#hindva | Explore Tumblr posts and blogs

readexcerpts · 7 years ago

Photo

A History of the Sikhs - Volume 1: 1469-1839 (Khushwant Singh)

(KINDLE PART -1)

1. Following the Indian Army's intrusion in the Golden Temple Complex, Amritsar, resulting in heavy loss of life and damage to sacred property,

2. Frenzied killings of thousands of innocent Sikhs in revenge across northern India created a sense of distrust towards India's rulers, and support for the demand of a separate Sikh state.

3. It took almost ten years for the police and the Army to restore law and order and win back the confidence of the community.

4. The demand for Khalistan abated leaving only emigre groups in England, Canada, and the United States which continued to clamour for it.

5. It took a long and painful decade punctuated by killings and combat-killings

6. It took a long and painful decade punctuated by killings and combat-killings, for Punjabis to realize that Khalistan was not the answer and it was essential for the two communities, Sikhs and Hindus, to live in harmony as they had done in the past centuries, to make Punjab the most prosperous state of India once again.

7. movement emphasizing what was common

8. It took a long and painful decade punctuated by killings and combat-killings, for Punjabis to realize that Khalistan was not the answer and it was essential for the two communities, Sikhs and Hindus, to live in harmony as they had done in the past centuries, to make Punjab the most prosperous state of India once again.

9. It took a long and painful decade punctuated by killings and combat-killings, for Punjabis to realize that Khalistan was not the answer and it was essential for the two communities, Sikhs and Hindus, to live in harmony as they had done in the past centuries, to make Punjab the most prosperous state of India once again.

10. This work is the first attempt to tell the story of the Sikhs from their inception to the present day.

11. It begins in the latter part of the 15th century with Guru Nanak initiating a religious movement emphasizing what was common between Hinduism and Islam and preaching the unity of these two faiths practised in the Punjab.

12. Its mysticism found expression in the anthology of their sac red writings, the Adi Granth, comprised of the writings of the Sikh gurus as well as of Hindu and Muslim saints.

13. Within a few years after the death of Gobind Singh, the peasants made the first attempt to liberate the Punjab from Mughal rule.

14. Under the leadership of Banda they defied the authority of Mughal governors and kept the imperial armies at bay for a full seven years. Although Banda and his followers were ruthlessly slaughtered, the spark of rebellion that they had lighted smouldered beneath the ashes and burst into flame again and again in different parts of the province.

15. The period which followed witnessed a renewal of invasions of northern India by Afghan hordes led by Ahmed Shah Abdali, which gave a further impetus to the growth of Punjabi nationalism. Peasants grouped themselves in bands (misls), harassed and ultimately expelled the invaders.

16. In the victory parade in Kabul in 1839 (a few months after Ranjit Singh's death) the man who bore the Sikh colours was Colonel Bassawan, a Punjabi Mussalman. And the man who carried the Sikh flag across the Himalayas a year later was General Zorawar Singh, a Dogra Hindu.

17. The Sikhs became the spearhead of the nationalist movement which had gathered the parent communities within its fold. The achievements were those of all Punjabis alike, Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. It was in the fitness of things that in the crowning successes of Punjabi arms, the men who represented the state were drawn from all communities. In the victory parade in Kabul in 1839 (a few months after Ranjit Singh's death) the man who bore the Sikh colours was Colonel Bassawan, a Punjabi Mussalman. And the man who carried the Sikh flag across the Himalayas a year later

18. Sikhs became the spearhead of the nationalist movement which had gathered the parent communities within its fold. The achievements were those of all Punjabis alike, Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. It was in the fitness of things that in the crowning successes of Punjabi arms, the men who represented the state were drawn from all communities. In the victory parade in Kabul in 1839 (a few months after Ranjit Singh's death) the man who bore the Sikh colours was Colonel Bassawan, a Punjabi Mussalman. And the man who carried the Sikh flag across the Himalayas a year later was General Zorawar Singh, a Dogra Hindu.

19. The movement achieved its consummation with the liberation of Lahore and the setting up of the first independent Kingdom of the Punjab under Ranjit Singh in AD 1799—by a curious coincidence exactly one hundred years after Gum Gobind Singh's call to arms (1699), just a little under two hundred years after the compilation of the Adi Granth (1604), and three hundred years after the proclamation of his mission by Guru Nanak (1499). Under Ranjit Singh, the Punjabis were able not only to turn the tide of invasion back into the homelands of the traditional conquerors of northern India, the Pathans and the Afghans, but also to make their power felt beyond the frontiers—northwards Preface across the Himalayas; across the Khyber into Afghanistan; in Baluchistan, Sindh, and in northern India as far as Oudh.

20. The movement achieved its consummation with the liberation of Lahore and the setting up of the first independent Kingdom of the Punjab under Ranjit Singh in AD 1799—by a curious coincidence exactly one hundred years after Gum Gobind Singh's call to arms (1699), just a little under two hundred years after the compilation of the Adi Granth (1604), and three hundred years after the proclamation of his mission by Guru Nanak (1499). Under Ranjit Singh, the Punjabis were able not only to turn the tide of invasion back into the homelands of the traditional conquerors of northern India, the Pathans and the Afghans, but also to make their power felt beyond the frontiers—northwards Preface across the Himalayas; across the Khyber into Afghanistan; in Baluchistan, Sindh, and in northern India as far as Oudh.

21. The Sikhs became the spearhead of the nationalist movement which had gathered the parent communities within its fold. The achievements were those of all Punjabis alike, Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. It was in the fitness of things that in the crowning successes of Punjabi arms, the men who represented the state were drawn from all communities. In the victory parade in Kabul in 1839 (a few months after Ranjit Singh's death) the man who bore the Sikh colours was Colonel Bassawan, a Punjabi Mussalman. And the man who carried the Sikh flag across the Himalayas a year later was General Zorawar Singh, a Dogra Hindu.

22. The rest of the next volume will continue the narrative and describe how the nationalist movement, having run its course, began to peter out and finally collapsed in a clash of arms with the British in 1848-9.

23. the demand for an autonomous Punjabi state within the Indian union.

24. 3. Building of the Sikh Church 46 4. The Call to Arms 60 5.

25. From the Pacifist Sikh to the Militant Khalsa

26. Malwa for the Punjabi-speaking zone between the Sutlej and the Jumna. The people are known as Malwais.

27. Doab for the Bari Doab or Jullundur Doab. The inhabitants are known as Doabias.

28. Majha or the middle, for the Bari Doab The people living in Majha are known as

29. Majha or the middle, for the Bari Doab The people living in Majha are known as Majhails. (Also spoken of as Manjha and Manjhail.)

30. Malwa is sometimes referred to as Sirhind.

31. The Name: Punjab When the Aryans came to India there were seven rivers in the Punjab, so they named it Sapta Sindhva, the land of the seven seas. The Persians took the name from the Aryans and called it the Hafta Hindva. Sometime later, after the seventh river, the Sarasvati, had dried up, people began to exclude the Indus from the count (since it marked only the western boundary' of the province) and renamed it after the remaining five rivers as Pentopotamia or the panj-ab, the land of the five waters.

32. Climate and Landscape The climate of the Punjab ranges from bracing cold in the winter to scorching heat in the summer. Extremes of temperature and the two monsoons produce a variety of seasons and

33. Climate and Landscape The climate of the Punjab ranges from bracing cold in the winter to scorching heat in the summer. Extremes of temperature and the two monsoons produce a variety of seasons

34. The Chinese traveller Hsiian Tsang, who visited the Punjab in the 7th century AD, refers to it as the sukhabhutni, the land of contentment.

35. Hariana, comprising Hissar, Rohtak, and the southern parts of the old states of Jind and Patiala. This tract of desert was at one time irrigated by the Sarasvati and was very green; hence hariana, the green land.

36. 2 Two other names by which parts of the Punjab were known in ancient times were: a. Madra Desha, the land of the madras. So named after Madri, the mother of the Pandavas. Madra Desha extended from the Beas to the Chenab or the Jhelum. Its capital was at Sakala, probably present-day Sangla. In the Bicitra Natak, Guru Gobind Singh also speaks of the Punjab as the Madra Desha. (J. Dowson, Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, p. 183.) b. Uttarapath, or the northern country. This name appears in Buddhist literature.

37. spring has given way to summer.

38. Trees shed their leaves and after a short period of barrenness come into blossom.

39. The wheat is cut and winnowed in the warm breeze.

40. Nam Dev (1270-1350) Nam Dev was a tailor of Maharashtra who earned a great reputation as poet and saint. There are 60 hymns of Nam Dev in the Adi Granth, but they do not correspond to his hymns in the Marathi language. malai na Iachai parmalo Pure and splendrous He came As a waft of fragrance. No one saw Him come, No one saw Him go. How can one describe Him, How claim to know the nature Of Him who has no lineage? The flight of birds in the sky, The way of fish in the water, Leave no trace for the eye. The heat from the heavens creates a mirage— A vision of water for the thirsty deer. These are all illusions As is knowledge of the Lord of Namdev.

41. Climate and Landscape The climate of the Punjab ranges from bracing cold in the winter to scorching heat in the summer. Extremes of temperature and the two monsoons produce a variety of seasons

42. 2 Two other names by which parts of the Punjab were known in ancient times were: a. Madra Desha, the land of the madras. So named after Madri, the mother of the Pandavas. Madra Desha extended from the Beas to the Chenab or the Jhelum. Its capital was at Sakala, probably present-day Sangla. In the Bicitra Natak, Guru Gobind Singh also speaks of the Punjab as the Madra Desha. (J. Dowson, Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, p. 183.) b. Uttarapath, or the northern country. This name appears in Buddhist literature.

43. The blazing inferno lasts from the end of April to the end of June. Then come the rains.

44. There are flashes of lightning and the earth shakes with the rumble of thunder.

45. The first big drops of rain are swallowed by the dust and a heavenly fragrance rises from the earth.

46. Thereafter the skies are frequently overcast; clouds and sunshine contend for dominion; rainbows span the rain-washed landscape; and the setting sun fires the bulbous clouds in hues of red and purple.

47. �� Two months of incessant downpour turn the land into a vast swamp. Rivers fill up and become a mass of swirling, muddy waters.

48. Punjabis, who have to live through many months of intense heat every year, love the monsoon. It is the time for lovers' trysts and the reunion of families. Guru Nanak went into raptures over it: 'The season of the rains has come

49. Punjabis, who have to live through many months of intense heat every year, love the monsoon. It is the time for lovers' trysts and the reunion of families. Guru Nanak went into raptures over it: 'The season of the rains has come and my heart is full of joy... river and land

50. If the summer monsoon has been good—neither too sparse to create a drought nor too heavy to cause floods—all is well.

51. dance the bharigra to the beat of the drum.

52. frosty, the days full of blue skies and sparkling sunshine.

53. By the time the monsoon is over, it is cool again.

54. Once more it is wintertime. The starlit nights are cold and frosty, the days full of blue skies and sparkling sunshine.

55. From October to the festival of the lamps (Divali) in November there is a succession of fairs and festivals.

56. innumerable mud and brick villages

57. Until the 15th century the Punjab had only two important cities, Lahore, which was the seat of most governments, and Multan in the south, which had a busy market dealing with commerce The Sikh Homeland 9 coming up the rivers from Sindh and caravans from Baluchistan and Persia.

58. Up to the 16th century there were jungles in the north where rhinoceros 7 (and probably elephants) were found.

59. The flora and fauna survived the incursions of foreign armies but succumbed to the indiscriminate felling of trees and slaughter of game in the 19th and the presen* century.

60. The desert with its camels and goats—the only animals which can thrive on cacti and thorny scrub—are a phenomenon of recent times.

61. Indologists are not agreed on the age of Indian civilization except that it is among the oldest in the world and that its cradle was in the Punjab. 7 In the Babar Ndma the Mughal conqueror

62. Indologists are not agreed on the age of Indian civilization except that it is among the oldest in the world and that its cradle was in the Punjab.

63. In the Babar Ndma the Mughal conqueror Babar who invaded India in AD 1526 writes of hunting rhinoceros in the Punjab.

64. in travelling. How then can a rider?' (J. N. Sarkar,

65. Agricultural implements made of copper and bronze have been found in mounds on both sides of the river Indus which prove the existence of fairly organized rural communities between 25,000 to 20,000 BC. Nothing more is known about these communities, nor would it be right to describe them as civilizations. We are, however, on surer ground when we come to the archaeological remains of Mohenjodaro in Sindh and Harappa in southern Punjab, both of which were unearthed in the 1920s. From the sculpture, pottery, jewellery, fabrics, and other relics (particularly seals bearing extremely beautiful figures of bulls, rhinoceros, and other animals) found among the ruins of baked-brick buildings in these cities (and subsequently in many other places) it can be presumed that the people of the Indus Valley had attained a high degree of civilization. They lived in multi-storeyed houses with marble baths; their craftsmen made goods which were sold as far away as Mesopotamia; and they had evolved some form of religion around the worship of a mother goddess and her male consort. Neither the hieroglyphics nor the relics found in these cities have yet revealed all their secrets; archaeologists and historians are still disputing the identity of the people who made them. The generally accepted view is that these cities flourished between 2500 BC and 1500 BC and that they were destroyed by a people known as the Aryans who began to infiltrate into Sindh and the Punjab about fifteen centuries before the birth of Christ.

66. The Aryans, who were tall and fair, drove out the darker-skinned inhabitants and occupied most of northern Hindustan.

67. The Aryans were followed by other races. The Persians under Darius (521-485 BC) conquered northern Punjab, and for a hundred years his successors ruled over Peshawar, Taxila, and Rawalpindi. In 326 BC Greek armies under Alexander the Great crossed the Indus and swept on as far as the Beas. Although the Greeks left behind by Alexander were deprived of power by the Indian Mauryas a few years after his death, they left a permanent impress on the face of the Punjab.

68. Maurya power was extinguished by Bactrian invaders. Menander is believed to have gone across central Punjab and beyond the Beas.

69. The Bactrians were followed by many Scythian tribes. When the dust raised by the invading armies had settled, the Indian Guptas spread their benevolent rule over the country.

70. In AD 1001 came Mahmud of Ghazni. Thereafter the Afghans came like the waves of an incoming tide, each column advancing further inland into Hindustan. The Ghaznis were followed by other Afghan tribes: the Ghoris, Tughlaks, Surs, and Lodhis.

71. A hundred years later Babar, who was one of Taimur's descendants, started dreaming of an empire in India.

72. The ethnic pattern of the Punjab has changed with every new conquest.

73. united in their fierce loyalty to the Islamic faith. On

74. united in their fierce loyalty to the Islamic faith.

75. running along the foothills of the Himalayas

76. Since it blossoms most times of the year it is known in Punjabi as sada suhagan (ever-in-marital-bliss).

77. forced to do the dirtiest work and then condemned as untouchables.

78. The Punjab, being the main gateway into India, was fated to be the perpetual field of battle

79. The Punjab, being the main gateway into India, was fated to be the perpetual field of battle and the first home of all the conquerors.

80. Few invaders, if any, brought wives with them, and most of those who settled in their conquered domains acquired local women. Thus the blood of many conquering races came to mingle, and many alien languages—Arabic, Persian, Pushto,

81. Few invaders, if any, brought wives with them, and most of those who settled in their conquered domains acquired local women. Thus the blood of many conquering races came to mingle, and many alien languages—Arabic, Persian, Pushto, and Turkish—came to be spoken in the land.

82. Although the Punjabis were sharply divided into Muslims and Hindus, attempts had been made to bring about a rapprochement between the two faiths and a certain desire to live and let live had grown among the people.

83. a people who were deeply rooted in the soil.

84. It is significant that the spirit of Punjabi nationalism first manifested itself in Majha, the heart of the Punjab,

85. According to the Hindu caste system, the Jats, being Vaisyas (workers), are of lower caste status than the Brahmin and Kshatriya.

86. In present-day speech, the Sikh Jat is called jat (to rhyme with gut) while the Hindu, particularly of Hariana (Gurgaon, Hissar, Rohtak) and Bharatpur remains a jat (to rhyme with the British pronunciation of 'start').

87. they were of their superiority over men of other castes who earned their livelihood as weavers, potters, cobblers, or scavengers.

88. On the contrary, he assumed a somewhat condescending attitude towards the Brahmin, whom he considered

89. The Punjabi Jat developed an attitude of indifference to worldly possessions and an instinct for gambling with his life against odds.

90. Every new religious movement is born out of and shaped by existing faiths, and like offspring bears likeness to them. Sikhism

91. Every new religious movement is born out of and shaped by existing faiths, and like offspring bears likeness to them.

92. Sikhism was born out of a wedlock between Hinduism and Islam after they had known each other for a period of nearly nine hundred years. But once it had taken birth, it began to develop a personality of its own and in due course grew into a faith which had some semblance to Hinduism, some to Islam, and yet had features which bore no resemblance to either.

93. which frequently symbolized the things they dreaded.

94. It appears that when the Aryans came, the inhabitants of northern India had no defined religion of their own. They worshipped a variety of gods and goddesses (like the female and male deities of Mohenjodaro) which frequently symbolized the things they dreaded. They offered sacrifices to images of reptiles and animals, and propitiated epidemics like smallpox and plague.

95. The Aryans were worshippers of the beautiful in nature. They chanted hymns to the sky and to the rising sun, to thunder and lightning, and they raised goblets of soma juice to the full moon.

96. It appears that when the Aryans came, the inhabitants of northern India had no defined religion of their own. They worshipped a variety of gods and goddesses (like the female and male deities of Mohenjodaro) which frequently symbolized the things they dreaded. They offered sacrifices to images of reptiles and animals, and propitiated epidemics like smallpox and plague.

97. India was the birth of the caste system. The tall, blonde,

98. On top naturally were the creators of this social system, the Brahmins. They reserved for themselves the exclusive monopoly of priesthood: the reading of the sacred texts and the imparting of knowledge. After them in descending order were Kshatriyas, or warriors, who had to defend the country; Vaishyas, or tradesmen, and Shudras, who were the workers. The pure aboriginal had no social privileges. He was pushed out in the wilderness or utilized to do the most unpleasant jobs. To prevent his coming in by the back door, he was made an outcast whose very touch could pollute. The caste system has been rightly described as Brahmanical Hinduism, for it was the Brahmins who moulded this pattern of social order to suit their own ends.

99. The hymns of the Vedas gave spiritual sustenance, the Upanishads the philosophical justification, and the epics the ethical code of behaviour to the Hindu masses. These texts gave Hinduism the strength to face the challenge of other religions, such as Jainism, Buddhism, and Islam.

100. It was obvious that a religion which was a confusion of gods and which degraded a large section of the people by treating them as sub-human would not go unchallenged for long. The first to revolt against Brahmanical Hinduism were Mahavira (5th cent. BC) and Gautama the Buddha (567-487 BC).

101. oases. When the winds turned eastwards they unfolded

102. The only difference was that whereas the The Punjab and the Birth of Sikhism monsoon birds flew back to Africa after a sojourn of a few months, not all Arab traders returned to their homes in the desert. Many married

103. The only difference was that whereas the The Punjab and the Birth of Sikhism monsoon birds flew back to Africa after a sojourn of a few months, not all Arab traders returned to their homes in the desert. Many married Indian women and settled down in India.

104. spread the gospel of Islam to every shore. The merchant seamen who had brought

105. spread the gospel of Islam to every shore.

106. The merchant seamen who had brought dates and frankincense year after year now brought a new faith with them. From the year AD 636 onwards, scattered settlements of Arab Muslims sprang up in western India, particularly in Malabar. The new faith was well received by the people of south India. Muslims were allowed to build mosques, those who were single found wives, and very soon an Indo-Arabian community came into being.'

107. There was a lull after Qasim's invasion.

108. There was a lull after Qasim's invasion.

109. The main points of the teaching of the Bhaktas were that God was one, and though He was indescribable He was the only reality; the rest was maya (illusion).

110. The best way to serve God was by absolute submission to His will. The way to approach Him was through meditation and through the chanting of mantras and the singing of hymns. This could best be achieved under the guidance of a spiritual mentor, a guru. 3

111. The best way to serve God was by absolute submission to His will. The way to approach Him was through meditation and through the chanting of mantras and the singing of hymns. This could best be achieved under the guidance of a spiritual mentor, a guru.

112. Hymns of Ramananda's disciples Dhanna. Pipa, Sain, and Ravi Das are found in the Adi Granth.

113. Rama and Allah.' He said: The Hindu resorts to the temple and the Mussalman to the mosque, but Kabir goes to the place where both are known— Kabir has taken the higher path abandoning the custom of the two. If you say that I am a Hindu then it is not true, nor am I a Mussalman. 1 am a body made of five elements where the Unknown plays. Mecca has verily become Kasi, and Rama has become Rahim.'

114. Kabir, though born a Muslim, found no difficulty in worshipping as a Hindu. He believed that there could be only one God and he refused to bow before idols. 'If God is a stone, I will worship a mountain,' he said. He did not believe that Mohammed was the only guide in spiritual matters, but like other Bhaktas he believed in the necessity of every person attaching himself to a gum. He believed in the singing of hymns of praise. He accepted the Hindu theor\ r of rebirth after death in preference to the Islamic one of a purgatory and paradise. Being a Muslim, he did not mince his words in condemning the Hindu caste system which made him an outcast.

115. The caste system was not divinely ordained, for all human beings were born equal.

116. there was only one God. He was the only reality; the rest was illusion. God could not be represented in the form of an idol, for He was indefinable and all-pervasive. The best way to approach God was by resigning oneself to His will. The easiest way to find God's will was by becoming a disciple and seeking the guidance of a guru, as well as by meditation and singing hymns of love and praise (kirtan).

117. The caste system was not divinely ordained, for all human beings were born equal.

118. Spiritual life did not demand an ascetic denial of food, company, and sex, for a citizen discharging his obligations to his family and society had as good a chance of attaining salvation as a hermit or a monk.

119. Unfortunately, not many of the Bhaktas practised what they preached.

120. The Hindus were defeated and many of their temples were razed to the ground.

121. The Sufis, like the Hindu Bhaktas, came to believe that singing and dancing were also a means of inducing a state of divine exaltation where thoughts of self were destroyed (Jana), the restless wandering of the mind was stilled, and one surrendered oneself in absolute entirety to God.

122. Whereas the Muslim conquerors had tried to destroy non-believers and their places of worship, the Sufis welcomed them into their homes and embraced them as brothers. One of the cardinal principles of their belief was taUf-i-kulub —the stringing together of hearts. Hindus, who had been terrorized by the Mussalman soldiery, now found a body of Muslims wanting to befriend them.

123. Most of the proselytes were from the lower classes who had been denied equal rights by the upper-caste Hindus.

124. Most of the proselytes were from the lower classes who had been denied equal rights by the upper-caste Hindus.

125. Most of the proselytes were from the lower classes who had been denied equal rights by the upper-caste Hindus.

126. The Sufis did not need to do very much more to win over large numbers of converts. Most of the proselytes were from the lower classes who had been denied equal rights by the upper-caste Hindus.

127. In the treatment of the lower orders the Sufis scored over the Bhaktas because they gave what they promised. Hindu untouchables accepting Islam no longer remained pariahs.

128. By the beginning of the 15th century there were over a dozen orders of Sufis in northern India. Of these, four, the Chishti, Qadiri, Suhrawardi, and presently the Naqshbandi, were the most important.

129. By the beginning of the 15th century there were over a dozen orders of Sufis in northern India. Of these, four, the Chishti, Qadiri, Suhrawardi, and presently the Naqshbandi, were the most important.

130. Not many could afford to travel to Mecca and yet they wanted to go on pilgrimage.

131. All they needed was someone who could bridge the gap between the temple and the mosque.

132. Thereafter there was constant strife between the king and his provincial satraps, and lawless elements began to raise their heads in defiance. The ruling class, which was largely

133. The Sikh ruling family gave generously for the upkeep of many Sufi tombs. Ranjit Singh paid homage every year at the tomb of Madho Lal-Hussain, which was rebuilt by Ranjit's Muslim wife, Bibi Mohran.

134. Mian Mir, the famous divine of Lahore who became a personal friend of the fifth guru, Arjun, and laid the foundation stone of the Harimandir at Amritsar, was a member of the Qadiriya order.

135. Thus the work done by the Sufis who had preached tolerance towards Hinduism and of the Hindu Bhaktas who had advocated a sympathetic understanding of Islam was undone.

136. For the Muslim, the most meritorious act became the conversion or destruction of infidels.

137. Hindus reverted to the worship of idols, to washing away their sins in holy rivers, to the wearing of caste marks and 'sacred' threads,

138. For the rest, he simply had to be circumcised, refrain from eating flesh forbidden by the Koran, and fast during the month of Ramadan, to pass off for a good Mussalman.

139. Hindus reverted to the worship of idols, to washing away their sins in holy rivers, to the wearing of caste marks and 'sacred' threads, as well as to fads like vegetarianism and cooking food in precisely demarcated squares. 9 The caste system came back into its own.

140. The reigning dynasty at the time were the Lodhis, who according to Nanak had * squandered away the priceless heritage' that was Hindustan and allowed it to be ravaged by Babar's Mughal

141. To Nanak the Kanphatas represented Hinduism in its most decadent form.

142. The tumult of hate and falsehood had made the songs of love of the Sufis and the Bhaktas almost inaudible.

143. Guru Nanak Nanak was born on 15 April 1469. 10 His father, Mehta Kalian Das Bedi, was an accountant in the village Talwandi Rai Bhoe, now named Nankana Sahib, about forty miles from Lahore. It is likely that Nanak, like his elder sister, Nanaki, was born in the home of his mother, Tripta, and like her, named after his maternal home, Nanake.

144. Nanak was a precocious child; at the age of five he started asking questions about the purpose of life. At seven he was sent to a pandit to learn the alphabet and numerals, and two years later to a Muslim mullah to learn Persian and Arabic. He took little interest in his studies and began to spend his time discoursing with holy men or in solitude, 'without confiding the secrets of his heart in any one'.

145. The guru's birthday is celebrated on the full moon night of the month of November. This is based on the janamsakhi (biography) by Bala Sandhu, which is considered by most scholars to be spurious. But for the sake of continuity of a tradition, no change has been made in the date of the celebration. There is no doubt that the correct date is 15 April 1469. The more reliable janamsakhis agree that 'in Sambat 1526 in the month of Baisakh on the third day of the first quarter of the moon, in the early hours of the dawn, three hours before sunrise, was born Baba Nanak.' This is confirmed by the Mahima Prakas and all other accounts, which are agreed on the exact span of his life and the date of his death—which, worked backwards, fixes the date of his birth as 15 April 1469.

146. At the age of twelve he was married to Sulakhni, the daughter of Mool Chand Chona of Batala. Even the marriage did not turn his mind towards mundane matters. 'He began to do worldly tasks, but his heart was never in them; he took no interest in his home. His family complained: 'These days he wanders out with the fakirs/"

147. Nanak was nineteen when his wife came to live with him. For some time she succeeded in turning his attention to herself and two sons were born to them, Sri Chand in AD 1494 and Lakhmi Das three years later. They also probably had a daughter or daughters who died in infancy. Then Nanak's mind went back to spiritual problems and he again sought the company of wandering hermits for guidance.

148. Nanak was nineteen when his wife came to live with him. For some time she succeeded in turning his attention to herself and two sons were born to them, Sri Chand in AD 1494 and Lakhmi Das three years later. They also probably had a daughter or daughters who died in infancy. Then Nanak's mind went back to spiritual problems and he again sought the company of wandering hermits for guidance.

149. His father tried his best to get him to tend his cattle or to set up as a tradesman, but it was of no avail.

150. His sister brought him over to her home in Sultanpur, and through her husband's influence got him a job as an accountant with the Nawab Daulat Khan Lodhi, a distant kinsman of the reigning sultan of Delhi.

151. Although Nanak took over the post with some reluctance, he discharged his duties diligently and won the affection of his employer.

152. During one of these early morning ablutions by the river, Nanak had his first mystic experience. The janamsakhi describes it as communion with God, who gave him a cup of amrit (nectar) to drink and charged him with the mission in the following words:

153. During one of these early morning ablutions by the river, Nanak had his first mystic experience. The janamsakhi describes it as communion with God, who gave him a cup of amrit (nectar) to drink and charged him with the mission in the following words: 'Nanak, 1 am with thee.

154. During one of these early morning ablutions by the river, Nanak had his first mystic experience. The janamsakhi describes it as communion with God, who gave him a cup of amrit (nectar) to drink and charged him with the mission in the following words: 'Nanak, 1 am with thee.

155. doing his work.' 13 During one of these early morning ablutions by the river, Nanak had his first mystic experience. The janamsakhi describes it as communion with God, who gave him a cup of amrit (nectar) to drink and charged him with the mission in the following words:

156. During one of these early morning ablutions by the river, Nanak had his first mystic experience. The janamsakhi describes it as communion with God, who gave him a cup of amrit (nectar) to drink and charged him with the mission in the following words: 'Nanak, 1 am with thee. Through thee will my name be magnified. Whosoever follows thee, him will I save. Go into the world to pray and teach mankind how to pray. Be not sullied by

157. During one of these early morning ablutions by the river, Nanak had his first mystic experience. The janamsakhi describes it as communion with God, who gave him a cup of amrit (nectar) to drink and charged him with the mission in the following words: 'Nanak, 1 am with thee. Through thee will my name be magnified. Whosoever follows thee, him will I save. Go into the world to pray and teach mankind how to pray.

158. There is One God. He is the supreme truth. He, the Creator,

159. Nanak's voice rose in praise of his Maker: There is One God. He is the supreme truth. He, the Creator, Is without fear and without hate. He, the Omnipresent, Peivades the universe. He is not bom, Nor does He die to be born again. By His grace shalt thou worship Him. Before time itself There was truth. When time began to run its course He was the truth. Even now, He is the truth And evermore shall truth prevail. {Japfi) The Mysterious

160. Nanak's voice rose in praise of his Maker: There is One God. He is the supreme truth. He, the Creator, Is without fear and without hate. He, the Omnipresent, Peivades the universe. He is not bom, Nor does He die to be born again. By His grace shalt thou worship Him. Before time itself There was truth. When time began to run its course He was the truth. Even now, He is the truth And evermore

161. Nanak's voice rose in praise of his Maker: There is One God. He is the supreme truth. He, the Creator, Is without fear and without hate. He, the Omnipresent, Peivades the universe. He is not bom, Nor does He die to be born again. By His grace shalt thou worship Him. Before time itself There was truth. When time began to run its course He was the truth. Even now, He is the truth And evermore shall truth prevail. {Japfi)

162. The Mysterious Voice spoke again: 'Nanak, he whom you bless will be blessed by Me; he to whom you are benevolent shall receive My benevolence. I am the Great God, the Supreme Creator. Thou art the Guru, the Supreme Guru of God.'

163. He was missing for three days and nights and it was assumed that he had drowned. He reappeared on the fourth day. The janamsakhi reports his dramatic return:

164. loin cloth left on him and kept nothing besides. Crowds began to collect. The Khan also came and asked, "Nanak, what happened to you?" Nanak

165. loin cloth left on him and kept nothing besides. Crowds began to collect. The Khan also came and asked, "Nanak, what happened to you?" Nanak

166. 'Nanak went and joined the fakirs. With him went the musician Mardana. One day passed. The next day he got up and spoke. "There is no Hindu, there is no Mussalman/' Whenever he spoke, this is all he would say: "There is no Hindu, there is no Mussalman."'

167. There is some uncertainty about the exact itinerary of Nanak's travels in the years following/

168. All sources are, however, agreed that he did travel extensively to different parts of India and abroad as far west as Baghdad. Wherever he gained adherents he set up a centre of worship. In all probability the first extensive tour was to the east, when he went through Hindu places of pilgrimage like Mathura, Benares, Gaya, and on to Bengal and Assam/ 8 On the way back he stopped at Jagganath Puri. He spent some years travelling in the Punjab,

169. way back he stopped at Jagganath Puri. He spent some years travelling in the Punjab, paying more than one visit to the Sufi establishment at Pak Pattan. His next tour was southwards through Tamilnad down to Ceylon. He is said to have come back along the western coast through Malabar, Konkan, Bombay, and Rajasthan/ 9 The third tour

170. He spent some years travelling in the Punjab, paying more than one visit to the Sufi establishment at Pak Pattan. His next tour was southwards through Tamilnad down to Ceylon. He is said to have come back along the western coast through Malabar, Konkan, Bombay, and Rajasthan/ 9 The third tour was in the Himalayan regions as far as Ladakh.

171. All sources are, however, agreed that he did travel extensively to different parts of India and abroad as far west as Baghdad. Wherever he gained adherents he set up a centre of worship. In all probability the first extensive tour was to the east, when he went through Hindu places of pilgrimage like Mathura, Benares, Gaya, and on to Bengal and Assam/ 8 On the way back he stopped at Jagganath Puri.

172. The janamsakhis and the evidence of tablets found in Baghdad are at variance on the subject.

173. The Guru's last long journey was his pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina. He went farther westwards to Baghdad, where he spent some time with the local fakirs.

174. 20 On his way back home he passed through Saidpur when the town was sacked by Babar. 21 He went around preaching in different towns of the Punjab, and then settled down with his family in a new township that he had built earlier on the banks of the Ravi and named Kartarpur (the abode of the Creator).

175. 'Art thou a Hindu or a Mussalman?' On two of his long journeys, he took the Muslim Mardana as his companion.

176. This is fairly conclusive evidence that he had little or no contact with Buddhism in practice. There is also absolutely no mention of Christ or Christianity in any of Nanak's hymns or in the janamsakhis. It is hardly likely that this would have happened if Nanak had visited Malabar, where there was a thriving Christian community at the time. It must, however, be admitted that there are some aspects of Sikhism which bear close resemblance to Christianity, for example, the doctrine of Grace (pars'dd). Rev. C. H. Loehlin has pointed out how some of the poetry of the Adi Granth resembles the Psalms, Proverbs, Job and especially the Song of Solomon

177. A tablet with the following inscription was discovered in Baghdad in 1916: 'In memory of the Guru, the holy Baba Nanak, King of holy men, this monument has been rebuilt with the help of seven saints/ The date on the tablet is 927 Hijri, i.e., AD 1520-21 (Loyal Gazette, Lahore, January

178. A tablet with the following inscription was discovered in Baghdad in 1916: 'In memory of the Guru, the holy Baba Nanak, King of holy men, this monument has been rebuilt with the help of seven saints/ The date on the tablet is 927 Hijri, i.e., AD 1520-21 (Loyal Gazette, Lahore, January 1918).

179. They who dwelt in palaces cannot find a place in the streets.' (Asa)

180. According to the janamsakhis, the Guru was imprisoned by the Mughals and released on the personal intervention of Babar. There is no reference to this in the Babar Ndmd.

181. He wanted to prove to the pilgrims bathing in the Ganges the absurdity of making offerings to dead ancestors:

182. They asked: "How will it ever reach there?" Then the holy Guru replied: "Brothers, your ancestors are a long way away, my farm is much nearer. The land of your ancestors is far and also high up, and if water can reach there, my farm is only 250 kos, why shouldn't it get there?" When they heard this, they said in their own minds: 'This man is not

183. They asked: "How will it ever reach there?" Then the holy Guru replied: "Brothers, your ancestors are a long way away, my farm is much nearer. The land of your ancestors is far and also high up, and if water can reach there, my farm is only 250 kos, why shouldn't it get there?" When they heard this, they said in their own minds: 'This man is not crazy, he is a great man and they fell at his feet."

184. "Brother, to whom dost thou offer this water?" The

185. "Brother, to whom dost thou offer this water?" The holy Guru replied: "Brothers, I have a farm which is dry. Even when there is much rain, there not a drop stays on my land: that is why I am sending the water." They asked: "How will it ever reach there?" Then the holy Guru replied: "Brothers, your ancestors are a long way away, my farm is much nearer. The land of your ancestors is far and also high up, and if water can reach there, my farm is only 250 kos, why shouldn't it get there?" When they heard this, they said in their own minds: 'This man is not crazy, he is a great man and they fell at his feet."

186. Another incident took place when Nanak was on his way to Mecca: He was staying in a mosque and fell asleep with his feet towards the Ka'ba—an act considered of grave disrespect to the house of God. When the mullah came to say his prayers, he shook Nanak rudely and said: 'O servant of God, thou hast thy feet towards Ka'ba, the house of God; why hast thou done such a thing? 1 Nanak replied: Then turn my feet towards some direction where there is no God nor the Ka'ba.'

187. Nanak spent his last years at Kartarpur, where large crowds flocked to hear him preach. He made them observe a strict routine, which set the pattern of daily life for his followers, who by then had come to be known as his Sikhs (presumably derived ultimately from the Sanskrit sisya, disciple, or siksa, instruction—Pali, sikkha), i.e., disciples. People were roused a watch before daybreak.

188. Among the disciples who attached themselves to the Guru at Kartarpur was one Lehna, a Khatri of the Trehan sub-caste, who impressed Nanak by his devotion and qualities of leadership.

189. Among the disciples who attached themselves to the Guru at Kartarpur was one Lehna, a Khatri of the Trehan sub-caste, who impressed Nanak by his devotion and qualities of leadership.

190. The Guru's elder son, Sri Chand, had become an ascetic and Nanak disapproved of asceticism. The younger son, Lakhmi Das, turned the other way and showed no interest in spiritual matters. Consequently, Nanak chose Lehna to carry on his mission, giving him the name Angad (of my own limb).

191. His end was in a manner most befitting a man who had made the bringing together of Hindus and Muslims the chief object of his ministry. 'Said the Mussalmans: "we will bury him"; the Hindus: "we will cremate him''; Nanak said: "You place flowers on either side, Hindus on my right, Muslims on my left. Those whose flowers remain fresh tomorrow will have their way." He asked them to pray. When the prayer was over, Baba pulled the sheet over him and went to eternal sleep. Next morning when they raised the sheet they found nothing. The flowers of both communities were fresh. The Hindus took theirs; the Muslims took those that they had placed.' 24 Nanak is still remembered in the Punjab as the King of holy men, the Guru of the Hindus, and the Pir of the Mussalmans:

192. Hindu ka guru, musalman ka pir

193. His end was in a manner most befitting a man who had made the bringing together of Hindus and Muslims the chief object of his ministry. 'Said the Mussalmans: "we will bury him"; the Hindus: "we will cremate him''; Nanak said: "You place flowers on either side, Hindus on my right, Muslims on my left. Those whose flowers remain fresh tomorrow will have their way." He asked them to pray. When the prayer was over, Baba pulled the sheet over him and went to eternal sleep. Next morning when they raised the sheet they found nothing. The flowers of both communities were fresh. The Hindus took theirs; the Muslims took those that they had placed.' 24 Nanak is still remembered in the Punjab as the King of holy men, the Guru of the Hindus, and the Pir of the Mussalmans: Baba Nanak sah fakir Hindu ka guru, musalman ka pir

194. It is unlikely that in his lifetime his numerous admirers formed a distinct sect; they were at best people who dissented from both Hinduism and Islam and became his disciples because they agreed with what he said.

195. His teaching appealed specially to the politically downtrodden Hindus of the lower castes, and the poor of Muslim peasantiy. The ground had, no doubt, been prepared by the Sufis and the Bhaktas. But it was Nanak's own personality, in which he combined gentleness with great courage, that endeared him to the masses.

196. When I am quiet, they say I have no knowledge; When I speak, I talk too much they say. When I sit, they say an unwelcome guest has come to stay; When I depart, I have deserted my family and run away. When I bow, they say it is of fear that I pray. Nothing can I do that in peace I may spend my time. Preserve Thy servant's honour now and hereafter, O Lord sublime. (Prabhati)

197. Nanak was a poet of uncommon sensitivity who could turn his pen from gentle satire to rapturous praise. He loved the Punjab and painted its landscape as it had never been done before. The ripening of the cornfields, the flight of deer in the woodlands, the chirping of cicadas when the shadows lengthen, the pitter-patter of raindrops during the monsoon, are drawn with the consummate skill of an artist with a feeling for the music of words.

198. The theologian Bhai Gurdas described Nanak's achievements in the following words: 26 The true Guru, Nanak, was then born The fog and mist evaporated And light shone on the earth.

199. As the rising Sun dispels the dark and outshines the Stars As flee the herd of deer when the lion roars Without pause, without tuming back for assurance (So fled evil from the world).

200. it is necessary to know the religious and secular aspects of his teaching.

201. Nanak not only founded a new religion and started a new pattern of living, he also set in motion an agrarian movement whose impact was felt all over the country.

202. Nanak was a strict monotheist. He refused to accept any compromise on the concept of the unity of God.

203. form which w r as subject to decay and death. Nanak disapproved of the worship of idols because people tended to look upon them as God instead of symbolic representations. Nanak believed that God was sat (both truth and reality), as opposed to asat (falsehood) and mithya (illusion).

204. Nanak disapproved of the worship of idols because people tended to look upon them as God instead of symbolic representations. Nanak believed that God was sat (both truth and reality), as opposed to asat (falsehood) and mithya (illusion).

205. He thus not only made God a spiritual concept but also based principles of social behaviour on the concept.

206. If God is Truth, to speak an untruth is to be ungodly.

207. As the rising Sun dispels the dark and outshines the Stars As flee the herd of deer when the lion roars Without pause, without tuming back for assurance (So fled evil from the world).

208. As the rising Sun dispels the dark and outshines the Stars As flee the herd of deer when the lion roars Without pause, without tuming back for assurance (So fled evil from the world).

209. Nanak disapproved of the worship of idols because people tended to look upon them as God instead of symbolic representations. Nanak believed that God was sat (both truth and reality), as opposed to asat (falsehood) and mithya (illusion).

210. If God is Truth, to speak an untruth is to be ungodly.

211. If God is Truth, to speak an untruth is to be ungodly. Untruthful conduct not only hurts one's neighbours; it is also irreligious. A good Sikh therefore must not only believe that God is the only One, Omnipotent, and Omniscient Reality, but also conduct himself in such a way towards his fellow beings that he does not harm them: for hurtful conduct like lying, cheating, fornication, trespass on a person or on his property, does not conform to the truth that is God. This principle is stated categorically by Nanak in the opening lines of his most celebrated morning prayer, the Japfi, and is the mul mantra or the basic belief of Sikhism. 27

212. Nanak believed that the power that was God could not be defined because God was nirahkar (formless). All of his descriptions of God were consequently admissions of an inability to define Him. Thou hast a million eyes, yet no eye hast Thou. Thou hast a million forms, yet no form hast Thou. Thou hast a million feet, yet no feet hast Thou Thou art without odour, yet millions of odours emanate from Thee. With such charms, O Lord, hast Thou bewitched me. Thy light pervades everywhere. (Dhanasari)

213. rather than invest Him with anthropomorphic

214. Although Nanak used both Hindu and Muslim nomenclature for God, Ram, Govirida, Hari Murari, Rab, and Rahim, the attribute he usually ascribed to Him was that of the True Creator (Sat Kartar) or The True Name (Sat Nam).

215. He was the guide who prevented mankind from straying from the straight and narrow path of truth; he was the captain of the ship which took one across the fearful ocean of life.

216. At a later stage in the evolution of Sikhism, Vahiguru became the Sikh name for God. Vahiguru literally means 'Hail Guru' and is very close to the Muslim Subhan Allah. It has been suggested that the word is a combination of different Hindu names for God: Vasudev, Hari, Govirida, and Rama. There is no basis for this suggestion. None of the Sikh commentators support this view.

217. Dr Sher Singh has not exaggerated the importance of the institution of guruship in saying that 'the belief of unity in the plurality of the gurus served as a useful purpose in the development of Sikhism. But for this belief there would have been no Sikh nation.' (Philosophy of Sikhism, p. 46.)

218. The concept of a continuing spiritual succession was known to the Buddhists and is current to this day in the succession of the Lamas.

219. 'As one lamp can light another without losing any of its light, so can a teacher impart wisdom to his disciple and elevate him to equality.'

220. He was to be consulted and respected but not worshipped. Nanak accepted for himself the status of a teacher but not a prophet; 30 in his writings he constantly referred to himself as the slave or servant of God.

221. Nanak did not approve of ascetic isolation or torturing of the flesh as a step to enlightenment. His

222. Nanak did not approve of ascetic isolation or torturing of the flesh as a step to enlightenment. His ideal was to have the detachment of the yogi while living among one's fellow beings— raj men

223. Nanak did not approve of ascetic isolation or torturing of the flesh as a step to enlightenment. His ideal was to have the detachment of the yogi while living among one's fellow beings— raj men jog (to achieve enlightenment in civic life):

224. At God's gate there is no room for a prophet. God alone dwells there.

225. Nanak was frequently questioned by Hindu ascetics and Sufis, who lived in hermitages, as to how he combined the obligations of a house holder with spiritual pursuits. In a meeting with Shaikh Ibrahim (tenth successor of the famous Farid Shakarganj) at Pak Pattan, the following dialogue took place. The Shaikh said to the guru: 'Either seek worldly gain or the way of God. Put not thy feet in two boats, lest thou losest both thy The Punjab and the Birth of Sikhism monastic other-worldliness sustained by charity. 'Having renounced grihastha, why go begging at the householder's door?' he asked. He believed that one of the essential requisites for the betterment of individuals was sddh sangat (the society of holy men), 33

226. CASTELESS SOCIETY. The Bhaktas had paid only lip service to the ideal of a casteless society; Nanak took practical steps to break the vicious hold of caste by starting free community kitchens— guru ka lahgav —in all centres and persuading his followers, irrespective of their castes, to eat together.

227. Impurity of the heart is greed, Of tongue, untruth, Impurity of the eye is coveting life and thy cargo.'

228. Nanak replied: 'It is best to place your feet in two boats and trade with two worlds. One may founder, and the other take thee across.

229. Impurity of the ears is listening to calumny.

230. In a sermon delivered at Kurukshetra, Nanak said there were four ways by which, in addition to the repetition of God's name, one could reach God: 4 In the company of holy men, by being absolutely truthful, by living in contentment, and by keeping the senses in restraint.'

231. What we sow that alone we take;

232. Nanak believed that by repetition of the nam one conquered the greatest of all evils, the ego (haumain —literally, I am), because the ego also carries in it the seed of salvation which

233. 35 An exhortation to repeat I he name (nam japo) was the main theme of the teaching of Nanak.

234. To Nanak, nam implied not simply the repetition of prayer but prayer with the understanding of words and their translation into action.

235. This is not what Nanak meant by nam. He considered the mere mumbling of prayer of little consequence. 'When you lake rosaries in your hands and sit down counting vour beads, you never think of God but allow your minds to wander thinking of worldly objects. Your rosaries are therefore only for show and your counting of beads only hypocrisy/ (Sri.)

236. See Sher Singh's Philosophy of Sikhism, chapter XVI, where he states that nama-marga —the path of nam— required three things: realization in the heart (hride gyan), its expression in prayer (makh bhakti), and detachment in alt one's actions (vartan vairag),

237. It is in that state of super-conscious stillness (divya dristi) that the tenth gate, the dasam dvar (the body having only nine natural orifices), is opened and one receives a vision of God and merges one's light with the light eternal. 37 For such a one the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth is ended and he attains salvation. 38

238. He believed that all human beings have a basic fund of goodness which, like the pearl in the oyster, only awaits the opening of the shell to emerge and enrich him.

239. He believed that all human beings have a basic fund of goodness which, like the pearl in the oyster, only awaits the opening of the shell to emerge and enrich him. But most human beings are as ignorant of the goodness in them as the deer is of the aromatic kasturi in its navel; and just as the deer wanders about in the woods to fall in the snares of poachers or becomes a victim of the hunter's darts, so man falls in the snares of maya (illusion). The chief task of the Gum is to make men aware of the treasure within him and then help him to unlock the jewel box. A method advocated by Nanak was the gentle one of sahaj?

240. Nanak believed in the triumph of human will over fate and predestination. He believed that all human beings have a basic fund of goodness which, like the pearl in the oyster, only awaits the opening of the shell to emerge and enrich him. But most human beings are as ignorant of the goodness in them as the deer is of the aromatic kasturi in its navel; and just as the deer wanders about in the woods to fall in the snares of poachers or becomes a victim of the hunter's darts, so man falls in the snares of maya (illusion). The chief task of the Gum is to make men aware of the treasure within him and then help him to unlock the jewel box.

241. He believed that all human beings have a basic fund of goodness which, like the pearl in the oyster, only awaits the opening of the shell to emerge and enrich him. But most human beings are as ignorant of the goodness in them as the deer is of the aromatic kasturi in its navel; and just as the deer wanders about in the woods to fall in the snares of poachers or becomes a victim of the hunter's darts, so man falls in the snares of maya (illusion). The chief task of the Gum is to make men aware of the treasure within him and then help him to unlock the jewel box.

242. Ascetic austerity, penances, celibacy, etc. had no place in Nanak's religion. In addition to self-imposed discipline of the mind, he advocated listening to kirtan (hymn singing). Nanak's verses were put to music in ragas or modes best suited to convey their meaning. He advised his followers to rise well before dawn and listen to the soft strains of music under the light of the stars. He believed that in the stillness of the ambrosial hours (amrit-vela) one was best able to have communion with God.

243. castigated the caste system and the monopoly of the priestly Brahmins over spiritual matters.

244. Most of them had talked of the fundamental unity of all religions, and regretted that form and ritual should have created rifts between people of different religious professions.

245. In addition, what he said was said with utter simplicity which could be understood by the rustic as well as by the sophisticated. He himself summed up his message in three commandments: kirt karo, nam japo, vand cako —work, worship, and give in charity.

246. The symbolic gift received a symbolic reply: even though the bowl was full there was room enough for fragrance; even though the world was loud with the clamour of religions there were some who would listen to his gentle voice.

247. The holy men of the city were alarmed that their meagre living would be jeopardized by the arrival of this famous Saint. Nanak was still on the outskirts when they sent him a bowl of milk full to the brim to indicate that there was no more room for holy men in the city. Nanak placed the petal of a jasmine flower on the milk and sent back the offering. The symbolic gift received a symbolic reply: even though the bowl was full there was room enough for fragrance; even though the world was loud with the clamour of religions there were some who would listen to his gentle voice.

248. The Sikh no longer chanted Sanskrit slokas to stone idols or murmured the Arabic of the Koran while genuflecting towards Mecca; he sang the hymns of Nanak in his own mother-tongue, Punjabi. He ate with his fellow Sikhs at the guru's kitchen, which he helped to organize by collecting rations and in which he took turns to serve as a cook or scrubber of utensils.

249. This greeting changed subsequently to sat sri akdl, which means the same thing. Kaildr means the Creator and sii akal the Timeless One, that is, God.

250. Lehna had been a devout Hindu before he met Nanak.

251. To forestall subsequent opposition from his sons, Nanak expressed his preference for Lehna in public: Thou art Angad, a part of my body.' Long before his death he had one of his chief disciples, Bhai Buddha, daub Angad's forehead with saffron and proclaim him as the second guru. 1

252. Sri Chand was not an ambitious man. 2 Nevertheless, since he was the elder son of the Guru and a man of pious habits, there were many who believed that Nanak's place should go to him. 1 'Nanak proclaimed the accession of Lehna He (Lehna) had the same light and the same ways. The Gum merely changed his body.' ( Vdr. Satta and Balwand.)

253. On the advice of Nanak, Angad ieft Kartarpur and went and lit the Guru's lamp in Khadur/ 3 where his wife and children were living. Angad was guru for thirteen years (1539-52). By his tact and humility 4 he was able to prevent the schism between his Sikhs and Sri Chand's followers, who came to be known as Udasis. 5 In his own quiet way he filled in the brickwork of the edifice whose scaffolding had been erected by Nanak. As the number of disciples increased, the expenses of the langar went

254. On the advice of Nanak, Angad ieft Kartarpur and went and lit the Guru's lamp in Khadur/ 3 where his wife and children were living. Angad was guru for thirteen years (1539-52). By his tact and humility 4 he was able to prevent the schism between his Sikhs and Sri Chand's followers, who came to be known as Udasis. 5 In his own quiet way he filled in the brickwork of the edifice whose scaffolding had been erected by Nanak. As the number of disciples increased, the expenses of the langar went up.

255. has renounced the world, a word which aptly

256. own. Angad took the thirty-five letters of the acrostic composed by Nanak, selected the appropriate letters from other scripts current in northern India, and called the new script Gurmukhi (from the mouth of the Guru). 6 This step had far-reaching results. Angad's compilation became the nucleus of the sacred writings of the Sikhs. It gave the Sikhs a written language

257. Angad took the thirty-five letters of the acrostic composed by Nanak, selected the appropriate letters from other scripts current in northern India, and called the new script Gurmukhi (from the mouth of the Guru). 6 This step had far-reaching results. Angad's compilation became the nucleus of the sacred writings of the Sikhs. It gave the Sikhs a written language distinct from the written language of the Hindus or the Mussalmans and thus fostered a sense of their being a separate people.

258. Angad was very keen on physical fitness. He ordered his followers to take part in drill and competitive games after the morning service. Every community centre had a wrestling arena attached to it. He started a tradition which made it easy for his successors to raise troops of able-bodied men from among the disciples.

259. Angad had two sons 8 but he chose a seventy-three-year-old disciple, Amar Das, a Khatri of the Bhalla sub-caste to succeed him as the third guru.

260. Amar Das's succession was not recognized by Angad 1 s son Datu, who ejected him from Khadur and installed himself as the third gum. Amar Das moved to Goindwal and from Goindwal to his own village, Basarke. After some time, when Datu's following dwindled, Amar Das was able to return to Goindwal and take up his ministry in earnest.

261. According to Sikh chronicles, on an occasion when Datu literally kicked Amar Das off his seat, the latter joined the palms of his hands and said humbly: 'This must have hurt your foot.'

262. According to Sikh chronicles, on an occasion when Datu literally kicked Amar Das off his seat, the latter joined the palms of his hands and said humbly: 'This must have hurt your foot.'

263. According to Sikh chronicles, on an occasion when Datu literally kicked Amar Das off his seat, the latter joined the palms of his hands and said humbly: 'This must have hurt your foot.'

264. On another occasion Amar Das said, 'If anyone ill-treats you, bear it patiently. If you bear it three times, God will himself fight for you the fourth time.'

265. Amar Das (1479-1574)

266. Amar Das had been a devout Hindu enjoying a reputation for kindliness and piety long before his conversion to Sikhism. He showed great devotion in forwarding the work that Nanak and Angad had begun. He made the larigar an integral institution of the Sikh church by insisting that anyone who wanted to see him had firs* to accept his hospitality by eating with the disciples. 9 The number of the Guru's visitors increased so much that Goindwal, where he lived, grew from an insignificant hamlet to a sizeable town. Among the people who visited him was Emperor Akbar, who was so impressed with the way of life at Goindwal that he assigned the revenues of several villages to the Guru's daughter, Bhani, as a marriage gift. Royal patronage gave further momentum to Nanak's movement.

267. mullahs, who alone could interpret the Koran. 12 9 The motto was pehle pangat piche sangat —'First sit in a row in the kitchen, then seek the company of the Guru.'

268. known as a mahfl. 11 907 hymns of Amar Das are incorporated in the Adi Granth.

269. known as a mahfl. 11 907 hymns

270. 907 hymns of Amar Das are incorporated in the Adi Granth.

271. He tried to do away with the practice of purdah (seclusion of women), advocated monogamy, encouraged inter-caste alliances and remarriage of widows.

272. He tried to do away with the practice of purdah (seclusion of women), advocated monogamy, encouraged inter-caste alliances and remarriage of widows. He strictly forbade the practice of sat1, 13 the burning of widows on the funeral pyres of their husbands.

273. He tried to do away with the practice of purdah (seclusion of women), advocated monogamy, encouraged inter-caste alliances and remarriage of widows. He strictly forbade the practice of sat1, 13 the burning of widows on the funeral pyres of their husbands. These measures aroused the hostility

274. He tried to do away with the practice of purdah (seclusion of women), advocated monogamy, encouraged inter-caste alliances and remarriage of widows. He strictly forbade the practice of sat1, 13 the burning of widows on the funeral pyres of their husbands.

275. He tried to do away with the practice of purdah (seclusion of women), advocated monogamy, encouraged inter-caste alliances and remarriage of widows. He strictly forbade the practice of sat1, 13 the burning of widows on the funeral pyres of their husbands. These measures aroused the hostility of the Brahmins, who saw the size of their flock and their incomes diminishing.

276. He tried to do away with the practice of purdah (seclusion of women), advocated monogamy, encouraged inter-caste alliances and remarriage of widows. He strictly forbade the practice of sat1, 13 the burning of widows on the funeral pyres of their husbands.

277. These measures aroused the hostility of the Brahmins, who saw the size of their flock and their incomes diminishing.

278. In the age of utter darkness, he rose like the Sun.

279. Amar Das lived to the age of ninety-five. He did not consider any of his sons fit to succeed him and chose instead his son-in-law, Ram Das, a Khatri of the Sodhi sub-caste who had been living with him for some years.

280. Like his predecessors, Ram Das composed hymns which were later incorporated in the collection of sacred writings.

281. Ram Das had three sons, of whom he considered the youngest, Arjun Mai, the most suited to succeed him. This, as was to be expected, aroused the ire of the eldest, Prithi Chand. Nevertheless, when Ram Das felt his end near, he had the ageing Bhai Buddha invest Arjun Mai as the fifth guru.

282. Ram Das was a man of great humility. The aged Sri Chand, son of Gum Nanak, asked him why he had such a long beard. Ram Das went down on his knees and replied: 'To wipe the dust off your feet, O holy one.'

283. 16 In 1577 he (Ram Das) obtained a grant of the site, together with 500 bighas of land, from the Emperor Akbar, on payment of Rs 700/- to the Zemindars of Tung, who owned the land.' (Amritsar Gazetteer, 1883-4.)

284. 'As one lamp is lighted from another, so the Guru's spirit will pass into him and will dispel the darkness in the world/

285. Arjun (1563-1606)

286. Arjun's path, like that of his three predecessors, was full of pitfalls. As soon as his succession was proclaimed, his elder brother, Prithi Chand, turned violently hostile. Arjun was fortunate in having the loyal support of the venerable Buddha and Bhai Gurdas in thwarting the machinations of Prithi Chand 19 and preventing a schism in the community.

287. Arjun's path, like that of his three predecessors, was full of pitfalls. As soon as his succession was proclaimed, his elder brother, Prithi Chand, turned violently hostile. Arjun was fortunate in having the loyal support of the venerable Buddha and Bhai Gurdas in thwarting the machinations of Prithi Chand 19 and preventing a schism in the community.

288. Arjun's first task was to complete the building of a temple in Cak Ram Das. He invited the Muslim divine, Mian Mir of Lahore to lay the foundation stone of the Harimandir, the temple of God. Instead of building the shrine on a high plinth as was the Hindu custom, Arjun had it built on a level lower than the surrounding land, so that the worshippers would have to go down the steps to enter it. And, unlike Hindu temples, which had only one entrance, Arjun had the Harimandir open on all four sides. These architectural features were intended to be symbolic of the new faith, which required the lowest to go even lower and whose doors were ever open to all who wished to enter.

289. mina, deceitful, by which he is known to this

290. He tried to do away with the practice of purdah (seclusion of women), advocated monogamy, encouraged inter-caste alliances and remarriage of widows.

291. He strictly forbade the practice of sat1, 13 the burning of widows on the funeral pyres of their husbands.

292. These measures aroused the hostility of the Brahmins, who saw the size of their flock and their incomes diminishing. They began to persecute the Sikhs and,

293. These measures aroused the hostility of the Brahmins, who saw the size of their flock and their incomes diminishing.

294. church. He was a popular teacher because his sermons

295. 'Do good to others by giving good advice, by setting a good example, and by always having the welfare of mankind in your heart/ he said. Amar Das's work is applauded in the Adi Granth in the following words:

296. In the age of utter darkness, he rose like the Sun. He sowed the seed of truth and reaped its fruit.

297. Amar Das lived to the age of ninety-five. He did not consider any of his sons fit to succeed him and chose instead his son-in-law, Ram Das, a Khatri of the Sodhi sub-caste who had been living with him for some years.

298. Ram Das (1534-81)

299. Like his predecessors, Ram Das composed hymns which were later incorporated in the collection of sacred writings.

300. Ram Das had three sons, of whom he considered the youngest, Arjun Mai, the most suited to succeed him. This, as was to be expected, aroused the ire of the eldest, Prithi Chand. Nevertheless, when Ram Das felt his end near, he had the ageing Bhai Buddha invest Arjun Mai as the fifth guru. Ram Das

301. Ram Das was a man of great humility. The aged Sri Chand, son of Gum Nanak, asked him why he had such a long beard. Ram Das went down on his knees and replied: 'To wipe the dust off your feet, O holy one.'

302. In 1577 he (Ram Das) obtained a grant of the site, together with 500 bighas of land, from the Emperor Akbar, on payment of Rs 700/- to the Zemindars of Tung, who owned the land.' (Amritsar Gazetteer, 1883-4.)

303. that 'As one lamp is lighted from another, so the Guru's spirit will pass into him and will dispel the darkness in the world/

304. Arjun (1563-1606)

305. Ram Das was a man of great humility. The aged Sri Chand, son of Gum Nanak, asked him why he had such a long beard. Ram Das went down on his knees and replied: 'To wipe the dust off your feet, O holy one.'

306. Ram Das had three sons, of whom he considered the youngest, Arjun Mai, the most suited to succeed him. This, as was to be expected, aroused the ire of the eldest, Prithi Chand. Nevertheless, when Ram Das felt his end near, he had the ageing Bhai Buddha invest Arjun Mai as the fifth guru. Ram Das 15 Ram Das was a man of great humility. The aged Sri Chand, son of Gum Nanak, asked him why he had such a long beard. Ram Das went down on his knees and replied: 'To wipe the dust off your feet, O holy one.'

307. Arjun's path, like that of his three predecessors, was full of pitfalls. As soon as his succession was proclaimed, his elder brother, Prithi Chand, turned violently hostile. Arjun was fortunate in having the loyal support of the venerable Buddha and Bhai Gurdas in thwarting the machinations of Prithi Chand 19 and preventing a schism in the community. Arjun's first task was to complete the building of a temple in Cak Ram Das. He invited the Muslim divine, Mian Mir of Lahore to lay the foundation stone of the Harimandir, the temple of God. Instead of building the shrine on a high plinth as was the Hindu custom, Arjun had it built on a level lower than the surrounding land, so that the worshippers would have to go down the steps to enter it. And, unlike Hindu temples, which had only one entrance, Arjun had the Harimandir open on all four sides. These architectural features were intended to be symbolic of the new faith, which required the lowest to go even lower and whose doors were ever open to all who wished to enter. 20 19 Gurdas gave him the sobriquet mina, deceitful, by which he is known to this day. 20 The four doors represented the four castes

308. Arjun's path, like that of his three predecessors, was full of pitfalls. As soon as his succession was proclaimed, his elder brother, Prithi Chand, turned violently hostile. Arjun was fortunate in having the loyal support of the venerable Buddha and Bhai Gurdas in thwarting the machinations of Prithi Chand 19 and preventing a schism in the community.

309. Arjun's first task was to complete the building of a temple in Cak Ram Das. He invited the Muslim divine, Mian Mir of Lahore to lay the foundation stone of the Harimandir, the temple of God. Instead of building the shrine on a high plinth as was the Hindu custom, Arjun had it built on a level lower than the surrounding land, so that the worshippers would have to go down the steps to enter it. And, unlike Hindu temples, which had only one entrance, Arjun had the Harimandir open on all four sides. These architectural features were intended to be symbolic of the new faith, which required the lowest to go even lower and whose doors were ever open to all who wished to enter.

310. 20 The four doors represented the four castes of Hindus. 'The teaching is for all the four castes, the Kshatriya, Brahmin, Shudra, and Vaishya,' wrote Arjun (Silht). The architecture is a happy blend of the Hindu and Muslim styles.

311. The temple was rebuilt during the period of the Sikh misls. It was destroyed by the Afghans more than once, and was finally built in its present form in marble and gold by Ranjit Singh. The inscription above the entrance of the central shrine states: The Great Guru in His wisdom looked upon Maharajah Ranjit Singh as his chief servitor And Sikh, and in His benevolence, bestowed On him the privilege of serving the temple. (Dated Sambat, 1887.)

312. The modest town grew into the premier commercial city of the province. After the temple was completed and the tank filled with water, it was given a new name, Amritsar (the pool of nectar). What Benares was to the Hindus and Mecca to the Muslims, Amritsar became to the Sikhs: their most important place of pilgrimage.

313. Arjun undertook a tour of the neighbouring country. In AD 1590 he had another tank dug at a place about eleven miles south of Amritsar, which he blessed as taran tdran (pool of salvation). It soon earned a reputation for having healing properties and Taran Taran became another place of pilgrimage, particularly for those afflicted with leprosy.

314. From Taran Taran, Arjun went to the Jullundur Doab and raised a third town called Kartarpur. 22 From Kartarpur he went to Lahore and from there to the river Beas, on whose banks he built yet another town which he named after his son, Hargobind, as Sri Hargobindpur. In five years of travelling in central Punjab, Arjun brought into his fold thousands of Jats of the Majha country, the sturdiest peasants of the Punjab.

315. hymns to Akbar. The emperor, his fears dispelled,

316. The selection was made by the Guru (his own contribution being the largest) and taken down by Bhai Gurdas. While

317. While the Guru was busy with his work, a report was sent to Akbar that Arjun's sacred anthology had passages vilifying Islam. On his way north, the Emperor stopped en route and asked to see the compilation. Bhai Buddha and Gurdas brought a copy of the existent manuscript and read some of the hymns to Akbar. The emperor, his fears dispelled, made an offering of fifty-one gold mohurs to the sacred book and gave robes of honour to the two disciples and sent one for Guru Arjun. At the Guru's request, he also remitted the annual revenue of the district to ameliorate the condition of the peasants, who had been hard hit by the failure of the monsoon.

318. While the Guru was busy with his work, a report was sent to Akbar that Arjun's sacred anthology had passages vilifying Islam. On his way north, the Emperor stopped en route and asked to see the compilation. Bhai Buddha and Gurdas brought a copy of the existent manuscript and read some of the hymns to Akbar. The emperor, his fears dispelled, made an offering of fifty-one gold mohurs to the sacred book and gave robes of honour to the two disciples and sent one for Guru Arjun. At the Guru's request, he also remitted the annual revenue of the district to ameliorate the condition of the peasants, who had been hard hit by the failure of the monsoon.

319. In August 1604 the work was completed and the Granth Sahib, the holy volume, was formally installed in the temple at Amritsar. Bhai Buddha was appointed the first reader or granthi.

320. uplifter of all mankind.'

321. trade thrived in the four towns Arjun had built. He became a leader of national importance, and

322. trade thrived in the four towns Arjun had built.

323. The death of Akbar brought a sudden reversal in the policy of the state towards the Sikhs. The new emperor, Jehangir, disapproved of the growing popularity of Guru Arjun.

324. Nevertheless, after the rebellion had been suppressed and Khusrau apprehended, Jehangir wreaked terrible vengeance on the people he suspected of having helped his son. Arjun was heavily fined and, on his refusal to admit the charge of treason or pay the fine, was arrested and sentenced to death. Jehangir wrote; 'I fully knew his heresies, and I ordered that he should be brought into my presence, that his houses and children be made over to Murtaza Khan, that his property be confiscated, and that he should be put to death with torture.'

325. 29 Among those who tried in vain to intercede

326. The Guru was taken to Lahore. Among his tormentors was a Hindu banker whose daughter's hand Arjun had refused to accept for his son. 29 Among those who tried in vain to intercede

327. There is nothing contemporary on record to indicate that the Hindu banker, Chandu Shah, was in any way personally vindictive towards the captive guru.

328. Arjun was tortured until he was unable to stand any more. He sent word to his son, 31 Hargobind, who was only eleven years old, to ask Bhai Buddha to instal him as the sixth guru and to assume the ministry of the community.

329. During one of the intermissions in the torture, Arjun was allowed to wash himself in the Ravi, which ran alongside the prison. On 30 May 1606, the Guru entered the stream. The impact of the cold water proved too much for his fevered body, and the current bore him beyond the reach of his tormentors.

330. Arjun was an unusually gifted and prolific writer. His lines were resplendent with bejewelled phrases and his hymns full of haunting melody. His most popular composition was the Sukhmani (the psalm of peace), in which he wrote: 'Of all creeds the sovereign creed is to pray to God and do a goodly deed/

331. Arjun had become the most quoted poet of the Punjab. His songs were on the people's lips and while they eagerly awaited his voice, Jehangir brutally silenced it for ever.

332. In the twenty-five years of Arjun's ministry, the seed sown by Nanak blossomed into its fullness. Nanak's teaching, which was embodied in the hymns of his successors, had been compiled in the Granth. Nanak's way of life had become the way of life of communities of Sikhs scattered all over northern India. The Sikhs had become conscious of the fact that they were now neither Hindus nor Muslims but formed a third community of their own. This feeling was expressed by Arjun in many of his writings:

333. In the twenty-five years of Arjun's ministry, the seed sown by Nanak blossomed into its fullness. Nanak's teaching, which was embodied in the hymns of his successors, had been compiled in the Granth. Nanak's way of life had become the way of life of communities of Sikhs scattered all over northern India. The Sikhs had become conscious of the fact that they were now neither Hindus nor Muslims but formed a third community of their own. This feeling was expressed by Arjun in many of his writings: I do not keep the Hindu fast, nor the Muslim Ramadan. I serve Him alone who is my refuge.

334. I serve the One Master, who is also Allah. I have broken with the Hindu and the Muslim. I will not worship with the Hindu, nor like the Muslim go to Mecca, I shall serve Him and no other. I will not pray to idols nor say the Muslim prayer. I shall put my heart at the feet of the One Supreme Being, For we are neither Hindus nor Mussalmans.

335. The death of Arjun was a turning point in the history of the Punjab. He was the embodiment of many things that Nanak had preached and stood for. He had brought the Hindu and Mussalman together in creating a scripture where both were represented and in raising a temple whose foundation was laid by a Muslim and the superstructure built by Hindus and Sikhs. He was a builder of cities and a merchant-prince who brought prosperity to all communities. Arjun's blood became the seed of the Sikh church as well as of the Punjabi nation.

336. Hargobind (1595-1644)

337. The murder of the saintly Arjun was a profound shock to the people. The Emperor's order to arrest the Guru's family and confiscate his property was not carried out, for the local officials believed that the death of the Guru would keep the Sikhs subdued for a long time. The result was just the opposite. The Sikhs gathered round the eleven-year-old Hargobind and the two veterans, Bhai Buddha and Gurdas, ready to avenge the death of their guru.

338. The murder of the saintly Arjun was a profound shock to the people. The Emperor's order to arrest the Guru's family and confiscate his property was not carried out, for the local officials believed that the death of the Guru would keep the Sikhs subdued for a long time. The result was just the opposite. The Sikhs gathered round the eleven-year-old Hargobind and the two veterans, Bhai Buddha and Gurdas, ready to avenge the death of their guru. The young Hargobind took the seat of his father with two swords girded round his waist: one to symbolize spiritual power, and the other temporal. 'My rosary shall be the sword-belt and on my turban I shall wear the emblem of royalty,' he said. 2 He made it known to his Sikhs that thereafter he would welcome offerings of arms and horses instead of money. He trained a body of soldiers and spent much time in martial exercise and hunting. He built a small fortress, Lohgarh (the castle of steel) in Amritsar. Across the Harimandir, he built the Akal Takht

339. instead of chanting hymns of peace, the congregation heard ballads extolling feats of heroism, and, instead of listening to religious discourses, discussed plans of military conquests.

340. For the first few years little notice was taken of the change in the complexion of the Sikh organization. But as the number of the Guru's retainers increased, local officials began sending reports to the Emperor. Since the fine imposed on Arjun had not been paid, there was legal justification to proceed against his son. Jehangir ordered the arrest of Hargobind and the disbandment of his private army.

341. The Guru spent a year or more in imprisonment at Gwalior. He resumed his martial activity as soon as he was released,

342. The Guru's abode did in fact become like that of the Emperor. He sat on a throne and held court. He went out with a royal umbrella over his head and was always accompanied by armed retainers. He sent envoys to ruling princes and received their agents

343. The Guru's abode did in fact become like that of the Emperor. He sat on a throne and held court. He went out with a royal umbrella over his head and was always accompanied by armed retainers. He sent envoys to ruling princes and received their agents in durbar, where presents were exchanged.

344. The Emperor, in order to extort from him the balance of the fine which had been imposed on Arjun Mai, sent him to Gwalior/ (Muhsin Fani, Dabistdn.) The term of imprisonment is uncertain. Muhsin Fani is obviously wrong in stating that it was twelve \ears, because most of the Guru's children were born during these years. It is likely that Hargobind was taken in custody some time in 1609 and released by the end of 1611 at the latest.

345. spiritual and temporal

346. In the fifteen odd years between his release from Gwalior and Jehangir's death in ad 1627, Hargobind consolidated his spiritual and temporal hold on the community. He travelled through the Punjab into Uttar Pradesh as far as Pilibhit. He then went northwards into Kashmir.

347. They found the Guru's household busy preparing for the nuptials of his daughter.

348. They found the Guru's household busy preparing for the nuptials of his daughter. They could not find Hargobind, but they plundered his property; all the confectionery prepared for the wedding was eaten by the constables.

349. Hargobind left Amristar immediately and had his daughter's wedding performed in a nearby village. From the village he went on to Kartarpur in the Jullundur Doab and then to Sri Hargobindpur, the town built by his father.

350. The Mughals were badly mauled by the Sikhs.

351. a tract near Bhatinda, where the wild and uncharted

352. Guru feared that a large force would be sent against him and quickly retired to a tract near Bhatinda, where the wild and uncharted nature of the country made pursuit difficult.

353. Fighting in the van of the Sikh forces were Hargobind's own sons, Gurditta and Tegh Bahadur (who later became the ninth guru

354. Hargobind realized that he could not withstand the might of Mughal arms in the plains. Consequently in 1634 he shifted his headquarters to Kiratpur, the haven of refuge in the Himalayan foothills. The remaining years of his life were spent in this sylvan retreat.

355. The number of Sikhs had been steadily increasing with each guru

356. masands. In the earlier years, this part of the work had

357. masands. In the earlier years, this part of the work had been

358. The Punjabis were naturally an assertive and virile race, who only needed a leader to rouse them to action.

359. The last days of Hargobind's life were saddened by a series of domestic tragedies. Within a few years, five members of his family, including three of his sons, died one after another. The most grievous of these deaths was that of Gurditta in 1638. To add to his sorrows, Gurditta's son, Dhirmal, turned against his grandfather. For a long time Hargobind could not make up his mind about his successor. He had two sons living: Suraj Mai, who showed little interest in Sikh affairs, and Tegh Bahadur, who was too withdrawn in himself to be entrusted with the leadership of a rapidly growing community. When the time came, Hargobind chose Gurditta's second son, Har Rai, to succeed him as the seventh guru.

360. Hargobind died peacefully at Kiratpur in March 1644.

361. Hargobind died peacefully at Kiratpur in March 1644.

362. Har Rai (1630-61) Within one year of his assuming ministry as the seventh guru, Har Rai was compelled to leave Kiratpur with his family and retainers (who are said to have numbered 2200 men-in-arms), and retire further into the mountains.

363. The absence of the Guru from the main centres of Sikh activity (Amritsar, Goindwal, Kartarpur, Khadur, and Kiratpur), the hostility of the disappointed claimants to guruship, and the general disintegration of the masahd organization, seriously prejudiced the advancement of the community.

364. Nabha, and Jind, who had come into contact with Guru Hargobind, became closely associated with the Sikh

365. The ancestors of the princely families of Patiala, Nabha, and Jind, who had come into contact with Guru Hargobind, became closely associated with the Sikh community.

366. Sikh records maintain that the Guru cured Dara Shikoh of the effects of poison. When asked why he had saved the life of a son of Shah Jahan, who had tormented his father and grandfather, the Guru replied: 'The man breaks flowers with one hand and offers them with the other, but the flowers perfume both hands alike. The axe cuts the sandal tree, yet the sandal perfumes the axe/

367. Guru Har Rai, who had come with a large army, left his camp with the plea that he was going to collect more troops for help.'

#khushwantsingh #khuswant #punjabi #punjab #history #sikhism #sikh #india #Guru

1 note · View note