#najder

[zupy]

Nikt nie narzekał

My, urodzeni w przeszłości, z nostalgią wspominamy tamten czas. Nikt nie narzekał.

Było nas jedenaścioro, mieszkaliśmy w jeziorze... na śniadanie matka kroiła wiatr, ojca nie znałem, bo umarł na raka wątroby, kiedy zginął w tragicznym wypadku samochodowym, po samospaleniu się na imieninach u wujka Eugeniusza. Wujka Eugeniusza zabrało NKWD w 59. Nikt nie narzekał.

Wszyscy należeliśmy do hord i łupiliśmy okolicę. Konin, Szczecin i Oslo stały w płomieniach. Bawiliśmy się też na budowach. Czasem kogoś przywaliła zbrojona płyta, a czasem nie. Gdy w stopę wbił się gwóźdź, matka odcinała stopę i mówiła z uśmiechem, "masz, kurna, drugą, nie"? Nie drżała ze strachu, że się pozabijamy. Wiedziała, że wszyscy zginiemy. Nikt nie narzekał.

Z chorobami sezonowymi walczyła babcia. Do walki z gruźlicą, szkorbutem, nowotworem i polio służył mocz i mech. Lekarz u nas nie bywał. Chyba że u babci – po mocz i mech. Do lasu szliśmy, gdy mieliśmy na to ochotę. Jedliśmy jagody, na które wcześniej nasikały lisy i sarny. Jedliśmy muchomory sromotnikowe, na które defekowały chore na wściekliznę żubry i kuny. Nie mieliśmy hamburgerów – jedliśmy wilki. Nie mieliśmy czipsów – jedliśmy mrówki. Nie było wtedy coca-coli, była ślina niedźwiedzi. Była miesiączka żab. Nikt nie narzekał.

Gdy sąsiad złapał nas na kradzieży jabłek, sam wymierzał karę. Dół z wapnem, nóż, myśliwska flinta – różnie. Sąsiad nie obrażał się o skradzione jabłka, a ojciec o zastąpienie go w obowiązkach wychowawczych. Ojciec z sąsiadem wypijali wieczorem piwo — jak zwykle. Potem ojciec wracał do domu, a po drodze brał sobie nowe dziecko. Dzieci wtedy leżały wszędzie. Na trawnikach, w rowach melioracyjnych, obok przystanków, pod drzewami. Tak jak dzisiaj leżą papierki po batonach. Nie było wtedy batonów, dzieci leżały za to wszędzie. Nikt nie narzekał.

Latem wchodziliśmy na dachy wieżowców, nie pilnowali nas dorośli. Skakaliśmy. Nikt jednak nie rozbił się o chodnik. Każdy potrafił latać i nikt nie potrzebował specjalnych lekcji, aby się tej sztuki nauczyć. Nikt też nie narzekał.

Zimą któryś ojciec urządzał nam kulig starym fiatem, zawsze przyspieszał na zakrętach. Czasami sanki zahaczyły o drzewo lub płot. Wtedy spadaliśmy. Czasem akurat wtedy nadjeżdżał jelcz lub star. Wtedy zdychaliśmy. Nikt nie narzekał.

Siniaki i zadrapania były normalnym zjawiskiem. Podobnie jak wybite zęby, rozprute brzuchy, nagły brak oka czy amatorskie amputacje. Szkolny pedagog nie wysyłał nas z tego powodu do psychologa rodzinnego. Nikt nas nie poinformował jak wybrać numer na policję (wtedy MO), żeby zakablować rodziców. Pasek był wtedy pomocą dydaktyczną, a od pomocy, to jeszcze nikt nie umarł. Ciocia Janinka powtarzała, "lepiej lanie niż śniadanie". Nikt nie narzekał.

Gotowaliśmy sobie zupy z mazutu, azbestu i Ludwika. Jedliśmy też koks, paznokcie obcych osób, truchła zwierząt, papier ścierny, nawozy sztuczne, oset, mszyce, płody krów, odchody ryb, kogel-mogel. Jak kogoś użarła pszczoła, to pił 2 szklanki mleka i przykładał sobie zimną patelnię. Jak ktoś się zadławił, to pił 3 szklanki mleka i przykładał sobie rozgrzaną patelnię. Nikt nie narzekał.

Nikt nie latał co miesiąc do dentysty. Próchnica jest smaczna. Kiedy ktoś spuchł od bolącego zęba, graliśmy jego głową w piłkę. Mieliśmy jedną plombę na jedenaścioro. Każdy ją nosił po 2-3 dni w miesiącu. Nikt nie narzekał.

Byliśmy młodzi i twardzi. Odmawialiśmy jazdy autem. Po prostu za nim biegliśmy. Nasz pies, MURZYN, był przywiązany linką stalową do haka i biegł obok nas. I nikomu to nie przeszkadzało. Nikt nie narzekał.

Wychowywali nas gajowi, stare wiedźmy, zbiegli więźniowie, koledzy z poprawczaka, woźne i księża. Nasze matki rodziły nasze rodzeństwo normalnie – w pracy, szuwarach albo na balkonie. Prawie wszyscy przeżyliśmy, niektórzy tylko nie trafili do więzienia. Nikt nie skończył studiów, ale każdy zaznał zawodu. Niektórzy pozakładali rodziny i wychowują swoje dzieci według zaleceń psychologów. To przykre. Obecnie jest więcej batonów niż dzieci.

My, dzieci z naszego jeziora, kochamy rodziców za to, że wtedy jeszcze nie wiedzieli jak nas należy „dobrze" wychować. To dzięki nim spędziliśmy dzieciństwo bez słodyczy, szacunku, ciepłego obiadu, sensu, a niektórzy – kończyn.

Nikt nie narzekał.

Łukasz Najder

[modalna]

“Prozy utajone”

Wiele lat temu miałem szefa, który stosował morderczo skuteczną technikę mobbingową. Nie – nie krzyczał i nie urządzał publicznych seansów poniżania w duchu hunwejbinizmu. Ten prymitywny, bezwzględny człowiek, choć nie znał Dostojewskiego, gombrowiczowskich wywodów o formie czy nowoczesnych poradników manipulacji, zdołał jednak w jakiś sposób zrozumieć, że w systemie, w którym przyszło nam wszystkim żyć, obojętne, czy nazwać ów późną fazą kapitalizmu, neoliberalizmem, III RP, oprócz przełożonego-prześladowcy istnieje również prześladowca wewnętrzny, ty sam. Bo wytresowany w kulcie pracy, zapierdolu i sukcesu – oraz porażki, za którą odpowiada wył��cznie pokonany – obejdziesz się doskonale bez nadzorcy, jeśli nadzorca tego akurat zapragnie, i staniesz się nim w swojej głowie. „all it takes is a little push”, jak przekonywał Joker. Dlatego wybierał sobie kogoś z nas i pewnego dnia stawał temu komuś ot tak za plecami albo z boku, stawał i wpatrywał się bez słowa, śledził każdy ruch ofiary. Mogło trwać to kilka minut, mogło kwadrans, mogło też nawet i pół godziny. W pomieszczeniu zapadała kompletna cisza. Ignorował oczywiście pytania o powód obserwacji, przymilne zagadywanie etc. Wiedział co robi, nie trzeba było długo czekać, by dopadły cię pytania. Dlaczego-czy robię coś źle-kiedy to się skończy-co powie-jak inni to obierają-czy chce mnie wywalić. Tonąłeś w desperackich niewypowiedzianych dociekaniach, dławiłeś się od lęku i stresu. On w pewnym momencie po prostu odchodził w milczeniu, ale ten wewnętrzny prześladowca, mobber, ekonom, sadysta niestety zostawał. Bo jak napisał Franz Kafka – „Zwierzę wyrywa panu bat i samo się chłoszcze, aby stać się panem, i nie wie, że to tylko fantazja wywołana przez nowy węzeł na pańskim bacie”. Łukasz Najder, FB

[marketing20world-blog]

korean language interpreter mumbai

Translation

Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The language     draws a terminological distinction (not all languages do) between translating (a written text) and  interpreting (oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages); under this      distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community.

 A translator always risks   inadvertently introducing source-language words, grammar, or syntax into the target-language  rendering. On the other hand, such "spill-overs" have sometimes imported useful source-language     calques    and loanwords that        have enriched  target languages. Translators, including early translators     of sacred texts, have helped shape the very languages into which they have translated.

 Because of the laboriousness of the   translation process, since the 1940s efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to  automate   korean language interpreter mumbai     translation or to mechanically aid the human translator.More recently, the rise     of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated "language localization".

Etymology

The English word "translation" derives from the Latin word translatio,which comes from trans, "across" + ferre, "to carry" or "to bring" (-latio in turn coming from latus, the past participle of ferre). Thus translatio is "a carrying      across" or "a bringing across": in this case, of a text from one language to another.

Some Slavic languages and the Germanic   languages (other than Dutch and Afrikaans) have calqued their words for the concept of "translation" on translatio.

The Romance languages and the remaining    Slavic languages have derived their words for the concept of "translation" from an  alternative Latin word, traductio, itself derived from traducere ("to lead across" or "to bring across", from trans, "across" + ducere, "to lead" or "to bring")

The Ancient Greek term for "translation" (metaphrasis, "a speaking across"), has supplied English with "metaphrase" (a "literal", or "word-for-word", translation)—as contrasted with "paraphrase" ("a saying in other words", from  paraphrasis)."Metaphrase" corresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to "formal equivalence"; and "paraphrase", to "dynamic equivalence".

Strictly speaking, the concept of metaphrase—of "word-for-word translation"—is an imperfect concept, because a given word in a given    language often carries more than one meaning; and because a similar given meaning may often be represented in a given language by more than one word. Nevertheless, "metaphrase" and "paraphrase" may be useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation.

Back-translation

A "back-translation" is a translation of a translated text back into the language of the original text, made without reference to the original text. Comparison of a back-translation with the original text is sometimes used as a check on the accuracy  of the original translation, much as the accuracy of a mathematical operation is      sometimes     checked by reversing the operation. But the results of such reverse-translation operations, while useful  as approximate checks, are not always precisely reliable.Back-translation must in general       be less accurate   than back-calculation because linguistic symbols (words) are often ambiguous, whereas mathematical symbols are intentionally unequivocal. In the context of machine translation, a back-translation is also called a "round-trip translation." When translations are produced of material    used in medical clinical trials, such as informed-consent forms, a back-translation is often required by the ethics committee or institutional review board.

 It provided humorously telling evidence for the frequent unreliability of back-translation when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of his short story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County". He published his back-translation in a 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the French    translation, and a "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story". The latter included a synopsized adaptation    of his story that Twain stated had appeared, unattributed to Twain, in a Professor Sidgwick's Greek Prose Composition under the title, "The Athenian and the Frog"; the adaptation had for a time been taken for an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's "Jumping Frog" story.

When a document survives only in translation, the original having been lost, researchers sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to   reconstruct the original text. An example involves the novel The Saragossa Manuscript by the Polish aristocrat Jan Potocki (1761–1815), who wrote the novel in French and anonymously    published     fragments in 1804 and 1813–14. Portions of the original French-language manuscript were  subsequently lost; however, the missing fragments survived in a Polish translation, made by Edmund Chojecki in 1847 from a complete French copy that has since been lost. French-language versions of the complete   Saragossa Manuscript have since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on French-language versions that have been back-translated from Chojecki's Polish version.

Many works by the influential Classical physician Galen survive only in medieval Arabic translation. Some survive only in Renaissance Latin translations from the Arabic, thus at a second remove from the original. To better understand Galen, scholars have attempted back-translation of such works in order to reconstruct the original Greek.

 When historians suspect that a document is actually a translation from another language, back-translation into that hypothetical original  language can provide supporting evidence by showing that such characteristics as idioms, puns, peculiar grammatical structures, etc., are in fact derived from the original language. For example, the known text of the Till Eulenspiegel folk tales is in High German but contains puns that work only when back-translated to Low German. This seems clear evidence that these tales (or at least large portions of them) were originally written in Low German and translated into High German by an over-metaphrastic translator.

 Supporters of Aramaic primacy—the view that the Christian New Testament or its sources were originally written in the Aramaic language—seek to prove their case by showing that difficult passages in the existing Greek text of the New  Testament make much more sense when back-translated to Aramaic: that, for example, some incomprehensible  references are in fact Aramaic puns that do not work in Greek. Due to similar indications, it is believed that the 2nd century Gnostic Gospel of Judas, which survives only in Coptic, was originally written in Greek.

 The dominant English-language literary figure of his age, illustrates, in his use of back-translation, translators' influence on the evolution of languages and literary styles. Dryden is believed to be the first person to posit that English sentences should not end in prepositions because Latin sentences cannot end in prepositions. Dryden created  the proscription against "preposition stranding" in 1672 when he objected to Ben Jonson's 1611 phrase, "the bodies that those souls were frighted from", though he did not provide the rationale for his preference. Dryden often translated his writing into Latin, to check whether his writing was concise and elegant, Latin being considered an elegant and long-lived language with which to compare; then he  back-translated    his writing back to English according to Latin-grammar usage. As Latin does   korean language interpreter mumbai   not have   sentences ending in prepositions, Dryden may have applied Latin grammar to English, thus forming the controversial rule of no sentence-ending prepositions, subsequently adopted by other writers.

Translators

A competent translator is not only bilingual but bicultural. A language is not merely a collection of words and of rules of grammar and syntax for generating sentences, but also a vast interconnecting system of connotations and cultural references whose mastery, writes linguist Mario Pei, "comes close to being a lifetime job."The complexity of the translator's task cannot be overstated; one author suggests that becoming an accomplished translator—after having already acquired a good basic knowledge of both languages and cultures—may require a minimum of ten years' experience. Viewed in this light, it is a serious misconception to assume that a person who has fair fluency in two languages will, by virtue of that fact alone, be consistently competent to translate between them.

 The translator's role in relation to a text has been compared to that of an artist, e.g., a musician or actor, who interprets a work of art. Translation, like other human activities, entails making choices, and choice implies Korean interpretation gurgaon. Mark Polizzotti writes: "A good translation offers not a reproduction of the work but an interpretation, a re-representation, just as the performance of a play or a sonata is a representation of the script or the score, one among many possible representations."

 The English-language novelist Joseph Conrad, whose writings Zdzisław Najder has described as verging on "auto-translation" from Conrad's Polish and French linguistic personae, advised his niece and Polish translator Aniela Zagórska: "on't trouble to be too scrupulous ... I may tell you (in French) that in my opinion il vaut mieux interpréter que traduire  [it is better to interpret than to translate] ...Il s'agit donc de trouver les équivalents. Et là, ma chère, je vous prie laissez vous guider plutôt par votre tempérament que par une conscience sévère ... [It is, then, a question of finding the equivalent expressions. And there, my dear, I beg you to let yourself be guided more by your temperament than by a strict conscience....]"Conrad advised     another translator that the prime requisite for a good translation is that it be "idiomatic". "For in the idiom is the       clearness of a language and the language's force and its picturesqueness—by which last I mean the picture-producing power of arranged words."Conrad thought C.K. Scott Moncrieff's English translation of Marcel Proust's À la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time—or, in Scott Moncrieff's rendering, Remembrance of Things Past) to be preferable to the French original.

 The necessity of making choices, and therefore of interpretation, in translating(and in other fields of human endeavor) stems from the      ambiguity    that subjectively pervades the universe. Part of the ambiguity, for a translator, involves the structure       of human language. Psychologist and neural scientist Gary Marcus notes that "virtually every sentence [that people generate] is ambiguous, often in multiple ways. Our brain is so     good at comprehending     language that we do not usually notice." An example of linguistic ambiguity is the "pronoun disambiguation problem" ("PDP"): a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a pronoun in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers. Such disambiguation is not infallible by a human, either.

Ambiguity is a concern to both translators and, as the writings of poet and literary critic William Empson have demonstrated, to literary critics. Ambiguity may be desirable, indeed essential, in poetry and diplomacy; it can be more problematic in ordinary prose.

A translator is faced with two contradictory tasks: when translating, strive for omniscience; when reviewing the resulting translation, assume (the naive reader's) ignorance.

Translators may render only parts     of the original text, provided that they inform readers of that action. But a translator should not     assume the role of censor and surreptitiously delete or bowdlerize passages merely to please a political or moral interest.

Translating has served as a school of writing for many an author, much as the copying of masterworks of painting has schooled many a novice painter.A translator who can competently render an author's thoughts into the translator's own language, should certainly be able to adequately render, in his own language, any   thoughts of his own. Translating (like analytic philosophy) compels precise analysis of language elements and of their usage. In 1946 the poet Ezra Pound, then at St. Elizabeth's Hospital, in Washington, D.C., advised a visitor, the 18-year-old beginning poet W.S. Merwin: "The work of translation is the best teacher you'll ever have. Merwin, translator-poet who took Pound's advice to heart, writes of translation as an "impossible, unfinishable" art.

 Translators, including monks who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia, and the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the very languages into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for     conveying knowledge between cultures; and along with ideas, they have imported from the source languages, into their own languages, loanwords and calques of grammatical structures, idioms, and vocabulary.

korean language interpreter mumbai

[ffatman]

RT @Lukasz_Najder: "Żaryn tłumaczy, że płk Szacki chciał się przebić do wojsk Andersa. Jednak dziwnym trafem Brygada przebiła się na hitlerowski poligon w wiosce Rozstáni pod Brnem, gdzie część jej żołnierzy szkoliła się pod okiem niemieckich specjalistów do dywersji". https://t.co/kIrkJkyB7R

"Żaryn tłumaczy, że płk Szacki chciał się przebić do wojsk Andersa. Jednak dziwnym trafem Brygada przebiła się na hitlerowski poligon w wiosce Rozstáni pod Brnem, gdzie część jej żołnierzy szkoliła się pod okiem niemieckich specjalistów do dywersji".https://t.co/kIrkJkyB7R

— Łukasz Najder (@Lukasz_Najder) August 11, 2019

via Twitter https://twitter.com/ffamousffatman August 11, 2019 at 06:03PM

[krzysztofbaar-blog]

To jedno z serii zdjęć, na których zdjąlem osłonę przeciwsłoneczna i wpuscilem trochę zachodzącego słońca. Efekt spodziewany i zaakceptowany na kolejnych kilku ujeciach 😎 Tłem była piękna stajnia łódzkiego gospodarstwa Sabela. Fotograf: rzecz jasna ja Modelka: Justyna Najder Make: Aleksandra Bańkowska Art&Beauty Organizator: Via Art Miejsce: Gospodarstwo Rolne Sabela #fotografia #fotograf #slonce #lodz #fujifilm #fujifilmpolska #xt2 #modelka #weekend #odpoczynek #polska #poland (w: Gospodarstwo Rolne "Sabela")

[radiotokfm]

Ustawa o IPN - wspólna deklaracja rządów Polski i Izraela. Komentuje Jacek Najder, były ambasador RP przy NATO

from Najnowsze audycje - Radio TOK FM http://bit.ly/2KsIcNo via TOK FM

[dlr-tokyo]

Client: ANAYI  http://www.anayi.com/

Model _ Annika Krijt (The Society Management) Art Director/Creative Director _ Kota Kuramoto (DLR co ltd.,) VP _ Ben Carey Colorist_ Grzegorz Najder Script_ Jalina Mhyana Narration_ Marlena Lowry Sound_ Isao Sudo Stylist _ Yuuka Maruyama (MAKIURA OFFICE) Hair _ Kenshin Asano (L’atelier) Make _ Yasuo Yoshikawa (L’atelier) Video Editor _ PHILO-STORY Casting _ Mister Lee / Kota Kuramoto Managing editor_ Mister Lee Stylist Assistant _ Client _ ANAYI anayi.com/

Special thanks: ANAYI, The Society Management, L’atelier and more

[dyst8pian]

Mam trochę kultury. Petri Dish #1

To w  mijającym tygodniu mnie zajmowało. To mnie kręciło.  Polecam waszej uwadze.

Music

The November Harvest by Angela Martyr

Wake in Fright by Uniform

14.0 by Fähund

Condition by Spectres

Reading

Changing How We Think — “To change patterns of thinking, change patterns of talking.”

The Cognitive Bias President Trump Understands Better Than You

Stop Spending So Much Time In Your Head 

Wiktor Woroszylski, „Państwa faszystowskie” 

Art

Proceed at Your Own Risk. Tales of dystopian food & health industries

Magnetoceptia, Audio Rituals with Wearable Antennas

Neil Gaiman's American Gods, illustrated by Dave McKean – in pictures

Movie 

Pustina 

Get out

People 

Łukasz Najder 

@ArtsOfExistence

@HenryJFoy

EVENTS

13th of April, Proza club, Wroclaw:

Horse Lords, Cloud Becomes Your Hand, PrzepychPublic · Hosted by rozkurz and DISCOMFORT

[smartfonystory2-blog]

4 Smartfony i ich funkcje

Funkcje smartfonów

Dziś większość nie wizualizuje sobie własnego życia bez telefonów komórkowych, nieustannie znaczna większość użytkowników aktywnie korzysta z telefonów komórkowych do ogromnej ilości obowiązków. Specjalista jak również magister Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego Florian Strony internetowe śląsk Serdyński którego profesja to technik jest zdania, iż obecne telefony mają wbudowane znacznie potężniejsze bebechy niż stacjonarne komputery sprzed 10-ciu lat, owa technologia rozkręcana jest jak burza i teraz jest się w stanie bardzo dużych dostępnych możliwości w temacie wyboru maszyn pod indywidualne potrzeby niezależnie od ich urozmaicenia.

W sytuacji gdy na rynek przeniknęły 1-sze komórki, w większości sytuacji projektowanie stron internetowych bytom to wykreowało okazję na bezprzewodowe rozmowy na zewnątrz i bez używania budek telefonicznych. Profesjonalista i równocześnie abiturient Politechniki Łódzkiej Emil Kiełb którego główna profesja to technik uważa, iż dopiero po pewnym okresie zaczęło się ujawniać sporo nowych zastosowań o których wcześniej nikomu nawet nawet się nie śniło.

Zaczęło się to od bazowych funkcji jak np. kalkulatory, notatniki, kontakty i równocześnie zegary. W pewnym czasie możemy wyróżnić bez liku zastosowań podczas gdy ogromna większość jest dalej bardzo wykorzystana do dzisiejszego dnia. Specjalista i też dyplomant Wyższej Szkoły Zabezpieczeń we Wrocławiu Gracjan Najder dla którego główny fach to elektronik zapewnia, iż wśród najczęściej używanych możemy wyróżnić takie jak na ten przykład : bardzo dobre aparaty a także kamery filmowe, wolne i wygodne przeszukiwanie Internetu lub chociaż zaawansowane graficznie gry w przeróżnych wersjach. Tak oto nowoczesne telefony potrafią wyprzeć stacjonarne komputery i także notebooki, a to za sprawą swojej wielkości.

Czytaj dalej.

[marketing20world-blog]

korean interpreter chennai

Translation

Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The language     draws a terminological distinction (not all languages do) between translating (a written text) and  interpreting (oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages); under this      distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community.

 A translator always risks   inadvertently introducing source-language words, grammar, or syntax into the target-language  rendering. On the other hand, such "spill-overs" have sometimes imported useful source-language     calques    and loanwords that        have enriched  target languages. Translators, including early translators     of sacred texts, have helped shape the very languages into which they have translated.

 Because of the laboriousness of the   korean interpreter chennai   translation process, since the 1940s efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to  automate     translation or to mechanically aid the human translator.More recently, the rise     of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated "language localization".

Etymology

The English word "translation" derives from the Latin word translatio,which comes from trans, "across" + ferre, "to carry" or "to bring" (-latio in turn coming from latus, the past participle of ferre). Thus translatio is "a carrying      across" or "a bringing across": in this case, of a text from one language to another.

Some Slavic languages and the Germanic   languages (other than Dutch and Afrikaans) have calqued their words for the concept of "translation" on translatio.

The Romance languages and the remaining    Slavic languages have derived their words for the concept of "translation" from an  alternative Latin word, traductio, itself derived from traducere ("to lead across" or "to bring across", from trans, "across" + ducere, "to lead" or "to bring")

The Ancient Greek term for "translation" (metaphrasis, "a speaking across"), has supplied English with "metaphrase" (a "literal", or "word-for-word", translation)—as contrasted with "paraphrase" ("a saying in other words", from  paraphrasis)."Metaphrase" corresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to "formal equivalence"; and "paraphrase", to "dynamic equivalence".

Strictly speaking, the concept of metaphrase—of "word-for-word translation"—is an imperfect concept, because a given word in a given    language often carries more than one meaning; and because a similar given meaning may often be represented in a given language by more than one word. Nevertheless, "metaphrase" and "paraphrase" may be useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation.

Back-translation

A "back-translation" is a translation of a translated text back into the language of the original text, made without reference to the original text. Comparison of a back-translation with the original text is sometimes used as a check on the accuracy  of the original translation, much as the accuracy of a mathematical operation is      sometimes     checked by reversing the operation. But the results of such reverse-translation operations, while useful  as approximate checks, are not always precisely reliable.Back-translation must in general       be less accurate   than back-calculation because linguistic symbols (words) are often ambiguous, whereas mathematical symbols are intentionally unequivocal. In the context of machine translation, a back-translation is also called a "round-trip translation." When translations are produced of material    used in medical clinical trials, such as informed-consent forms, a back-translation is often required by the ethics committee or institutional review board.

 It provided humorously telling evidence for the frequent unreliability of back-translation when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of his short story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County". He published his back-translation in a 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the French    translation, and a "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story". The latter included a synopsized adaptation    of his story that Twain stated had appeared, unattributed to Twain, in a Professor Sidgwick's Greek Prose Composition under the title, "The Athenian and the Frog"; the adaptation had for a time been taken for an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's "Jumping Frog" story.

When a document survives only in translation, the original having been lost, researchers sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to   reconstruct the original text. An example involves the novel The Saragossa Manuscript by the Polish aristocrat Jan Potocki (1761–1815), who wrote the novel in French and anonymously    published     fragments in 1804 and 1813–14. Portions of the original French-language manuscript were  subsequently lost; however, the missing fragments survived in a Polish translation, made by Edmund Chojecki in 1847 from a complete French copy that has since been lost. French-language versions of the complete   Saragossa Manuscript have since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on French-language versions that have been back-translated from Chojecki's Polish version.

Many works by the influential Classical physician Galen survive only in medieval Arabic translation. Some survive only in Renaissance Latin translations from the Arabic, thus at a second remove from the original. To better understand Galen, scholars have attempted back-translation of such works in order to reconstruct the original Greek.

 When historians suspect that a document is actually a translation from another language, back-translation into that hypothetical original  korean interpreter chennai  language can provide supporting evidence by showing that such characteristics as idioms, puns, peculiar grammatical structures, etc., are in fact derived from the original language. For example, the known text of the Till Eulenspiegel folk tales is in High German but contains puns that work only when back-translated to Low German. This seems clear evidence that these tales (or at least large portions of them) were originally written in Low German and translated into High German by an over-metaphrastic translator.

 Supporters of Aramaic primacy—the view that the Christian New Testament or its sources were originally written in the Aramaic language—seek to prove their case by showing that difficult passages in the existing Greek text of the New  Testament make much more sense when back-translated to Aramaic: that, for example, some incomprehensible  references are in fact Aramaic puns that do not work in Greek. Due to similar indications, it is believed that the 2nd century Gnostic Gospel of Judas, which survives only in Coptic, was originally written in Greek.

 The dominant English-language literary figure of his age, illustrates, in his use of back-translation, translators' influence on the evolution of languages and literary styles. Dryden is believed to be the first person to posit that English sentences should not end in prepositions because Latin sentences cannot end in prepositions. Dryden created  the proscription against "preposition stranding" in 1672 when he objected to Ben Jonson's 1611 phrase, "the bodies that those souls were frighted from", though he did not provide the rationale for his preference. Dryden often translated his writing into Latin, to check whether his writing was concise and elegant, Latin being considered an elegant and long-lived language with which to compare; then he  back-translated    his writing back to English according to Latin-grammar usage. As Latin does not have   sentences ending in prepositions, Dryden may have applied Latin grammar to English, thus forming the controversial rule of no sentence-ending prepositions, subsequently adopted by other writers.

Translators

A competent translator is not only bilingual but bicultural. A language is not merely a collection of words and of rules of grammar and syntax for generating sentences, but also a vast interconnecting system of connotations and cultural references whose mastery, writes linguist Mario Pei, "comes close to being a lifetime job."The complexity of the translator's task cannot be overstated; one author suggests that becoming an accomplished translator—after having already acquired a good basic knowledge of both languages and cultures—may require a minimum of ten years' experience. Viewed in this light, it is a serious misconception to assume that a person who has fair fluency in two languages will, by virtue of that fact alone, be consistently competent to translate between them.

 The translator's role in relation to a text has been compared to that of an artist, e.g., a musician or actor, who interprets a work of art. Translation, like other human activities, entails making choices, and choice implies Korean interpretation gurgaon. Mark Polizzotti writes: "A good translation offers not a reproduction of the work but an interpretation, a re-representation, just as the performance of a play or a sonata is a representation of the script or the score, one among many possible representations."

 The English-language novelist Joseph Conrad, whose writings Zdzisław Najder has described as verging on "auto-translation" from Conrad's Polish and French linguistic personae, advised his niece and Polish translator Aniela Zagórska: "on't trouble to be too scrupulous ... I may tell you (in French) that in my opinion il vaut mieux interpréter que traduire  [it is better to interpret than to translate] ...Il s'agit donc de trouver les équivalents. Et là, ma chère, je vous prie laissez vous guider plutôt par votre tempérament que par une conscience sévère ... [It is, then, a question of finding the equivalent expressions. And there, my dear, I beg you to let yourself be guided more by your temperament than by a strict conscience....]"Conrad advised     another translator that the prime requisite for a good translation is that it be "idiomatic". "For in the idiom is the       clearness of a language and the language's force and its picturesqueness—by which last I mean the picture-producing power of arranged words."Conrad thought C.K. Scott Moncrieff's English translation of Marcel Proust's À la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time—or, in Scott Moncrieff's rendering, Remembrance of Things Past) to be preferable to the French original.

 The necessity of making choices, and therefore of interpretation, in translating(and in other fields of human endeavor) stems from the      ambiguity    that subjectively pervades the universe. Part of the ambiguity, for a translator, involves the structure       of human language. Psychologist and neural scientist Gary Marcus notes that "virtually every sentence [that people generate] is ambiguous, often in multiple ways. Our brain is so     good at comprehending     language that we do not usually notice." An example of linguistic ambiguity is the "pronoun disambiguation problem" ("PDP"): a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a pronoun in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers. Such disambiguation is not infallible by a human, either.

Ambiguity is a concern to both translators and, as the writings of poet and literary critic William Empson have demonstrated, to literary critics. Ambiguity may be desirable, indeed essential, in poetry and diplomacy; it can be more problematic in ordinary prose.

A translator is faced with two contradictory tasks: when translating, strive for omniscience; when reviewing the resulting translation, assume (the naive reader's) ignorance.

Translators may render only parts     of the original text, provided that they inform readers of that action. But a translator should not     assume the role of censor and surreptitiously delete or bowdlerize passages merely to please a political or moral interest.

Translating has served as a school of writing for many an author, much as the copying of masterworks of painting has schooled many a novice painter.A translator who can competently render an author's thoughts into the translator's own language, should certainly be able to adequately render, in his own language, any   thoughts of his own. Translating (like analytic philosophy) compels precise analysis of language elements and of their usage. In 1946 the poet Ezra Pound, then at St. Elizabeth's Hospital, in Washington, D.C., advised a visitor, the 18-year-old beginning poet W.S. Merwin: "The work of translation is the best teacher you'll ever have. Merwin, translator-poet who took Pound's advice to heart, writes of translation as an "impossible, unfinishable" art.

 Translators, including monks who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia, and the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the very languages into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for     conveying knowledge between cultures; and along with ideas, they have imported from the source languages, into their own languages, loanwords and calques of grammatical structures, idioms, and vocabulary.

korean interpreter chennai

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korean interpreter mumbai

Translation

Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The language     draws a terminological distinction (not all languages do) between translating (a written text) and  interpreting (oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages); under this      distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community.

 A translator always risks   inadvertently introducing source-language words, grammar, or syntax into the target-language  rendering. On the other hand, such "spill-overs" have sometimes imported useful source-language     calques    and loanwords that        have enriched  target languages. Translators, including early translators     of sacred texts, have helped shape the very languages into which they have translated.

 Because of the laboriousness of the translation process, since the 1940s efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to  automate     translation or to mechanically aid the human translator.More recently, the rise     of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated "language localization".

Etymology

The English word "translation" derives from the Latin word translatio,which comes from trans, "across" + ferre, "to carry" or "to bring" (-latio in turn coming from latus, the past participle of ferre). Thus translatio is "a carrying    korean interpreter mumbai   across" or "a bringing across": in this case, of a text from one language to another.

Some Slavic languages and the Germanic   languages (other than Dutch and Afrikaans) have calqued their words for the concept of "translation" on translatio.

The Romance languages and the remaining    Slavic languages have derived their words for the concept of "translation" from an  alternative Latin word, traductio, itself derived from traducere ("to lead across" or "to bring across", from trans, "across" + ducere, "to lead" or "to bring")

The Ancient Greek term for "translation" (metaphrasis, "a speaking across"), has supplied English with "metaphrase" (a "literal", or "word-for-word", translation)—as contrasted with "paraphrase" ("a saying in other words", from  paraphrasis)."Metaphrase" corresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to "formal equivalence"; and "paraphrase", to "dynamic equivalence".

Strictly speaking, the concept of metaphrase—of "word-for-word translation"—is an imperfect concept, because a given word in a given    language often carries more than one meaning; and because a similar given meaning may often be represented in a given language by more than one word. Nevertheless, "metaphrase" and "paraphrase" may be useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation.

Back-translation

A "back-translation" is a translation of a translated text back into the language of the original text, made without reference to the original text. Comparison of a back-translation with the original text is sometimes used as a check on the accuracy  of the original translation, much as the accuracy of a mathematical operation is      sometimes     checked by reversing the operation. But the results of such reverse-translation operations, while useful  as approximate checks, are not always precisely reliable.Back-translation must in general       be less accurate   than back-calculation because linguistic symbols (words) are often ambiguous, whereas mathematical symbols are intentionally unequivocal. In the context of machine translation, a back-translation is also called a "round-trip translation." When translations are produced of material    used in medical clinical trials, such as informed-consent forms, a back-translation is often required by the ethics committee or institutional review board.

 It provided humorously telling evidence for the frequent unreliability of back-translation when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of his short story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County". He published his back-translation in a 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the French  korean interpreter mumbai   translation, and a "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story". The latter included a synopsized adaptation    of his story that Twain stated had appeared, unattributed to Twain, in a Professor Sidgwick's Greek Prose Composition under the title, "The Athenian and the Frog"; the adaptation had for a time been taken for an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's "Jumping Frog" story.

When a document survives only in translation, the original having been lost, researchers sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to   reconstruct the original text. An example involves the novel The Saragossa Manuscript by the Polish aristocrat Jan Potocki (1761–1815), who wrote the novel in French and anonymously    published     fragments in 1804 and 1813–14. Portions of the original French-language manuscript were subsequently lost; however, the missing fragments survived in a Polish translation, made by Edmund Chojecki in 1847 from a complete French copy that has since been lost. French-language versions of the complete   Saragossa Manuscript have since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on French-language versions that have been back-translated from Chojecki's Polish version.

Many works by the influential Classical physician Galen survive only in medieval Arabic translation. Some survive only in Renaissance Latin translations from the Arabic, thus at a second remove from the original. To better understand Galen, scholars have attempted back-translation of such works in order to reconstruct the original Greek.

 When historians suspect that a document is actually a translation from another language, back-translation into that hypothetical original language can provide supporting evidence by showing that such characteristics as idioms, puns, peculiar grammatical structures, etc., are in fact derived from the original language. For example, the known text of the Till Eulenspiegel folk tales is in High German but contains puns that work only when back-translated to Low German. This seems clear evidence that these tales (or at least large portions of them) were originally written in Low German and translated into High German by an over-metaphrastic translator.

 Supporters of Aramaic primacy—the view that the Christian New Testament or its sources were originally written in the Aramaic language—seek to prove their case by showing that difficult passages in the existing Greek text of the New  Testament make much more sense when back-translated to Aramaic: that, for example, some incomprehensible  references are in fact Aramaic puns that do not work in Greek. Due to similar indications, it is believed that the 2nd century Gnostic Gospel of Judas, which survives only in Coptic, was originally written in Greek.

 The dominant English-language literary figure of his age, illustrates, in his use of back-translation, translators' influence on the evolution of languages and literary styles. Dryden is believed to be the first person to posit that English sentences should not end in prepositions because Latin sentences cannot end in prepositions. Dryden created  the proscription against "preposition stranding" in 1672 when he objected to Ben Jonson's 1611 phrase, "the bodies that those souls were frighted from", though he did not provide the rationale for his preference. Dryden often translated his writing into Latin, to check whether his writing was concise and elegant, Latin being considered an elegant and long-lived language with which to compare; then he  back-translated    his writing back to English according to Latin-grammar usage. As Latin does not have   sentences ending in prepositions, Dryden may have applied Latin grammar to English, thus forming the controversial rule of no sentence-ending prepositions, subsequently adopted by other writers.

Translators

A competent translator is not only bilingual but bicultural. A language is not merely a collection of words and of rules of grammar and syntax for generating sentences, but also a vast interconnecting system of connotations and cultural references whose mastery, writes linguist Mario Pei, "comes close to being a lifetime job."The complexity of the translator's task cannot be overstated; one author suggests that becoming an accomplished translator—after having already acquired a good basic knowledge of both languages and cultures—may require a minimum of ten years' experience. Viewed in this light, it is a serious misconception to assume that a person who has fair fluency in two languages will, by virtue of that fact alone, be consistently competent to translate between them.

 The translator's role in relation to a text has been compared to that of an artist, e.g., a musician or actor, who interprets a work of art. Translation, like other human activities, entails making choices, and choice implies Korean interpretation gurgaon. Mark Polizzotti writes: "A good translation offers not a reproduction of the work but an interpretation, a re-representation, just as the performance of a play or a sonata is a representation of the script or the score, one among many possible representations."

 The English-language novelist Joseph Conrad, whose writings Zdzisław Najder has described as verging on "auto-translation" from Conrad's Polish and French linguistic personae, advised his niece and Polish translator Aniela Zagórska: "on't trouble to be too scrupulous ... I may tell you (in French) that in my opinion il vaut mieux interpréter que traduire  [it is better to interpret than to translate] ...Il s'agit donc de trouver les équivalents. Et là, ma chère, je vous prie laissez vous guider plutôt par votre tempérament que par une conscience sévère ... [It is, then, a question of finding the equivalent expressions. And there, my dear, I beg you to let yourself be guided more by your temperament than by a strict conscience....]"Conrad advised     another translator that the prime requisite for a good translation is that it be "idiomatic". "For in the idiom is the       clearness of a language and the language's force and its picturesqueness—by which last I mean the picture-producing power of arranged words."Conrad thought C.K. Scott Moncrieff's English translation of Marcel Proust's À la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time—or, in Scott Moncrieff's rendering, Remembrance of Things Past) to be preferable to the French original.

 The necessity of making choices, and therefore of interpretation, in translating(and in other fields of human endeavor) stems from the      ambiguity    that subjectively pervades the universe. Part of the ambiguity, for a translator, involves the structure       of human language. Psychologist and neural scientist Gary Marcus notes that "virtually every sentence [that people generate] is ambiguous, often in multiple ways. Our brain is so     good at comprehending     language that we do not usually notice." An example of linguistic ambiguity is the "pronoun disambiguation problem" ("PDP"): a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a pronoun in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers. Such disambiguation is not infallible by a human, either.

Ambiguity is a concern to both translators and, as the writings of poet and literary critic William Empson have demonstrated, to literary critics. Ambiguity may be desirable, indeed essential, in poetry and diplomacy; it can be more problematic in ordinary prose.

A translator is faced with two contradictory tasks: when translating, strive for omniscience; when reviewing the resulting translation, assume (the naive reader's) ignorance.

Translators may render only parts     of the original text, provided that they inform readers of that action. But a translator should not     assume the role of censor and surreptitiously delete or bowdlerize passages merely to please a political or moral interest.

Translating has served as a school of writing for many an author, much as the copying of masterworks of painting has schooled many a novice painter.A translator who can competently render an author's thoughts into the translator's own language, should certainly be able to adequately render, in his own language, any   thoughts of his own. Translating (like analytic philosophy) compels precise analysis of language elements and of their usage. In 1946 the poet Ezra Pound, then at St. Elizabeth's Hospital, in Washington, D.C., advised a visitor, the 18-year-old beginning poet W.S. Merwin: "The work of translation is the best teacher you'll ever have. Merwin, translator-poet who took Pound's advice to heart, writes of translation as an "impossible, unfinishable" art.

 Translators, including monks who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia, and the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the very languages into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for     conveying knowledge between cultures; and along with ideas, they have imported from the source languages, into their own languages, loanwords and calques of grammatical structures, idioms, and vocabulary.

korean interpreter mumbai

[marketing20world-blog]

korean interpreter delhi

Translation

Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The language     draws a terminological distinction (not all languages do) between translating (a written text) and  interpreting (oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages); under this      distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community.

 A translator always risks   inadvertently introducing source-language words, grammar, or syntax into the target-language   korean interpreter delhi    rendering. On the other hand, such "spill-overs" have sometimes imported useful source-language     calques   and loanwords that        have  enriched target languages. Translators, including early translators     of sacred texts, have helped shape the very languages into which they have translated.

 Because of the laboriousness of the translation process, since the 1940s efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to  automate     translation or to mechanically aid the human translator.More recently, the rise     of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated "language localization".

Etymology

The English word "translation" derives from the Latin word translatio,which comes from trans, "across" + ferre, "to carry" or "to bring" (-latio in turn coming from latus, the past participle of ferre). Thus translatio is "a carrying across" or "a bringing across": in this case, of a text from one language to another.

Some Slavic languages and the Germanic   languages (other than Dutch and Afrikaans) have calqued their words for the concept of "translation" on translatio.

The Romance languages and the remaining    Slavic languages have derived their words for the concept of "translation" from an  alternative Latin word, traductio, itself derived from traducere ("to lead across" or "to bring across", from trans, "across" + ducere, "to lead" or "to bring")

The Ancient Greek term for "translation" (metaphrasis, "a speaking across"), has supplied English with "metaphrase" (a "literal", or "word-for-word", translation)—as contrasted with "paraphrase" ("a saying in other words", from  paraphrasis)."Metaphrase" corresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to "formal equivalence"; and "paraphrase", to "dynamic equivalence".

Strictly speaking, the concept of metaphrase—of "word-for-word translation"—is an imperfect concept, because a given word in a given    language often carries more than one meaning; and because a similar given meaning may often be represented in a given language by more than one word. Nevertheless, "metaphrase" and "paraphrase" may be useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation.

Back-translation

A "back-translation" is a translation of a translated text back into the language of the original text, made without reference to the original text. Comparison of a back-translation with the original text is sometimes used as a check on the accuracy  of the original translation, much as the accuracy of a mathematical operation is     sometimes     checked by reversing the operation. But the results of such reverse-translation operations, while useful  as approximate checks, are not always precisely reliable.Back-translation must in general       be less accurate   than back-calculation because linguistic symbols (words) are often ambiguous, whereas mathematical symbols are intentionally unequivocal. In the context of machine translation, a back-translation is also called a "round-trip translation." When translations are produced of material    used in medical clinical trials, such as informed-consent forms, a back-translation is often required by the ethics committee or institutional review board.

 It provided humorously telling evidence for the frequent unreliability of back-translation when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of his short story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County". He published his back-translation in a 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the French translation, and a "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story". The latter included a synopsized adaptation    of his story that Twain stated had appeared, unattributed to Twain, in a Professor Sidgwick's Greek Prose Composition under the title, "The Athenian and the Frog"; the adaptation had for a time been taken for an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's "Jumping Frog" story.

When a document survives only in translation, the original having been lost, researchers sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to   reconstruct the original text. An example involves the novel The Saragossa Manuscript by the Polish aristocrat Jan Potocki (1761–1815), who wrote the novel in French and anonymously    korean interpreter delhi  published     fragments in 1804 and 1813–14. Portions of the original French-language manuscript were subsequently lost; however, the missing fragments survived in a Polish translation, made by Edmund Chojecki in 1847 from a complete French copy that has since been lost. French-language versions of the complete   Saragossa Manuscript have since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on French-language versions that have been back-translated from Chojecki's Polish version.

Many works by the influential Classical physician Galen survive only in medieval Arabic translation. Some survive only in Renaissance Latin translations from the Arabic, thus at a second remove from the original. To better understand Galen, scholars have attempted back-translation of such works in order to reconstruct the original Greek.

 When historians suspect that a document is actually a translation from another language, back-translation into that hypothetical original language can provide supporting evidence by showing that such characteristics as idioms, puns, peculiar grammatical structures, etc., are in fact derived from the original language. For example, the known text of the Till Eulenspiegel folk tales is in High German but contains puns that work only when back-translated to Low German. This seems clear evidence that these tales (or at least large portions of them) were originally written in Low German and translated into High German by an over-metaphrastic translator.

 Supporters of Aramaic primacy—the view that the Christian New Testament or its sources were originally written in the Aramaic language—seek to prove their case by showing that difficult passages in the existing Greek text of the New  Testament make much more sense when back-translated to Aramaic: that, for example, some incomprehensible  references are in fact Aramaic puns that do not work in Greek. Due to similar indications, it is believed that the 2nd century Gnostic Gospel of Judas, which survives only in Coptic, was originally written in Greek.

 The dominant English-language literary figure of his age, illustrates, in his use of back-translation, translators' influence on the evolution of languages and literary styles. Dryden is believed to be the first person to posit that English sentences should not end in prepositions because Latin sentences cannot end in prepositions. Dryden created  the proscription against "preposition stranding" in 1672 when he objected to Ben Jonson's 1611 phrase, "the bodies that those souls were frighted from", though he did not provide the rationale for his preference. Dryden often translated his writing into Latin, to check whether his writing was concise and elegant, Latin being considered an elegant and long-lived language with which to compare; then he  back-translated    his writing back to English according to Latin-grammar usage. As Latin does not have   sentences ending in prepositions, Dryden may have applied Latin grammar to English, thus forming the controversial rule of no sentence-ending prepositions, subsequently adopted by other writers.

Translators

A competent translator is not only bilingual but bicultural. A language is not merely a collection of words and of rules of grammar and syntax for generating sentences, but also a vast interconnecting system of connotations and cultural references whose mastery, writes linguist Mario Pei, "comes close to being a lifetime job."The complexity of the translator's task cannot be overstated; one author suggests that becoming an accomplished translator—after having already acquired a good basic knowledge of both languages and cultures—may require a minimum of ten years' experience. Viewed in this light, it is a serious misconception to assume that a person who has fair fluency in two languages will, by virtue of that fact alone, be consistently competent to translate between them.

 The translator's role in relation to a text has been compared to that of an artist, e.g., a musician or actor, who interprets a work of art. Translation, like other human activities, entails making choices, and choice implies Korean interpretation gurgaon. Mark Polizzotti writes: "A good translation offers not a reproduction of the work but an interpretation, a re-representation, just as the performance of a play or a sonata is a representation of the script or the score, one among many possible representations."

 The English-language novelist Joseph Conrad, whose writings Zdzisław Najder has described as verging on "auto-translation" from Conrad's Polish and French linguistic personae, advised his niece and Polish translator Aniela Zagórska: "on't trouble to be too scrupulous ... I may tell you (in French) that in my opinion il vaut mieux interpréter que traduire  [it is better to interpret than to translate] ...Il s'agit donc de trouver les équivalents. Et là, ma chère, je vous prie laissez vous guider plutôt par votre tempérament que par une conscience sévère ... [It is, then, a question of finding the equivalent expressions. And there, my dear, I beg you to let yourself be guided more by your temperament than by a strict conscience....]"Conrad advised     another translator that the prime requisite for a good translation is that it be "idiomatic". "For in the idiom is the       clearness of a language and the language's force and its picturesqueness—by which last I mean the picture-producing power of arranged words."Conrad thought C.K. Scott Moncrieff's English translation of Marcel Proust's À la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time—or, in Scott Moncrieff's rendering, Remembrance of Things Past) to be preferable to the French original.

 The necessity of making choices, and therefore of interpretation, in translating(and in other fields of human endeavor) stems from the      ambiguity    that subjectively pervades the universe. Part of the ambiguity, for a translator, involves the structure       of human language. Psychologist and neural scientist Gary Marcus notes that "virtually every sentence [that people generate] is ambiguous, often in multiple ways. Our brain is so     good at comprehending     language that we do not usually notice." An example of linguistic ambiguity is the "pronoun disambiguation problem" ("PDP"): a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a pronoun in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers. Such disambiguation is not infallible by a human, either.

Ambiguity is a concern to both translators and, as the writings of poet and literary critic William Empson have demonstrated, to literary critics. Ambiguity may be desirable, indeed essential, in poetry and diplomacy; it can be more problematic in ordinary prose.

A translator is faced with two contradictory tasks: when translating, strive for omniscience; when reviewing the resulting translation, assume (the naive reader's) ignorance.

Translators may render only parts     of the original text, provided that they inform readers of that action. But a translator should not     assume the role of censor and surreptitiously delete or bowdlerize passages merely to please a political or moral interest.

Translating has served as a school of writing for many an author, much as the copying of masterworks of painting has schooled many a novice painter.A translator who can competently render an author's thoughts into the translator's own language, should certainly be able to adequately render, in his own language, any   thoughts of his own. Translating (like analytic philosophy) compels precise analysis of language elements and of their usage. In 1946 the poet Ezra Pound, then at St. Elizabeth's Hospital, in Washington, D.C., advised a visitor, the 18-year-old beginning poet W.S. Merwin: "The work of translation is the best teacher you'll ever have. Merwin, translator-poet who took Pound's advice to heart, writes of translation as an "impossible, unfinishable" art.

 Translators, including monks who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia, and the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the very languages into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for     conveying knowledge between cultures; and along with ideas, they have imported from the source languages, into their own languages, loanwords and calques of grammatical structures, idioms, and vocabulary.

korean interpreter delhi

[marketing20world-blog]

korean interpreter chennai

Translation

Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The language  korean interpreter chennai    draws a terminological distinction (not all languages do) between translating (a written text) and  interpreting (oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages); under this      distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community.

 A translator always risks   inadvertently introducing source-language words, grammar, or syntax into the target-language rendering. On the other hand, such "spill-overs" have sometimes imported useful source-language     calques   and loanwords that        have  enriched target languages. Translators, including early translators     of sacred texts, have helped shape the very languages into which they have translated.

 Because of the laboriousness of the translation process, since the 1940s efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to  automate     translation or to mechanically aid the human translator.More recently, the rise     of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated "language localization".

Etymology

The English word "translation" derives from the Latin word translatio,which comes from trans, "across" + ferre, "to carry" or "to bring" (-latio in turn coming from latus, the past participle of ferre). Thus translatio is "a carrying across" or "a bringing across": in this case, of a text from one language to another.

Some Slavic languages and the Germanic   languages (other than Dutch and Afrikaans) have calqued their words for the concept of "translation" on translatio.

The Romance languages and the remaining    Slavic languages have derived their words for the concept of "translation" from an  korean interpreter chennai  alternative Latin word, traductio, itself derived from traducere ("to lead across" or "to bring across", from trans, "across" + ducere, "to lead" or "to bring")

The Ancient Greek term for "translation" (metaphrasis, "a speaking across"), has supplied English with "metaphrase" (a "literal", or "word-for-word", translation)—as contrasted with "paraphrase" ("a saying in other words", from  paraphrasis)."Metaphrase" corresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to "formal equivalence"; and "paraphrase", to "dynamic equivalence".

Strictly speaking, the concept of metaphrase—of "word-for-word translation"—is an imperfect concept, because a given word in a given    language often carries more than one meaning; and because a similar given meaning may often be represented in a given language by more than one word. Nevertheless, "metaphrase" and "paraphrase" may be useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation.

Back-translation

A "back-translation" is a translation of a translated text back into the language of the original text, made without reference to the original text. Comparison of a back-translation with the original text is sometimes used as a check on the accuracy  of the original translation, much as the accuracy of a mathematical operation is     sometimes     checked by reversing the operation. But the results of such reverse-translation operations, while useful  as approximate checks, are not always precisely reliable.Back-translation must in general       be less accurate   than back-calculation because linguistic symbols (words) are often ambiguous, whereas mathematical symbols are intentionally unequivocal. In the context of machine translation, a back-translation is also called a "round-trip translation." When translations are produced of material    used in medical clinical trials, such as informed-consent forms, a back-translation is often required by the ethics committee or institutional review board.

 It provided humorously telling evidence for the frequent unreliability of back-translation when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of his short story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County". He published his back-translation in a 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the French translation, and a "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story". The latter included a synopsized adaptation    of his story that Twain stated had appeared, unattributed to Twain, in a Professor Sidgwick's Greek Prose Composition under the title, "The Athenian and the Frog"; the adaptation had for a time been taken for an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's "Jumping Frog" story.

When a document survives only in translation, the original having been lost, researchers sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to   reconstruct the original text. An example involves the novel The Saragossa Manuscript by the Polish aristocrat Jan Potocki (1761–1815), who wrote the novel in French and anonymously published     fragments in 1804 and 1813–14. Portions of the original French-language manuscript were  subsequently lost; however, the missing fragments survived in a Polish translation, made by Edmund Chojecki in 1847 from a complete French copy that has since been lost. French-language versions of the complete   Saragossa Manuscript have since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on French-language versions that have been back-translated from Chojecki's Polish version.

Many works by the influential Classical physician Galen survive only in medieval Arabic translation. Some survive only in Renaissance Latin translations from the Arabic, thus at a second remove from the original. To better understand Galen, scholars have attempted back-translation of such works in order to reconstruct the original Greek.

 When historians suspect that a document is actually a translation from another language, back-translation into that hypothetical original language can provide supporting evidence by showing that such characteristics as idioms, puns, peculiar grammatical structures, etc., are in fact derived from the original language. For example, the known text of the Till Eulenspiegel folk tales is in High German but contains puns that work only when back-translated to Low German. This seems clear evidence that these tales (or at least large portions of them) were originally written in Low German and translated into High German by an over-metaphrastic translator.

 Supporters of Aramaic primacy—the view that the Christian New Testament or its sources were originally written in the Aramaic language—seek to prove their case by showing that difficult passages in the existing Greek text of the New  Testament make much more sense when back-translated to Aramaic: that, for example, some incomprehensible  references are in fact Aramaic puns that do not work in Greek. Due to similar indications, it is believed that the 2nd century Gnostic Gospel of Judas, which survives only in Coptic, was originally written in Greek.

 The dominant English-language literary figure of his age, illustrates, in his use of back-translation, translators' influence on the evolution of languages and literary styles. Dryden is believed to be the first person to posit that English sentences should not end in prepositions because Latin sentences cannot end in prepositions. Dryden created  the proscription against "preposition stranding" in 1672 when he objected to Ben Jonson's 1611 phrase, "the bodies that those souls were frighted from", though he did not provide the rationale for his preference. Dryden often translated his writing into Latin, to check whether his writing was concise and elegant, Latin being considered an elegant and long-lived language with which to compare; then he  back-translated    his writing back to English according to Latin-grammar usage. As Latin does not have   sentences ending in prepositions, Dryden may have applied Latin grammar to English, thus forming the controversial rule of no sentence-ending prepositions, subsequently adopted by other writers.

Translators

A competent translator is not only bilingual but bicultural. A language is not merely a collection of words and of rules of grammar and syntax for generating sentences, but also a vast interconnecting system of connotations and cultural references whose mastery, writes linguist Mario Pei, "comes close to being a lifetime job."The complexity of the translator's task cannot be overstated; one author suggests that becoming an accomplished translator—after having already acquired a good basic knowledge of both languages and cultures—may require a minimum of ten years' experience. Viewed in this light, it is a serious misconception to assume that a person who has fair fluency in two languages will, by virtue of that fact alone, be consistently competent to translate between them.

 The translator's role in relation to a text has been compared to that of an artist, e.g., a musician or actor, who interprets a work of art. Translation, like other human activities, entails making choices, and choice implies Korean interpretation gurgaon. Mark Polizzotti writes: "A good translation offers not a reproduction of the work but an interpretation, a re-representation, just as the performance of a play or a sonata is a representation of the script or the score, one among many possible representations."

 The English-language novelist Joseph Conrad, whose writings Zdzisław Najder has described as verging on "auto-translation" from Conrad's Polish and French linguistic personae, advised his niece and Polish translator Aniela Zagórska: "on't trouble to be too scrupulous ... I may tell you (in French) that in my opinion il vaut mieux interpréter que traduire  [it is better to interpret than to translate] ...Il s'agit donc de trouver les équivalents. Et là, ma chère, je vous prie laissez vous guider plutôt par votre tempérament que par une conscience sévère ... [It is, then, a question of finding the equivalent expressions. And there, my dear, I beg you to let yourself be guided more by your temperament than by a strict conscience....]"Conrad advised     another translator that the prime requisite for a good translation is that it be "idiomatic". "For in the idiom is the       clearness of a language and the language's force and its picturesqueness—by which last I mean the picture-producing power of arranged words."Conrad thought C.K. Scott Moncrieff's English translation of Marcel Proust's À la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time—or, in Scott Moncrieff's rendering, Remembrance of Things Past) to be preferable to the French original.

 The necessity of making choices, and therefore of interpretation, in translating(and in other fields of human endeavor) stems from the      ambiguity    that subjectively pervades the universe. Part of the ambiguity, for a translator, involves the structure       of human language. Psychologist and neural scientist Gary Marcus notes that "virtually every sentence [that people generate] is ambiguous, often in multiple ways. Our brain is so     good at comprehending     language that we do not usually notice." An example of linguistic ambiguity is the "pronoun disambiguation problem" ("PDP"): a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a pronoun in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers. Such disambiguation is not infallible by a human, either.

Ambiguity is a concern to both translators and, as the writings of poet and literary critic William Empson have demonstrated, to literary critics. Ambiguity may be desirable, indeed essential, in poetry and diplomacy; it can be more problematic in ordinary prose.

A translator is faced with two contradictory tasks: when translating, strive for omniscience; when reviewing the resulting translation, assume (the naive reader's) ignorance.

Translators may render only parts     of the original text, provided that they inform readers of that action. But a translator should not     assume the role of censor and surreptitiously delete or bowdlerize passages merely to please a political or moral interest.

Translating has served as a school of writing for many an author, much as the copying of masterworks of painting has schooled many a novice painter.A translator who can competently render an author's thoughts into the translator's own language, should certainly be able to adequately render, in his own language, any   korean interpreter chennai  thoughts of his own. Translating (like analytic philosophy) compels precise analysis of language elements and of their usage. In 1946 the poet Ezra Pound, then at St. Elizabeth's Hospital, in Washington, D.C., advised a visitor, the 18-year-old beginning poet W.S. Merwin: "The work of translation is the best teacher you'll ever have. Merwin, translator-poet who took Pound's advice to heart, writes of translation as an "impossible, unfinishable" art.

  Translators, including monks who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia, and the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the very languages into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for     conveying knowledge between cultures; and along with ideas, they have imported from the source languages, into their own languages, loanwords and calques of grammatical structures, idioms, and vocabulary.

korean interpreter chennai

[marketing20world-blog]

korean interpreter noida

Translation

Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The language korean interpreter noida  draws a terminological distinction (not all languages do) between translating (a written text) and  interpreting (oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages); under this      distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community.

 A translator always risks   inadvertently introducing source-language words, grammar, or syntax into the target-language rendering. On the other hand, such "spill-overs" have sometimes imported useful source-language     calques   and loanwords that        have  enriched target languages. Translators, including early translators     of sacred texts, have helped shape the very languages into which they have translated.

 Because of the laboriousness of the translation process, since the 1940s efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to  automate     translation or to mechanically aid the human translator.More recently, the rise     of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated "language localization".

Etymology

The English word "translation" derives from the Latin word translatio,which comes from trans, "across" + ferre, "to carry" or "to bring" (-latio in turn coming from latus, the past participle of ferre). Thus translatio is "a carrying across" or "a bringing across": in this case, of a text from one language to another.

Some Slavic languages and the Germanic   languages (other than Dutch and Afrikaans) have calqued their words for the concept of "translation" on translatio.

The Romance languages and the remaining    Slavic languages have derived their words for the concept of "translation" from an alternative Latin word, traductio, itself derived from traducere ("to lead across" or "to bring across", from trans, "across" + ducere, "to lead" or "to bring")

The Ancient Greek term for "translation" (metaphrasis, "a speaking across"), has supplied English with "metaphrase" (a "literal", or "word-for-word", translation)—as contrasted with "paraphrase" ("a saying in other words", from  paraphrasis)."Metaphrase" corresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to "formal equivalence"; and "paraphrase", to "dynamic equivalence".

Strictly speaking, the concept of metaphrase—of "word-for-word translation"—is an imperfect concept, because a given word in a given  korean interpreter noida   language often carries more than one meaning; and because a similar given meaning may often be represented in a given language by more than one word. Nevertheless, "metaphrase" and "paraphrase" may be useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation.

Back-translation

A "back-translation" is a translation of a translated text back into the language of the original text, made without reference to the original text. Comparison of a back-translation with the original text is sometimes used as a check on the accuracy  of the original translation, much as the accuracy of a mathematical operation is      sometimes     checked by reversing the operation. But the results of such reverse-translation operations, while useful  as approximate checks, are not always precisely reliable.Back-translation must in general       be less accurate   than back-calculation because linguistic symbols (words) are often ambiguous, whereas mathematical symbols are intentionally unequivocal. In the context of machine translation, a back-translation is also called a "round-trip translation." When translations are produced of material    used in medical clinical trials, such as informed-consent forms, a back-translation is often required by the ethics committee or institutional review board.

 It provided humorously telling evidence for the frequent unreliability of back-translation when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of his short story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County". He published his back-translation in a 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the French translation, and a "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story". The latter included a synopsized adaptation    of his story that Twain stated had appeared, unattributed to Twain, in a Professor Sidgwick's Greek Prose Composition under the title, "The Athenian and the Frog"; the adaptation had for a time been taken for an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's "Jumping Frog" story.

When a document survives only in translation, the original having been lost, researchers sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to   reconstruct the original text. An example involves the novel The Saragossa Manuscript by the Polish aristocrat Jan Potocki (1761–1815), who wrote the novel in French and anonymously published     fragments in 1804 and 1813–14. Portions of the original French-language manuscript were subsequently lost; however, the missing fragments survived in a Polish translation, made by Edmund Chojecki in 1847 from a complete French copy that has since been lost. French-language versions of the complete   Saragossa Manuscript have since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on French-language versions that have been back-translated from Chojecki's Polish version.

Many works by the influential Classical physician Galen survive only in medieval Arabic translation. Some survive only in Renaissance Latin translations from the Arabic, thus at a second remove from the original. To better understand Galen, scholars have attempted back-translation of such works in order to reconstruct the original Greek.

 When historians suspect that a document is actually a translation from another language, back-translation into that hypothetical original language can provide supporting evidence by showing that such characteristics as idioms, puns, peculiar grammatical structures, etc., are in fact derived from the original language. For example, the known text of the Till Eulenspiegel folk tales is in High German but contains puns that work only when back-translated to Low German. This seems clear evidence that these tales (or at least large portions of them) were originally written in Low German and translated into High German by an over-metaphrastic translator.

 Supporters of Aramaic primacy—the view that the Christian New Testament or its sources were originally written in the Aramaic language—seek to prove their case by showing that difficult passages in the existing Greek text of the New  korean interpreter noida   Testament make much more sense when back-translated to Aramaic: that, for example, some incomprehensible  references are in fact Aramaic puns that do not work in Greek. Due to similar indications, it is believed that the 2nd century Gnostic Gospel of Judas, which survives only in Coptic, was originally written in Greek.

 The dominant English-language literary figure of his age, illustrates, in his use of back-translation, translators' influence on the evolution of languages and literary styles. Dryden is believed to be the first person to posit that English sentences should not end in prepositions because Latin sentences cannot end in prepositions. Dryden created  the proscription against "preposition stranding" in 1672 when he objected to Ben Jonson's 1611 phrase, "the bodies that those souls were frighted from", though he did not provide the rationale for his preference. Dryden often translated his writing into Latin, to check whether his writing was concise and elegant, Latin being considered an elegant and long-lived language with which to compare; then he  back-translated    his writing back to English according to Latin-grammar usage. As Latin does not have   sentences ending in prepositions, Dryden may have applied Latin grammar to English, thus forming the controversial rule of no sentence-ending prepositions, subsequently adopted by other writers.

Translators

A competent translator is not only bilingual but bicultural. A language is not merely a collection of words and of rules of grammar and syntax for generating sentences, but also a vast interconnecting system of connotations and cultural references whose mastery, writes linguist Mario Pei, "comes close to being a lifetime job."The complexity of the translator's task cannot be overstated; one author suggests that becoming an accomplished translator—after having already acquired a good basic knowledge of both languages and cultures—may require a minimum of ten years' experience. Viewed in this light, it is a serious misconception to assume that a person who has fair fluency in two languages will, by virtue of that fact alone, be consistently competent to translate between them.

 The translator's role in relation to a text has been compared to that of an artist, e.g., a musician or actor, who interprets a work of art. Translation, like other human activities, entails making choices, and choice implies Korean interpretation gurgaon. Mark Polizzotti writes: "A good translation offers not a reproduction of the work but an interpretation, a re-representation, just as the performance of a play or a sonata is a representation of the script or the score, one among many possible representations."

 The English-language novelist Joseph Conrad, whose writings Zdzisław Najder has described as verging on "auto-translation" from Conrad's Polish and French linguistic personae, advised his niece and Polish translator Aniela Zagórska: "on't trouble to be too scrupulous ... I may tell you (in French) that in my opinion il vaut mieux interpréter que traduire  [it is better to interpret than to translate] ...Il s'agit donc de trouver les équivalents. Et là, ma chère, je vous prie laissez vous guider plutôt par votre tempérament que par une conscience sévère ... [It is, then, a question of finding the equivalent expressions. And there, my dear, I beg you to let yourself be guided more by your temperament than by a strict conscience....]"Conrad advised     another translator that the prime requisite for a good translation is that it be "idiomatic". "For in the idiom is the       clearness of a language and the language's force and its picturesqueness—by which last I mean the picture-producing power of arranged words."Conrad thought C.K. Scott Moncrieff's English translation of Marcel Proust's À la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time—or, in Scott Moncrieff's rendering, Remembrance of Things Past) to be preferable to the French original.

 The necessity of making choices, and therefore of interpretation, in translating(and in other fields of human endeavor) stems from the      ambiguity    that subjectively pervades the universe. Part of the ambiguity, for a translator, involves the structure       of human language. Psychologist and neural scientist Gary Marcus notes that "virtually every sentence [that people generate] is ambiguous, often in multiple ways. Our brain is so     good at comprehending     language that we do not usually notice." An example of linguistic ambiguity is the "pronoun disambiguation problem" ("PDP"): a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a pronoun in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers. Such disambiguation is not infallible by a human, either.

Ambiguity is a concern to both translators and, as the writings of poet and literary critic William Empson have demonstrated, to literary critics. Ambiguity may be desirable, indeed essential, in poetry and diplomacy; it can be more problematic in ordinary prose.

A translator is faced with two contradictory tasks: when translating, strive for omniscience; when reviewing the resulting translation, assume (the naive reader's) ignorance.

Translators may render only parts     of the original text, provided that they inform readers of that action. But a translator should not     assume the role of censor and surreptitiously delete or bowdlerize passages merely to please a political or moral interest.

Translating has served as a school of writing for many an author, much as the copying of masterworks of painting has schooled many a novice painter.A translator who can competently render an author's thoughts into the translator's own language, should certainly be able to adequately render, in his own language, any thoughts of his own. Translating (like analytic philosophy) compels precise analysis of language elements and of their usage. In 1946 the poet Ezra Pound, then at St. Elizabeth's Hospital, in Washington, D.C., advised a visitor, the 18-year-old beginning poet W.S. Merwin: "The work of translation is the best teacher you'll ever have. Merwin, translator-poet who took Pound's advice to heart, writes of translation as an "impossible, unfinishable" art.

 Translators, including monks who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia, and the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the very languages into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for     conveying knowledge between cultures; and along with ideas, they have imported from the source languages, into their own languages, loanwords and calques of grammatical structures, idioms, and vocabulary.

 korean interpreter noida

[marketing20world-blog]

korean interpreter gurgaon

Translation

Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The language draws a terminological distinction (not all languages do) between translating (a written text) and  interpreting (oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages); under this      distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community.

 A translator always risks   inadvertently introducing source-language words, grammar, or syntax into the target-language rendering. On the other hand, such "spill-overs" have sometimes imported useful source-language     calques   and loanwords that        have  enriched target languages. Translators, including early translators   korean interpreter gurgaon   of sacred texts, have helped shape the very languages into which they have translated.

 Because of the laboriousness of the translation process, since the 1940s efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to  automate     translation or to mechanically aid the human translator.More recently, the rise     of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated "language localization".

Etymology

The English word "translation" derives from the Latin word translatio,which comes from trans, "across" + ferre, "to carry" or "to bring" (-latio in turn coming from latus, the past participle of ferre). Thus translatio is "a carrying across" or "a bringing across": in this case, of a text from one language to another.

Some Slavic languages and the Germanic   languages (other than Dutch and Afrikaans) have calqued their words for the concept of "translation" on translatio.

The Romance languages and the remaining    Slavic languages have derived their words for the concept of "translation" from an alternative Latin word, traductio, itself derived from traducere ("to lead across" or "to bring across", from trans, "across" + ducere, "to lead" or "to bring")

The Ancient Greek term for "translation" (metaphrasis, "a speaking across"), has supplied English with "metaphrase" (a "literal", or "word-for-word", translation)—as contrasted with "paraphrase" ("a saying in other words", from  paraphrasis)."Metaphrase" corresponds, in one of the more recent terminologies, to "formal equivalence"; and "paraphrase", to "dynamic equivalence".

Strictly speaking, the concept of metaphrase—of "word-for-word translation"—is an imperfect concept, because a given word in a given language often carries more than one meaning; and because a similar given meaning may often be represented in a given language by more than one word. Nevertheless, "metaphrase" and "paraphrase" may be useful as ideal concepts that mark the extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation.

Back-translation

A "back-translation" is a translation of a translated text back into the language of the original text, made without reference to the original text. Comparison of a back-translation with the original text is sometimes used as a check on the accuracy  of the original translation, much as the accuracy of a mathematical operation is  korean interpreter gurgaon    sometimes     checked by reversing the operation. But the results of such reverse-translation operations, while useful  as approximate checks, are not always precisely reliable.Back-translation must in general       be less accurate   than back-calculation because linguistic symbols (words) are often ambiguous, whereas mathematical symbols are intentionally unequivocal. In the context of machine translation, a back-translation is also called a "round-trip translation." When translations are produced of material    used in medical clinical trials, such as informed-consent forms, a back-translation is often required by the ethics committee or institutional review board.

 It provided humorously telling evidence for the frequent unreliability of back-translation when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of his short story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County". He published his back-translation in a 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the French translation, and a "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story". The latter included a synopsized adaptation    of his story that Twain stated had appeared, unattributed to Twain, in a Professor Sidgwick's Greek Prose Composition under the title, "The Athenian and the Frog"; the adaptation had for a time been taken for an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's "Jumping Frog" story.

When a document survives only in translation, the original having been lost, researchers sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to   reconstruct the original text. An example involves the novel The Saragossa Manuscript by the Polish aristocrat Jan Potocki (1761–1815), who wrote the novel in French and anonymously published     fragments in 1804 and 1813–14. Portions of the original French-language manuscript were  subsequently lost; however, the missing fragments survived in a Polish translation, made by Edmund Chojecki in 1847 from a complete French copy that has since been lost. French-language versions of the complete   Saragossa Manuscript have since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on French-language versions that have been back-translated from Chojecki's Polish version.

Many works by the influential Classical physician Galen survive only in medieval Arabic translation. Some survive only in Renaissance Latin translations from the Arabic, thus at a second remove from the original. To better understand Galen, scholars have attempted back-translation of such works in order to reconstruct the original Greek.

 When historians suspect that a document is actually a translation from another language, back-translation into that hypothetical original language can provide supporting evidence by showing that such characteristics as idioms, puns, peculiar grammatical structures, etc., are in fact derived from the original language. For example, the known text of the Till Eulenspiegel folk tales is in High German but contains puns that work only when back-translated to Low German. This seems clear evidence that these tales (or at least large portions of them) were originally written in Low German and translated into High German by an over-metaphrastic translator.

 Supporters of Aramaic primacy—the view that the Christian New Testament or its sources were originally written in the Aramaic language—seek to prove their case by showing that difficult passages in the existing Greek text of the New Testament make much more sense when back-translated to Aramaic: that, for example, some incomprehensible  references are in fact Aramaic puns that do not work in Greek. Due to similar indications, it is believed that the 2nd century Gnostic Gospel of Judas, which survives only in Coptic, was originally written in Greek.

 The dominant English-language literary figure of his age, illustrates, in his use of back-translation, translators' influence on the evolution of languages and literary styles. Dryden is believed to be the first person to posit that English sentences should not end in prepositions because Latin sentences cannot end in prepositions. Dryden created  the proscription against "preposition stranding" in 1672 when he objected to Ben Jonson's 1611 phrase, "the bodies that those souls were frighted from", though he did not provide the rationale for his preference. Dryden often translated his writing into Latin, to check whether his writing was concise and elegant, Latin being considered an elegant and long-lived language with which to compare; then he  back-translated    his writing back to English according to Latin-grammar usage. As Latin does not have   sentences ending in prepositions, Dryden may have applied Latin grammar to English, thus forming the controversial rule of no sentence-ending prepositions, subsequently adopted by other writers.

Translators

A competent translator is not only bilingual but bicultural. A language is not merely a collection of words and of rules of grammar and syntax for generating sentences, but also a vast interconnecting system of connotations and cultural references whose mastery, writes linguist Mario Pei, "comes close to being a lifetime job."The complexity of the translator's task cannot be overstated; one author suggests that becoming an accomplished translator—after having already acquired a good basic knowledge of both languages and cultures—may require a minimum of ten years' experience. Viewed in this light, it is a serious misconception to assume that a person who has fair fluency in two languages will, by virtue of that fact alone, be consistently competent to translate between them.

 The translator's role in relation to a text has been compared to that of an artist, e.g., a musician or actor, who interprets a work of art. Translation, like other human activities, entails making choices, and choice implies Korean interpretation gurgaon. Mark Polizzotti writes: "A good translation offers not a reproduction of the work but an interpretation, a re-representation, just as the performance of a play or a sonata is a representation of the script or the score, one among many possible representations."

 The English-language novelist Joseph Conrad, whose writings Zdzisław Najder has described as verging on "auto-translation" from Conrad's Polish and French linguistic personae, advised his niece and Polish translator Aniela Zagórska: "on't trouble to be too scrupulous ... I may tell you (in French) that in my opinion il vaut mieux interpréter que traduire  [it is better to interpret than to translate] ...Il s'agit donc de trouver les équivalents. Et là, ma chère, je vous prie laissez vous guider plutôt par votre tempérament que par une conscience sévère ... [It is, then, a question of finding the equivalent expressions. And there, my dear, I beg you to let yourself be guided more by your temperament than by a strict conscience....]"Conrad advised   korean interpreter gurgaon  another translator that the prime requisite for a good translation is that it be "idiomatic". "For in the idiom is the       clearness of a language and the language's force and its picturesqueness—by which last I mean the picture-producing power of arranged words."Conrad thought C.K. Scott Moncrieff's English translation of Marcel Proust's À la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time—or, in Scott Moncrieff's rendering, Remembrance of Things Past) to be preferable to the French original.

 The necessity of making choices, and therefore of interpretation, in translating(and in other fields of human endeavor) stems from the      ambiguity    that subjectively pervades the universe. Part of the ambiguity, for a translator, involves the structure       of human language. Psychologist and neural scientist Gary Marcus notes that "virtually every sentence [that people generate] is ambiguous, often in multiple ways. Our brain is so     good at comprehending     language that we do not usually notice." An example of linguistic ambiguity is the "pronoun disambiguation problem" ("PDP"): a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a pronoun in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers. Such disambiguation is not infallible by a human, either.

Ambiguity is a concern to both translators and, as the writings of poet and literary critic William Empson have demonstrated, to literary critics. Ambiguity may be desirable, indeed essential, in poetry and diplomacy; it can be more problematic in ordinary prose.

A translator is faced with two contradictory tasks: when translating, strive for omniscience; when reviewing the resulting translation, assume (the naive reader's) ignorance.

Translators may render only parts     of the original text, provided that they inform readers of that action. But a translator should not     assume the role of censor and surreptitiously delete or bowdlerize passages merely to please a political or moral interest.

Translating has served as a school of writing for many an author, much as the copying of masterworks of painting has schooled many a novice painter.A translator who can competently render an author's thoughts into the translator's own language, should certainly be able to adequately render, in his own language, any thoughts of his own. Translating (like analytic philosophy) compels precise analysis of language elements and of their usage. In 1946 the poet Ezra Pound, then at St. Elizabeth's Hospital, in Washington, D.C., advised a visitor, the 18-year-old beginning poet W.S. Merwin: "The work of translation is the best teacher you'll ever have. Merwin, translator-poet who took Pound's advice to heart, writes of translation as an "impossible, unfinishable" art.

 Translators, including monks who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia, and the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the very languages into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for     conveying knowledge between cultures; and along with ideas, they have imported from the source languages, into their own languages, loanwords and calques of grammatical structures, idioms, and vocabulary.

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