#lunar rock samples

[ianmiller42]

Lunar Discoveries

For those skeptical about Chinese technical prowess, we have just has a demonstration from their space program that suggests they are somewhat advanced. I refer to the Chang’e-6 retrieval of rack samples from the far side of the Moon. First, let’s see what is implied here. What they did first was to send a mission to the Moon, land a “rover” at a pre-selected site, then collected samples of rock…

[whats-in-a-sentence]

Apollo 15: Hadley Rille

On the Moon: David Scott, James Irwin

In lunar orbit: Alfred Worden

TIME SINCE LAUNCH 122:44:45

— Oh, look back there, Jim! Look at that. Oh, look at that! Isn't that something? We're up on a slope, Joe, and we're looking back down into the valley and . . . — That's beautiful. — That is spectacular! Get the antenna pointed here. — And it probably is fresh; probably . . . — Okay. — . . . not older than three and a half billion years. — Can you imagine that, Joe? Here sits this rock, and it's been here since before creatures roamed the sea in our little Earth. — Well said, Dave . . . — Hey, Jim? — Yeah. — . . . well said. — We ought to check the dust on the lens of these cameras.

145:41:48 — THE GENESIS ROCK

— Okay, there's a big boulder over there down-Sun of us, that I'm sure you can see, Joe, which is gray. And it has some very outstanding gray clasts and white clasts, and oh, boy, it's a beaut! We're going to get ahold of that one in a minute. — Okay, I have my pictures, Dave. — Okay, let's see. What do you think the best way to sample it would be? — I think probably . . . Could we break off a piece of the clod underneath it? Or I guess you could probably lift that top fragment right off. — Yeah. Let me try . . . Yeah. Sure can. And it's a . . . a white clast, and it's about . . . — Oh, man! — Oh, boy! — I got . . . — Look at that. — Look at the glint! — Aaah. — Almost see twinning in there! — Guess what we just found. — [laughter] — Guess what we just found! I think we found what we came for. — Crystalline rock, huh? — Yes, sir. You better believe it. — Yes, sir. — Look at the plage in there. — Yeah. — Almost all plage. — [garbled] — As a matter of fact [laughter] Oh boy! I think we might have ourselves something close to anorthosite, 'cause it's crystalline, and there's just a bunch . . . It's just almost all plage. What a beaut.

"The Moon: A History for the Future" - Oliver Morton

[spacenutspod]

*Hosted by Steve Dunkley and AI sidekick Hallie***" . **Main Stories:** - **Moon Rocks:** Where are they now? Stored at NASA's Lunar Sample Curation Laboratory at Johnson Space Center. Dr. Julian Gross, former Deputy Apollo Sample Curator, discusses the Lunar Curation Facility and the excitement for the Artemis mission's new lunar samples. - **Japan's Space Endeavors:** Japan's HIA Launch Vehicle is nearing retirement but not before launching the Slim lunar lander and the X-ray imaging and spectroscopy mission X-ray telescope. The ZRISM X-ray Observatory aims to study various cosmic phenomena, and the Slim Lander seeks to land successfully on the moon, carrying the SoraQ Mini Rover designed by Tomi, the creators of Transformers toys. - **Asteroids:** NASA's efforts in tracking asteroids. Dr. Amy Mainzer from NASA explains the challenges of finding asteroids and the importance of early detection for planetary defense. 2. **Short Takes:** - **SpaceX Crew 7:** Successful docking at the International Space Station, replacing Crew 6. - **Contrails:** An in-depth look at contrails, their formation, and their impact on the environment. Debunking the chemtrail conspiracy with insights from experts at MIT and Harvard. 3. **Personal Stories:** - Steve Dunkley shares a childhood memory of seeing a Moon Rock in Canberra, which ignited his passion for astronomy. 4. **Reminders:** - Register at bites.com and space nuts.com for the Astronomy Daily newsletter for daily top astronomy stories. - Check out back episodes of Astronomy Daily and the parent podcast with Andrew Dunkley at bitesz.com and space nuts.com. Join Steve Dunkley and Hallie next time for more exciting stories from the world of astronomy!

[mindblowingscience]

Volcanoes were still erupting on the moon when dinosaurs roamed Earth, new research suggests. The evidence: three tiny glass beads plucked from the surface of the moon and brought to Earth in 2020 by a Chinese spacecraft. Their chemical makeup indicates that there were active lunar volcanoes until about 120 million years ago, much more recent than scientists thought. An earlier analysis of the rock samples from the Chang'e 5 mission had suggested volcanoes petered out 2 billion years ago. Previous estimates stretched back to 4 billion years ago. The research was published Thursday in the journal Science.

Continue Reading.

[moon-of-the-day]

Moon of the Day

Earth’s moon!!!

I’m always too busy thinking about all of the other moons that I always forget about our own moon and how much it does for us, but it definitely deserves to be the first ever moon I talk about on the blog:)

Earth’s moon, sometimes nicknamed Luna is the fifth largest moon in the whole solar system. The main theory of how it was created is- When the Earth was young and there were still a lot more rocky planets that weren’t fully formed yet in our region of the solar system, one theoretical planet named Theia orbited very close to us. Eventually the Earth and Theia crashed into each other, but Theia was the smaller planet and didn’t make it. What it did do was launch a large piece of the Earth into space which then molded into a ball because of gravity and stayed in orbit around us becoming moon.

This theory is believed because, when humans landed of the moon in 1969, they brought back samples of Lunar rock. In the sample, they found that the composition was incredibly similar to the composition of earth rock. This led scientists to think that the moon must have originally been part of the Earth.

(Samples of Lunar rock)

Not only does the moon have a cool history, but it also helps us a lot!!! It stabilizes the tides and provides light during the night time, and a lot of animals rely on the moon for their internal clocks.

Something that just occurred to me is that some people might not know why the moon is bright when it’s dark outside for us, or how the moon phases work.

(Picture from space.com)

Basically, as the moon spins around the Earth, different amounts of surface area will be illuminated by the sun causing the moon phases.

Fun fact: The moon is tidally locked to the Earth, which means that we can only ever see one side of it.

Also, a (not so) fun fact: The moon is moving about 3.78cm away from us every year, so feel lucky that you get to see the moon as it is now, because in the future, people on Earth won’t have that privilege.

Overall, our moon is just really really cool, and I hope that you maybe learned something about the giant piece of rock in the sky:)

[apod]

2023 July 29

Apollo 11: Catching Some Sun Image Credit: Apollo 11, NASA (Image scanned by Kipp Teague)

Explanation: Bright sunlight glints as long dark shadows mark this image of the surface of the Moon. It was taken fifty-four years ago, July 20, 1969, by Apollo 11 astronaut Neil Armstrong, the first to walk on the lunar surface. Pictured is the mission's lunar module, the Eagle, and spacesuited lunar module pilot Buzz Aldrin. Aldrin is unfurling a long sheet of foil also known as the Solar Wind Composition Experiment. Exposed facing the Sun, the foil trapped particles streaming outward in the solar wind, catching a sample of material from the Sun itself. Along with moon rocks and lunar soil samples, the solar wind collector was returned for analysis in earthbound laboratories.

∞ Source: apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap230729.html

[mysticstronomy]

HOW DID THE MOON FORM??

Blog#392

Saturday, April 13th, 2024.

Welcome back,

There used to be a number of theories about how the Moon was made and it was one of the aims of the Apollo program to figure out how we got to have our Moon,' says Sara.

Prior to the Apollo mission research there were three theories about how the Moon formed. The evidence returned from these missions gave us today's most widely accepted theory.

Capture theory suggests that the Moon was a wandering body (like an asteroid) that formed elsewhere in the solar system and was captured by Earth's gravity as it passed nearby.

The accretion hypothesis proposes that the Moon was created along with Earth at its formation.

The fission theory suggests Earth had been spinning so fast that some material broke away and began to orbit the planet.

The giant-impact theory is most widely accepted today. This proposes that the Moon formed during a collision between the Earth and another small planet, about the size of the planet Mars. The debris from this impact collected in an orbit around Earth to form the Moon.

The Apollo missions brought back over a third of a tonne of rock and soil from the Moon. This provided some clues on how the Moon may have formed.

'When the Apollo rocks came back, they showed that the Earth and the Moon have some remarkable chemical and isotopic similarities, suggesting that they have a linked history,' says Sara.

'If the Moon had been created elsewhere and was captured by the Earth's gravity we would expect its composition to be very different from the Earth's.

'If the Moon was created at the same time, or broke off the Earth, then we would expect the type and proportion of minerals on the Moon to be the same as on Earth. But they are slightly different.'

The minerals on the Moon contain less water than similar terrestrial rocks. The Moon is rich in material that forms quickly at a high temperature.

'In the seventies and eighties there was a lot of debate which led to an almost universal acceptance of the giant impact model.'

Lunar meteorites are also an important source of data for studying the origins of the Moon.

'In some ways meteorites can tell us more about the Moon than Apollo samples because meteorites come from all over the surface of the Moon,' adds Sara, 'while Apollo samples come from just one place near the equator on the near side of the Moon.'

Before Earth and the Moon, there were proto-Earth and Theia (a roughly Mars-sized planet).

The giant-impact model suggests that at some point in Earth's very early history, these two bodies collided.

During this massive collision, nearly all of Earth and Theia melted and reformed as one body, with a small part of the new mass spinning off to become the Moon as we know it.

Scientists have experimented with modelling the impact, changing the size of Theia to test what happens at different sizes and impact angles, trying to get the nearest possible match.

'People are now tending to gravitate towards the idea that early Earth and Theia were made of almost exactly the same materials to begin with, as they were within the same neighbourhood as the solar system was forming,' explains Sara.

'If the two bodies had come from the same place and were made of similar stuff to begin with, this would also explain how similar their composition is.'

Originally published on https://www.nhm.ac.uk

COMING UP!!

(Wednesday, April 17th, 2024)

"IS TIME AN ILLUSION??"

[spacefrontier]

Apollo 15 Commander Dave Scott on the Lunar Roving Vehicle during EVA 2. August 1, 1971.

The 7 hour and 12 minute EVA saw Apollo 15 astronauts Dave Scott and Jim Irwin visit Mons Hadley Delta. The crew collected numerous surface samples along the way, including sample 15415, which was dubbed the Genesis Rock. It was originally assumed that the sample was part of the Moon's primordial crust, but later analysis showed that the rock was about 4.1 billion years old, younger than the Moon itself.

Close-up of sample 15415 in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory.

The crew also attempted to drill samples for the heat-flow experiment at the ALSEP site, however the drill kept getting stuck and refused to advance any further. It was later discovered that the drill design was flawed. The crew then conducted a soil mechanics experiment by digging a trench and using a penetrometer to measure the strength of the lunar regolith. Finally, the crew set up the US flag before re-entering the Lunar Module for another sleep cycle.

Commander Dave Scott on the slope of Mons Hadley Delta. Lunar Roving Vehicle in the background.

Project Apollo Archive NASA 2, 3

[livingforstars]

Apollo 16: Exploring Plum Crater - June 7th, 1996.

"Apollo 16 spent three days on Earth's Moon in April of 1972. The fifth lunar landing mission out of six, Apollo 16 was famous for deploying and using an ultraviolet telescope as the first lunar observatory, and for collecting rocks and data on the mysterious lunar highlands. In the above picture, astronaut John W. Young photographs Charles M. Duke, Jr. collecting rock samples at the Descartes landing site. Duke stands by Plum Crater while the Lunar Roving Vehicle waits parked in the background. The Lunar Roving Vehicle allowed the astronauts to travel great distances to investigate surface features and collect rocks. High above, Thomas K. Mattingly orbits in the Command Module."

[typhlonectes]

Flip it and reverse it: How the moon ‘turned itself inside out’

A study suggests that dense minerals (grey), left over from the Moon’s early history, are likely responsible for the satellite’s odd gravity.

Some 4.5 billion years ago, a small planet collided with Earth. This explosive impact, sometimes called the “big whack,” launched bits of molten debris into space. They eventually cooled and coalesced to form our Moon. This hypothesis is widely accepted among scientists, but many details remain fuzzy, including exactly how the lunar interior evolved, or why its current geology is so “lopsided.” Now, scientists may have put this long-standing mystery to rest. Using a combination of rock samples, satellite data, and computer simulations, researchers demonstrate how magma oceans on the surface of the young Moon crystallized into dense minerals like ilmenite. Because this layer was so heavy, huge slabs sank into the lunar interior, melted into the churning mantle, and eventually resurfaced as titanium-rich lava flows. “Our moon literally turned itself inside out,” planetary scientist and study co-author Jeff Andrews-Hanna said in a press release...

Read more: https://www.science.org/content/article/scienceadviser-vaccine-mrsa-flagging-bacterial-proteins-could-make-it-possible

[head-post]

China to launch mission to moon’s “hidden” side

China would launch a robotic spacecraft on a round trip to the back side of the moon in the coming days, Reuters reported.

The journey will be the first of three technically challenging missions paving the way for the first landing of a Chinese crew and the establishment of a base at the lunar south pole.

Since the first Chang’e mission in 2007, named after the mythical Chinese moon goddess, China has made great strides in lunar exploration, narrowing the technological gap with the United States and Russia.

In 2020, China brought back samples from the near side of the moon for the first time in over forty years. The mission verified that the country could safely return an unmanned spacecraft to Earth from the lunar surface.

China is expected to launch Chang’e-6 this week using the 2020 mission’s backup spacecraft and collect soil and rocks from the moon’s back side, which is permanently facing away from Earth.

With no direct line of sight to Earth, Chang’e-6 will rely on the recently launched relay satellite orbiting the moon. The same satellite will support the unmanned Chang’e-7 and 8 missions in 2026 and 2028 respectively, when China will begin exploring the south pole in search of water and building a rudimentary outpost with Russia.

China aims to send its astronauts to the moon by 2030.

Read more HERE

[lboogie1906]

George W. Reed Jr. (September 25, 1920 - August 31, 2015) like his fellow scientists, was not at liberty to discuss, with any detail, his involvement in the project.

Born in DC, he spent his entire career as a chemist specializing in a variety of fields within the discipline. He received a BS and MS in Chemistry from Howard University. He completed his Ph.D. at the University of Chicago after his work with the Manhattan Project.

His training as both a nuclear and geo-chemist played important parts in his career. During WWII he and several other Black chemists worked at the University of Chicago Metallurgical Laboratory. Metallurgy chemists were crucial members of the Manhattan Project, namely because the two primary fuels for the atomic bombs were the metals uranium and plutonium. He worked on obtaining enough fissionable uranium to produce and sustain a nuclear reaction. His post-Manhattan project research continued in this area. He examined distinct patterns in radiation produced from uranium and plutonium at various stages. His work in uranium radiation had an impact on the construction of the atomic bomb.

He held several positions and worked outside of nuclear chemistry, most notably with the Meteoritical Society. He was on the lunar sample planning team with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. He was allowed to analyze the sample of moon rock in a nuclear reactor; he concluded that the rock contained minerals not found on Earth.

He held positions in the chemistry division of the Argonne National Laboratory, first as an associate chemist and as a senior scientist beginning in 1968.

He married Selina Edwards and they had four children. #africanhistory365 #africanexcellence

[moonwatchuniverse]

55 years ago… 1969, June 25 Final lunar EVA training days for the Apollo 11 Moonwalkers with Edwin Buzz Aldrin in full spacesuit wearing a NASA-issued Omega Speedmaster chronograph on long black velcro strap on the righthand wrist. On launch day, Apollo 11 Lunar Module Pilot Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin wore his Speedmaster on the lefthand wrist (Armstrong and Collins on the righthand wrist). The Apollo 11 "Eagle" stayed 21.5 hours on the Moon and the Moonwalkers performed a 2 hours 31 minutes long lunar EVA collecting 21 kilograms of lunar rocks & samples. Amrstrong left his NASA n° 46 in the Lunar Lander as a backup time piece. During the Apollo 11 lunar EVA, Aldrin wore the NASA n° 43 Speedmaster on the righthand wrist, afterwards not noticed by Omega marketing who added an extra watch at his lefthand wrist in the black & white drawing. Anno 2024 only 4 of the 12 are still with us; Edwin Aldrin (A11), David Scott (A15), Charles Duke (A16) and Harrison Schmitt (A17). (Photos: NASA/Omega/MoonwatchUniverse)

[spacetimewithstuartgary]

ESA-DLR lunar analogue facility inaugurated 

LUNA, Europe’s new ‘Moon on Earth’, is set to play a pivotal role in shaping the future of lunar exploration. 

The inauguration of LUNA, the lunar analogue facility operated jointly by ESA and the German Aerospace Agency (Deutsche Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt, DLR), took place on 25 September in Cologne, Germany.

The facility, which is designed to recreate the lunar surface, is located next to ESA’s European Astronaut Centre and will be used to prepare astronauts, scientists, engineers and mission experts for living and working on the Moon. 

It will facilitate research, development and integrated testing of space technology under realistic conditions, providing valuable insights for upcoming lunar missions, such as NASA's Artemis programme, which will send astronauts to the Moon for the first time in over 50 years. 

ESA Director General Josef Aschbacher said, "The opening of LUNA marks a significant milestone in Europe’s space exploration efforts. This unique facility, with its ability to replicate lunar conditions, advances our understanding of the Moon and prepares us for future missions. We are proud to lead this project, which positions Europe at the forefront of lunar exploration and beyond, while also fostering international collaboration in space research.” 

Guests from the space sector and governmental officials attended the inauguration of Europe’s cutting-edge space research facility, including ESA Director General Josef Aschbacher, Chair of the DLR Executive Board Anke Kaysser-Pyzalla, the Minister President of North Rhine-Westphalia Hendrik Wüst, alongside Deputy Minister-President of North Rhine-Westphalia Mona Neubaur and the Federal Government Coordinator for German Aerospace Anna Christmann, as well as representatives of NASA. 

"LUNA will contribute to optimising our preparations for activities on the lunar surface through research into technologies and innovation for space exploration. This involves robotics as well as artificial intelligence, the utilisation of local resources and resource-conserving cycles all the way through to regenerative energy systems. LUNA provides a unique array of elements for scientific research and technological development under one roof. In its role as the ‘Moon on Earth’, LUNA will sustainably support activities on the Moon from Germany," says Anke Kaysser-Pyzalla, Chair of the DLR Executive Board.

"LUNA represents a major leap forward in our efforts to prepare for human exploration of the Moon and beyond. By replicating the lunar surface and providing vital insights into surface operations, this facility will help us address the challenges of future space missions. Partnering with DLR on this project highlights the power of international collaboration and our shared commitment to advancing space exploration together," commented ESA Director of Human and Robotic Exploration Daniel Neuenschwander.

  LUNA features a 700-square-metre area that replicates the Moon’s surface using 900 tonnes of basalt-derived volcanic grains and rocks, processed to create a material known as ‘regolith simulant’, providing a unique testing environment.

A deep floor area will allow for drilling and sampling up to three metres below the surface, enabling research on regolith including frozen lunar soil.

Meanwhile, a Sun simulator mimics the day and night cycles on the Moon, including the challenging lighting conditions found at lunar polar regions. 

Advanced control rooms are linked in real-time to mission control centres in Germany and worldwide. In the future, the analogue facility will also be connected to the Lunar Gateway, or even the Moon itself for seamless mission simulations.

Additional features will soon be implemented such as a gravity offloading system to simulate the Moon’s one-sixth of Earth gravity and an adjustable ramp for testing mobility on lunar slopes.

LUNA is designed as an open hub, available to space agencies, academia, researchers, space industry, start-ups and small and medium-sized enterprises from all over the world. 

[mindblowingscience]

China continues to take great strides as part of its goal to become a superpower in space and a direct competitor with NASA. In addition to its proposed expansion of the Tiangong space station and the creation of the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS), China is also planning on sending crewed missions to Mars in the coming decade. In preparation for the arrival of taikonauts on the Red Planet, China is gearing up to return samples of Martian soil and rock to Earth roughly two years ahead of the proposed NASA-ESA Mars Sample Return (MSR). This mission will be the third in the China National Space Administration's (CNSA) Tianwen program (Tianwen-3) and will consist of a pair of launches in 2028 that will return samples to Earth in July 2031.

Continue Reading.

[fivepercentgodsandearths]

Let's talk science. Here are my top 10 reasons why I reject the Nation of Islam's belief that the Moon was made 66 trillion years by an evil Black Scientist, who dug near the center of the Earth, filling it with dynamite and separating the Earth from the Moon.

1. Due the extreme temperature and pressure, it's virtually impossible to dig anywhere near the Earth's core. We barely had the technology to drill 7.5 miles below the Earth's surface before the drills overheated and broke. For the NOI Moon deportation belief to be true, without any empirical evidence, we would have to ASSUME that the technology existed.

2. Radiometric dating of the Earth, Moon, Mars, meteorites, in fact most of the material in Solar System, dates back to roughly 4.5 billion years ago. This is one reason scientists think our Solar System formed from the same collapsed cloud of gas and dust about 4.6 billion years ago. For the NOI Moon deportation belief to be true, without any empirical evidence, we would have to ASSUME the Solar System is far older ("trillions of years ") than the data show.

3. Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests the age of anatomically modern Homo sapiens is about 200,000 to 300,000 years old. For the NOI Moon deportation belief to be true, without any genetic or fossil evidence, we would have to ASSUME that humans have existed for trillions of years.

4. The object that impacted the Earth 66 million years ago, partly responsible for the extinction of the dinosaurs, released more kinetic energy than almost any other event in Earth's history. The Chicxulub meteor imoact released 100 Teratons of TNT. But it was not sufficient to overcome the gravitational binding energy between the Earth and the Moon.

In contrast, the energy released by the Mars-size bollide ("Theia") that separated Luna from Earth was equivalent to 8,000 Teratons. This means it was about 80 times more energetic. 1 Teraton is equal to the energy released when detonating 1 trillion tons of TNT. So, 8,000 Teratons would be the energy equivalent of 8,000 trillion tons of TNT. That's the weight of about 50,000 Mt. Everests.

For the NOI Moon deportation belief to be true, without any empirical evidence, we would have to ASSUME someone had the expertise, equipment, materials, manpower and facilities to transport and store this amount of TNT. Even then, it would take several decades (or longer) to produce.

5. Gunpowder is a mixture of potassium nitrate, charcoal and sulfur. Dynamite is primarily nitroglycerin and some sort of absorbent material (like clayshells, or sawdust). Moondust, on the other hand, is composed of silicon dioxide glass, plus iron, magnesium, calcium and other trace materials. No lunar rocks or soil samples taken from the Moon contained any trace of explosives, gunpowder, or any artificial, man-made substances whatsoever. For the NOI Moon deportation belief to be true, without any empirical evidence, we would have to ASSUME either a.) traces of gunpowder does exist in the Luna rock and soil, we just haven't detected it yet or b.) scientists have discovered but there is a global conspiracy to conceal it.

6. The impact craters from comets and asteroids bombarding the lunar surface have a frequency and distribution that's consistent with a 4.5 billion year model of the Solar System, not a 66 trillion one.

7. Tidal forces, from the gravitational interactions between Earth and Moon, are causing the Moon to recede from the Earth at a rate of roughly 1.5 inches per year. This is approximately the rate our fingernails grow.

Over the course of trillions of years, the gravitational forces would have weakened significantly as the distance between the Earth and the Moon increased far beyond what it currently is today. Eventually, this weakening of gravitational forces would have lead to a gradual reduction in the rate of tidal transfer of angular momentum. However, the geological records (preserved in ancient tidal rhythmites in sedimentary rocks formations) do not reflect trillions of years. We also put retroreflectors on the Moon during the Apollo missions, so we can use laser ranging to measure the distance from Earth to Moon with precision and the measurements are consistent with a theoretical model of the Moon being 4.5 billion years, not 66 trillion years.

8. Our Sun is a yellow dwarf. A G-type main-sequence star and is about 4.6 billion years old. It's age was measured by radiometric dating of meteorites, isotopic information, and from observing the life cycle of other stars in the Universe. Based on our understanding of stellar evolution, the Sun will exhaust its hydrogen fuel in about 5 billion years and become a red giant star.

If the Sun were "trillions" of years old, it would have already exhausted its hydrogen fuel, travelled through all of the stages of stellar evolution, from yellow dwarf to red giant to planetary nebula to white dwarf and, finally, a cold, dark object called a Black dwarf.

9. If the Earth were "trillions" of years old, then we would see evidence of that in the fossil record, archeology, geology, climate, ocean sediments, genetic, paleontology, etc. We don't. Everything we discover is consistent with a 4.5 billion year old planet.

10. Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation, the redshift of galaxies, the fact that the farther away a galaxy is from Earth, the faster it appears to be moving away (Hubble's Law), and many other forms of observational evidence (gravitational lensing, stellar evolution, nucleosynthesis) serve as signatures of the universe expanding from a small, hot dense state about 13.8 billion years ago. We would not expect to see, nor could we explain, these phenomena, if the universe was trillions of years old.

By Supreme Scientist Allah (facebook)