloth (which is neither a theme nor from the UK)

25 local authors (and then we would really have 25 ‘novel’ genomes)

Species imported to the UK, which are making our lives healthier and happier (possibly a politically motivated suggestion)

What is ‘down there’ (in the detritus level down on the Ocean floor).

Finding five themes

Armed with these suggestions, the 25 Genomes Steering Group got back together to hammer out the final five categories. Here’s what we decided upon, reasoning that these themes should give a broad breadth of types of organism and habitats to sample:

5 Themes for the 25 Genomes Projects: Flourishing, Floundering, Cryptic, Iconic and Dangerous

Critical criteria

We also came up with a list of criteria that the species must meet:

Scientific justification must be solid– are there good questions that can be answered by the genome sequence being made available?

No decent draft sequence currently available

Sample availability– some organisms are too small, others are too protected, while others are too seasonal for collection

Tractable genome – some organisms have genomes that are incredibly complex and would take up too much time and resource. For example, many plants have cells that contain multiple copies of the same[ish] chromosomes, a phenomenon known as increased ploidy. (A hexaploid genome has SIX copies of each chromosome, and some plants have even more.)

Now there comes the hard part, actually getting the list of species. As mentioned in a previous post, our public engagement team suggested that we let the public decide five of the species, leaving us just 20.

Great you might think, as it means we don’t need to do as much work, but you’d be sadly mistaken. The reality was that I now needed a list of 20 to start collecting right away AND another 40+ that the public could vote on to decide the final five!

It’s who you know…

Rather splendidly we have a senior member of the Natural History Museum London on our steering group which meant we could exploit their contact list of some 400+ partner groups of wildlife experts. With this in mind I made a surveymonkey survey (it’s still about so you can check it out here, feel free to fill it in- you never know we might want to do more!) that, in my mind at least, cunningly hid the criteria in the questions. It also deliberately did not mention the themes so as not to steer people in any particular direction.

From this I got 99 responses (again discussed earlier) that made up most of the public vote and the 20* for getting on with, these latter ones are in the table below:

Cryptic Dangerous Floundering Flourishing Iconic Brown Trout Indian Balsam Red Squirrel Grey Squirrel Golden Eagle Common Pipistrelle King Scallop Water Vole Ringlet butterfly Blackberry Carrington’s Featherwort New Zealand Flatworm Turtle Dove Roesel’s Bush-Cricket European Robin Summer Truffle British Mosquito Northern February Red Stonefly Oxford Ragwort Orange-tailed Mining-bee

All in all, this took about 5 months to get to this stage as the species also needed to be individually reviewed to see if they met the criteria and then approved by the steering group.

Now the only problem is actually getting the species DNA; so collecting specimens and some lab work to follow, the supposed easy part….

More on this to come!

*Why we chose the above 20 species

Name

Why sequence it?

Summer Truffle There is disagreement in the literature as to whether this truffle is one or two separate species, plus it grows underground and is therefore largely unseen and difficult to locate. Prices for those collected in the UK remaining relatively stable at around 400GBP per kilo. Known as mycorrhizal, these fungi form a symbiotic association with a host plant on which they are dependent throughout their lifecycle. The sequencing of UK T. aestivum syn. uncinatum populations would be pivotal in helping to answer questions of modes of reproduction, life cycle questions as well as aiding in some core speciation questions. Brown Trout The Brown Trout has three isoforms that differ in their migratory patterns, one form remains in the locality of its birth where it will live out its life, spawn and die. The second type migrates from lakes to streams and rivers to spawn but remains in fresh water. The third form migrates to the sea/ocean and remains there for much of its life, only returning to spawn. There appears to be no genetic difference between these forms, also known as anadromous (migratory) and sympatric (resident). Additionally the Wellcome Genome Campus is built around an 18th century red brick hall, Hinton Hall, also known as Trout Hall, where a carved stone trout is prominently displayed over the main door to the croquet lawns. Carrington’s Featherwort This is selected as a representative of the liverworts, an ancient plant group predating flowering plants. It is one of the characteristic liverworts of very high rainfall areas in Scotland, and thus a representative of one of the very special groups of the British biota confined to such high-rainfall areas. Outside Scotland, it is only found in Ireland (extremely rare), the Faeroes and the Himalayas. The Scottish plants are apparently all male – like the Ents, the sexes have become separated in this species and the nearest females are in the Himalayas. Common Pipistrelle Until recently this bat was believed to be a single species however it is now know to be a dual species (common/soprano), with one other (Nathusius’) also being resident in the UK. Studying the genome will allow us to investigate the origins of the split between the two species, when and why it occurred. Indian Balsam Highly invasive weed species that substantial effort to control is undertaken, control methods based on finding would have important implications for wetland and river management. King Scallop Pecten maximus has been found to contain the Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning toxin, domoic acid, which accumulates after they consume algae/diatoms- especially in the event of algal blooms. This risk is regarded as a significant threat to both public health and the shellfish industry. Some studies have suggested that global warming is resulting in greater reproductive success for P. maximus in the UK, however concerns have been raised over increasing mortality, declining recruitment and spawning stock biomass in several Scottish populations. Pecten maximus is also of interest scientifically because of its unusual vision and because its two shell valves are coloured differently. Identifying molecular pathways for shell pigment production in Mollusca has lagged behind studies of vertebrates and terrestrial invertebrates, and is a major gap in our understanding of how colour has evolved in the natural world. Vision in Mollusca is also of great interest because of the many different eye morphologies and the fact that very few species are thought to see in colour. New Zealand Flatworm New Zealand flatworms prey on earthworms, posing a potential threat to native earthworm populations. Further spread could have an impact on wildlife species dependent on earthworms (e.g. Badgers, Moles) and could have a localised deleterious effect on soil structure. British Mosquito Mosquitos are an important disease vector and there has been speculation that an increase in the distribution of other species due to climate change could allow the re-introduction of diseases such as malaria to the UK. Red Squirrel Sequencing the whole genome of the native red squirrel will hopefully provide new tools and resources into reversing their decline and aiding their long-term conservation in the UK. For example, this research could reveal key insights into how red squirrels have adapted to living in an urban environment. This study could also provide further information for managing the spread of diseases and helping to protect the red squirrel from the fatal squirrelpox virus, as well as to gain a deeper understanding into the impact of newly-discovered diseases Northern February Red Stonefly These stonefly only inhabit the purest of waters and as such are very limited in their habitats and may struggle to adapt to climate change. Brachyptera putata is an endemic UK stonefly. There has been suggestions that other European Brachyptera species may be synonyms of B. putata. Sequencing would determine whether it is a true UK endemic. Turtle Dove Turtle Dove numbers have fallen by a staggering 93% since 1970 and now resides on the Global Red List for Endangered Species. Smaller than its collared cousin, the Turtle Dove is now only found in eastern England, where farmers are working with the RSPB to create feeding habitats, the destruction of which are blamed for the bird’s decline. Water Vole The Water vole is the UK’s fastest declining mammal and efforts to help the population maintain genetic fitness would benefit from having the genome sequenced. Arvicola is a fantastic example of a small mammal genus that survived through the last glaciation, and has adapted to a range of habitats across Europe and much of northern Asia. Oxford Ragwort The Oxford Ragwort is representative of a species being introduced and excelling in another habitat. It was collected from the slopes of Mount Vesuvius sometime in the 17th Century, and planted in Oxford where it rapidly colonised the area due to its natural hardiness, and could grow on urban landscapes too (sides of buildings, on stairs, etc.). When railways were introduced to the UK landscape, this facilitated the spread of Oxford Ragwort across the UK (it can be found growing along railway tracks today). Sequencing the genome would better increase our understanding of a non – native species excelling in a new habitat and may expand on our understanding of the ecology of flowering plants. Roesel’s Bush-cricket Once restricted to the south coast and estuaries (saltmarshes) it is now widespread, possibly due to climate change and the spreading of salt on UK roads. Ringlet butterfly Despite an overall decline in butterflies over the last 50 years the ringlet has increased its population by nearly 400%. It’s one of the few to fly on overcast days and has an interesting dwarf form that appears at 600ft, increasing until 100% of the population is this form at 1000ft. Grey Squirrel As the anti-hero for the red squirrel, investigating how/why the squirrelpox virus is tolerated Blackberry Good opportunity for citizen science, population genomics specifically for schools engagement. Also commercial soft-fruit genetics as it is an important and expanding food crop. Golden Eagle This is an iconic UK species that has suffered from hunting and pesticide poisoning in the past, leading to extinction in all parts of the UK except Scotland where there are still less than 500 breeding pairs. Orange-tailed Mining-bee This species is conspicuous and attractive, one of the mining bees that is more likely to have come to the attention of the general public. It is widespread and common throughout the United Kingdom, flying in spring. It is a component of natural pollination services which can ensure crop pollination in the absence of honeybees, and also the pollination of many wild and garden flowering plants ensuring their genetic diversity and conservation. In the UK, of 276 species of bee, there is only one honey bee, and a score of bumblebees, the great majority of native bees are mining bees, including 68 species of Andrena. The genome sequence itself will be useful for comparative study of the genomes of this solitary bee with the available genomes of social bees, in terms of gene composition relevant to sociality. European robin Robins use vision-based magneto-reception and the mechanism is not fully understood, it has been shown that it may involve quantum entanglement. Robins are also extremely territorial, unlike most other song birds, with up to 10% of all deaths occurring due to fights.

About the author:

Dan Mead is the 25th Anniversary Sequencing Project Coordinator, for the 25 Genomes Project for the Wellcome Sanger Institute, Cambridge.