#german local citation

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[laurasimonsdaughter]

I know that folkloric vampires don’t turn into bats, but into other animals like moths.

what do you know about the different animals’ traditional’ vampires can turn into?

Is there any theme amongst them like being nocturnal?

That is actually rather difficult to answer… Vampire folklore is very diverse and when folklorists (and translators) decide a certain creature is a vampire, it varies which attributes they find most important (being a revenant, drinking blood, being killed with a stake, etc.). So the first problem is that there are many creatures across many cultures classified as vampires that could also be called ghosts, witches, demons, or spirits. And some of those are generally believed to possess magic, or to be able to take any shape they want.

Another complication is that certain animals may be associated with vampires, without them ever changing into them. In Greek folklore a cat jumping over a corpse would doom it to be revived as a vampire after burial (Avdikos, Vampire Stories in Greece and the Reinforcement of Socio-Cultural Norms, 2023). Anthropologist Willem de Blécourt remarks that in “the lands south of the Carpathians” the concepts of werewolves and vampires are too much intertwined to compare them to English werewolves (de Blécourt, I would have eaten you too, 2007).

The next problem is that I have not read a lot of reliable sources on local vampire legends. Books written for entertainment rarely cite their sources well enough to be trustworthy, and scholarly works take more time to find, acquire, and sometimes translate, than I have ever devoted specifically to vampires.

Personally I do not know any folktales where a vampire turns into an animal. But then, vampires in folktales are not always what we think of as vampires now, and may just eat corpses (Afanasyev/Guterman, The Vampire), be undead warlocks (Afanasyev/Ralston, The Soldier and the Vampire), or undead princesses suffering from demonic possession (Nisbet Bain, The Vampire and St. Michael).

Of course this doesn’t mean folkloric vampires didn’t shapeshift! There are many folklore concepts that exist in folk belief and anecdotes more than in complete stories. Especially concerning various Slavic folklore the general consensus is that vampires do shapeshift, but I could not tell you whether this is inherent to vampirism, or to the more general demonic powers that they often likewise possess.

Matthew Bunson states that “vampires can turn into bats, cats, dogs, wolves, butterflies, insects, rats, birds, fleas, mice, and locusts”. But his 1993 publication The Vampire Encyclopedia is exactly one of those - admittedly fun - works without citations.

I have read here and there that: the Albanian shtriga can transform into a moth, fly or bee, some Slavic – specifically Serbian – vampires can turn into a butterfly, the German nachzehrer is sometimes said to rise from the grave in the shape of a pig, the Romanian pricolici was once human but turns into a vampiric wolf, and the Jewish alukah is a living vampire that can turn into a wolf. Proposed explanations as to why these particular animals, usually have something to do with a cultural link between the animal and the concept of evil, death, disease, or destruction. But I don’t know enough about any of these examples to speak on their accuracy or their origin/explanation with confidence.

[aristoteliancomplacency]

No of course I didn’t spend the last 2 hours tracking down citations to add to a small Wikipedia article on a specific statue of Athena, discovering literally all the sources are unavailable online, then realising that they’re all in German and further discovering that my local library has them all. Why would you think that?

[1solone]

Remember the guy who wouldn't take the flag pole down on his Virginia property awhile back? You might remember the news story several months ago about a crotchety old man in Virginia who defied his local Homeowners Association and refused to take down the flag pole on his property along with the large American flag he flew on it.

Now we learn who that old man was. On June 15, 1919, Van T. Barfoot was born in Edinburg, Texas . That probably didn't make news back then.

But twenty five years later, on May 23, 1944, near Cyrano, Italy, That same Van T. Barfoot, who had in 1940 enlisted in the U.S. Army, set out alone to flank German machine gun

positions from which gunfire was raining down on his fellow soldiers. His advance took him through a minefield but

having done so, he proceeded to single-handedly take out three enemy machine gun positions, returning with 17 prisoners of war.

And if that weren’t enough for a day's work, he later took on and destroyed three German tanks sent to retake the machine gun positions.

That probably didn’t make much news either, given the scope of the war, but it did earn Van T. Barfoot, who retired as a Colonel after also serving In Korea and Vietnam , a well deserved Congressional Medal of Honor.

What did make news was his Neighborhood Association's quibble with how the 90-year-old Veteran chose to fly the American flag outside his suburban Virginia home. Seems the HOA rules said it was OK to fly a flag on a house-mounted bracket, but, for decorum, items such as Barfoot's 21-foot

flagpole were "unsuitable".

Van Barfoot had been denied a permit for the pole, but erected it anyway and was facing Court action unless he agreed to take it down.

Then the HOA story made national TV, and the Neighborhood Association rethought its position and agreed to indulge this

aging hero who dwelt among them.

"In the timeI have left", he said to the Associated Press, "I plan to continue to fly the American flag without interference."

As well he should. And if any of his neighbors had taken a notion to contest him further, they might have done well to read his Medal of Honor citation first. Seems it Indicates Mr. Van Barfoot wasn't particularly good at backing down.

If you've read this post and don't share it, - Guess what -You need your butt kicked. I share this with you because I don't want MY butt kicked anymore and I'm tired of seeing those who hate our country yet march in our streets, tear down our statues, burn our stores and loot our businesses have a free hand to do whatever they want.

WE ONLY LIVE IN THE LAND OF THE FREE BECAUSE OF THE BRAVE! AND, BECAUSE OF BRAVE OLD MEN LIKE VAN BARFOOT!

[aioleis]

Arcades Project

Das Passagen-Werk or Arcades Project was an unfinished project of German philosopher and cultural critic Walter Benjamin, written between 1927 and his death in 1940.

An enormous collection of writings on the city life of Paris in the 19th century, it was especially concerned with Paris' iron-and-glass covered "arcades" (known in French as the passages couverts de Paris).

Benjamin's Project, which many scholars believe might have become one of the great texts of 20th-century cultural criticism, was never completed due to his suicide on the French-Spanish border in 1940. The Arcades Project has been posthumously edited and published in many languages as a collection of unfinished reflections. The work is mainly written in German, yet also contains French-language passages, mainly quotes.

Parisian arcades began to be constructed around the beginning of the nineteenth century and were sometimes destroyed as a result of Baron Haussmann's renovation of Paris during the Second French Empire (ca. 1850–1870). Benjamin linked them to the city's distinctive street life and saw them as providing one of the habitats of the flâneur (i.e., a person strolling in a locale to experience it).

Benjamin first mentioned the Arcades Project in a 1927 letter to his friend Gershom Scholem, describing it as his attempt to use collage techniques in literature. Initially, Benjamin saw the Arcades as a small article he would finish within a few weeks.

However, Benjamin's vision of the Arcades Project grew increasingly ambitious in scope until he perceived it as representing his most important creative accomplishment. On several occasions Benjamin altered his overall scheme of the Arcades Project, due in part to the influence of Theodor Adorno, who gave Benjamin a stipend and who expected Benjamin to make the Arcades project more explicitly political and Marxist in its analysis.

It contains sections (convolutes) on arcades, fashion, catacombs, iron constructions, exhibitions, advertising, interior design, Baudelaire, The streets of Paris, panoramas and dioramas, mirrors, painting, modes of lighting, railroads, Charles Fourier, Marx, photography, mannequins, social movements, Daumier's caricatures, literary history, the stock exchange, lithography, and the Paris Commune.

It influenced Marshal McLuhan's studies in media theory.

Structure

The project's structure is idiosyncratic. The convolutes correspond to letters of the alphabet; the individual sections of text— sometimes individual lines, sometimes multi-paragraph analyses —are ordered with square brackets, starting from [A1,1]. This numbering system comes from the pieces of folded paper that Benjamin wrote on, with [A1a,1] denoting the third page of his 'folio.'  Additionally, Benjamin included cross-references at the end of some sections. These were denoted by small boxes enclosing the word

The sections of text are at times Benjamin's own thoughts, and at other times consecutive quotations. These two types of textual sections are differentiated in their typography, with a large typeface for his writing and a smaller one for citations. This convention comes from the German version, but has no basis in Benjamin's manuscript. The convolutes also make extensive use of epigraphs from obscure publications.

Wiki

The Flaneur and Urban Phantasmagoria

Towards the City of Thresholds, Stavros Stavrides, 2010

As a figure, the laneur is in many ways the opposite of the private individual. The flaneur lives in public space. The streets, the boulevards and, above all, the Parisian arcades are his home7. In a way, the laneur seeks and produces at the same time marks of individuality not in his private shelter but out there, in metropolitan public space. He observes and often writes about city-life while being “jostled” by the crowd, inside “an immense reservoir of electric energy”, as Baudelaire describes metropolitan crowds (Benjamin 1999:443).

A true physiognomist, he seeks out what is distinctive, what is particular in the everyday panoramas of city life as they unfold in front of his eyes. He attributes value to small incidents, he explores leeting images, leeting gestures, ephemeral and chance encounters. The flaneur thus becomes a sublimated detective (ibid. 442).

His passion for minute details revealing small dramas or well hidden misdeeds makes him the perfect tracer. His hypersensitive sight interprets everything as a trace.

Whereas the private individual collects in his private shelter traces of a studiously fabricated individuality, the laneur searches for traces that will reveal individual trajectories in public space.

The individuality that he seeks out in the streets is the very same leeting individuality that dissatisies the private individual who feels that there are no individual traces in public space.

And whereas the private individual dedicates the phantasmagorias of interior to a ‘monumental’ individuality that resists the transitoriness of modern life, the laneur discovers in the depth of this transitoriness traces of an ephemeral, anonymous – if this is not a contradiction in terms – individuality. Immersed in public phantasmagorias he likes “to read from faces the profession, the ancestry, the character”(ibid. 429).

The private individual as a city-dweller crosses public space with his eyes “over-burdened with protective functions”(Benjamin1983:151). Eyes that have lost the ability to meaningfully communicate and return the gaze, are eyes that are only used to inform, protect and guide.

A protective anesthetization prevails in the behavior of the city dweller8. Being in the street means being able to conform to rules, to adapt to typical situations with minimum involvement.

On the opposite, the flaneur empathizes with the crowd (ibid. 54). He feels the energy, the sparks, the dangers, the passions. And this attitude is expressed through an aestheticizing of metropolitan life. The flaneur is a aesthete. He views everything as aesthetically meaningful.

That is why he presents himself in public through gestures of emphatic theatricality: taking a turtle for a walk, dressing sometimes as a dandy, appearing strange in the middle of the crowd, playing with imitative behavior, vanishing and surfacing again in many disguises.

Zygmunt Bauman is right to suggest that “the job of the flaneur is to rehearse the world as a theatre, life as a play” (Bauman1994:146). This attitude, as opposed to that of the private individual in the streets who, an aesthetized, cannot feel or recognise auratic elements in metropolitan landscape, is an attitude of auratic appreciation.

City life resumes in the eyes of the laneur a peculiar aura. Through a day-dreaming gaze that reintroduces a perspective between the flaneur and the leeting metropolitan images “a unique manifestation of distance” is perceived. What for others is protectively presented as ordinary, for him becomes strange. Everything assumes the status of a work of art, every object becomes able to return the gaze.

Such an aestheticization of metropolitan experience makes the laneur a possible co-producer of urban phantasmagoria. Adding through his gestures or writings to the spectacular character of a culture dedicated to “commodity worship”, he may eventually become a mediating igure in the re-enchantment of public life.

“The flaneur-as-idler is thus doubly phantasmagoric: in what he writes (the physiologies) and what he does (the pretence of aristocratic idleness and the reality of bourgeois commercial interest)” (Gilloch 1997:156).

The decline of aura connected to anesthetization and alienating shock absorption is positively reserved in a constructed metropolitan mythology: The modern “transitory gods”(Buck-Morss 1991:259) only participate in a fetishization of newness necessary for the cult of consumption. And newness “is the quintessence of that false consciousness whose indefatigable agent is fashion” (Benjamin1999a:11).

Public phantasmagorias are enhanced by the laneur, this peculiar intellectual aesthete, who makes his profession to pursue the novelties of modern life. Everything he observes is above all marked by a halo of newness, originality. This turns out to be a quest for individuality and distinctive particularity, a quest for fashionable novelties in every aspect of public life (dressing, behavior, the arts, city places, views, technological gadgets etc.). https://www.academia.edu/30170865/Loafing_Papers_on_Academic_Life_14

[msclaritea]

Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy: The Story Within A Story

In Tinker, Control resigns his post on November 14, 1973. I thought Control to be an odd name, and I know how dates are very important to the Brits. They lost Control....control of what? Recall all of the references to Gold, Gold Dust, Treasure, so on.

The full description of dropping the Bretton Wood structure makes it clear that Connelly was behind the push to remove gold reserves.

According to Wiki, the Nixon Shock as it was called has calamitous results:

The Nixon Shock has been widely considered to be a political success, but an economic failure for bringing on the 1973–1975 recession, the stagflation of the 1970s, and the instability of floating currencies.[citation needed] The dollar plunged by a third during the 1970s. According to the World Trade Review's report "The Nixon Shock After Forty Years: The Import Surcharge Revisited", Douglas Irwin reports that for several months, U.S officials could not get other countries to agree to a formal revaluation of their currencies.[citation needed] The German Mark appreciated significantly after it was allowed to float in May 1971. Further, the Nixon Shock unleashed enormous speculation against the dollar. It forced Japan's central bank to intervene significantly in the foreign exchange market to prevent the yen from increasing in value. Within two days August 16–17, 1971, Japan's central bank had to buy $1.3 billion to support the dollar and keep the yen at the old rate of ¥360 to the dollar. Japan's foreign exchange reserves rapidly increased: $2.7 billion (30%) a week later and $4 billion the following week. Still, this large-scale intervention by Japan's central bank could not prevent the depreciation of US dollar against the yen. France also was willing to allow the dollar to depreciate against the franc, but not allow the franc to appreciate against gold. Even much later, in 2011, Paul Volcker expressed regret over the abandonment of Bretton Woods: "Nobody's in charge," Volcker said. "The Europeans couldn't live with the uncertainty and made their own currency and now that's in trouble."

A note about Armand Hammer, the grandfather of actor, Arnie Hammer. An American of Soviet descent, he was singlehandedly responsible for the reviving of the Soviet Union. As for Billy Graham...

Mendel: "My friend just wants peace and quiet to work, Mrs. Pope-Graham. No Disturbances."

To Smiley: "Real name is just Graham. Added the Pope for a touch of class."

2005

"Billy Graham. We know that his messages are solid gospel. Few in or out of the Christian World have not heard of him. Since 1949 he has held the spotlight as the most prominent evangelist in Christendom. He has just finished his 416th crusade in Pasadena, California that drew over 300,000 people in four days. 13,000+ responded to his altar calls. Graham is now 86 years old and has one more crusade scheduled in New York City next year, health permitting.

The Pasadena crusade was on the anniversary of his first Los Angeles revival 55 years ago. It was after that meeting that Graham was "kissed by William Randolph Hearst" according to Dr Cathy Burns in her book, Billy Graham and His Friends. This meant that Hearst had decided to promote Graham's ministry in his nationwide chain of newspapers.

Immediately, reporters and photographers were crawling all over the Graham meetings. Front page articles began to appear in the leading local papers wherever Graham held meetings. One reporter was assigned full time to travel with Graham's team.

In 1991, Graham claimed that this sudden attention remained a mystery. Burns describes a more complex scenario. Regardless, the publicity propelled Graham into the national, if not international, limelight.

Jesus warned, "Woe unto you, when all men shall speak well of you." Over the years, Graham became the friend of presidents and kings, a beloved "America's Pastor."

But the fame came with a price. In his book, Smokescreens, written in 1983, Jack Chick describes how Roman Catholic leaders viewed and used Graham as a key player in their ecumenical plans. As early as 1965, he was a guest speaker at Catholic Belmont Abbey College in North Carolina where he received an honorary doctor's degree. A college official's letter describes Graham's address as "theologically sound" as may have been given by "any other Catholic preacher." The letter further states, "I would state that he could bring Catholics and Protestants together in a healthy ecumenic spirit." Graham was also speaking at several other Catholic colleges at that time..."

Connelly was said to be on secret peace mission with Hammer. Richard Nixon gave a speech that talks of 'the challenge of peace' in unveiling his new economic plan. In Tinker, Irina is taken and killed by Russia. Irina means Peace.

John Le Carré really is a genius writer because this was brilliant.

[usafphantom2]

Tap pictures to enlarge

☝️ and drop markers for the Main Force to bomb. As the nine 635 Sqn aircraft approached the target, they were met with a wall of intense and accurate flak. The Master Bomber was put out of action and his Deputy was shot down. Bazalgette and his crew now took over responsibility as lead markers, but they too came under fire.

A direct hit on the starboard wing started a raging fire and knocked out both engines on that side, while another strike on the nose almost severed the bomb aimer’s right arm. Nonetheless, Bazalgette kept control and managed to drop his markers and bombload onto the target. Suddenly, the Lancaster entered a spin and lost considerable altitude before Bazalgette regained control. The bomb aimer was moved to the rest bunk. But now fuel from the holed wing tanks was pooling in the rear fuselage and the fumes had incapacitated the mid upper gunner.

At this point, the port inner engine also failed. Told by his flight engineer that the aircraft was finished, Bazalgette ordered the crew to bale out but had no intention of abandoning the injured bomb aimer and unconscious mid-upper gunner, who could not do so. Now alone at the controls, he searched for a place to land. With the Lancaster still trailing flames from the starboard wing, Bazalgette pulled off a textbook forced landing near the village of Senantes. But the aircraft was almost immediately engulfed by a huge explosion as the remaining fuel ignited, killing all three men on board.

All 4 crewmen who did bale out, however, survived despite the low altitude and evaded capture with the assistance of the French resistance. This has been their pilot’s 58th operation, yet his entire crew had already agreed to volunteer for a rare third tour with ‘Baz’. The bodies of bomb aimer, Flt/Lt Hibbert and mid upper gunner, Flt/Sgt Vernon Leeder were recovered by the French and taken to the church at Senantes. They were then removed by the Germans and buried at Marissel, near Beauvais, despite the objections of the locals.

Subsequently, villagers returned to the crash site to lay flowers and managed to recover partial remains of Ian Bazalgette, which they hid until the arrival of Allied forces. He was buried with military honours in the churchyard on October 8th, with his sister in attendance. With evidence provided from the French and his surviving crewmen, Bazalgette’s VC was announced on 17th August, 1945. It’s hard to argue with the words of his citation: ‘His heroic sacrifice marked the climax of a long career… His courage and devotion to duty were beyond praise’.

[brookstonalmanac]

Events 6.4 (after 1940)

1940 – World War II: The Dunkirk evacuation ends: the British Armed Forces completes evacuation of 338,000 troops from Dunkirk in France. To rally the morale of the country, Winston Churchill delivers, only to the House of Commons, his famous "We shall fight on the beaches" speech. 1942 – World War II: The Battle of Midway begins. The Japanese Admiral Chūichi Nagumo orders a strike on Midway Island by much of the Imperial Japanese Navy. 1942 – World War II: Gustaf Mannerheim, the Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Army, is granted the title of Marshal of Finland by the government on his 75th birthday. On the same day, Adolf Hitler arrives in Finland for a surprise visit to meet Mannerheim. 1943 – A military coup in Argentina ousts Ramón Castillo. 1944 – World War II: A hunter-killer group of the United States Navy captures the German Kriegsmarine submarine U-505: The first time a U.S. Navy vessel had captured an enemy vessel at sea since the 19th century. 1944 – World War II: The United States Fifth Army captures Rome, although much of the German Fourteenth Army is able to withdraw to the north. 1961 – Cold War: In the Vienna summit, the Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev sparks the Berlin Crisis by threatening to sign a separate peace treaty with East Germany and ending American, British and French access to East Berlin. 1967 – Seventy-two people are killed when a Canadair C-4 Argonaut crashes at Stockport in England. 1970 – Tonga gains independence from the British Empire. 1975 – The Governor of California Jerry Brown signs the California Agricultural Labor Relations Act into law, the first law in the United States giving farmworkers collective bargaining rights. 1977 – JVC introduces its VHS videotape at the Consumer Electronics Show in Chicago. It will eventually prevail against Sony's rival Betamax system in a format war to become the predominant home video medium. 1979 – Flight Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings takes power in Ghana after a military coup in which General Fred Akuffo is overthrown. 1983 – Gordon Kahl, who killed two US Marshals in Medina, North Dakota on February 13, is killed in a shootout in Smithville, Arkansas, along with a local sheriff, after a four-month manhunt. 1986 – Jonathan Pollard pleads guilty to espionage for selling top secret United States military intelligence to Israel. 1988 – Three cars on a train carrying hexogen to Kazakhstan explode in Arzamas, Gorky Oblast, USSR, killing 91 and injuring about 1,500. 1989 – In the 1989 Iranian Supreme Leader election, Ali Khamenei is elected as the new Supreme Leader of Iran after the death and funeral of Ruhollah Khomeini. 1989 – The Tiananmen Square protests and massacre are suppressed in Beijing by the People's Liberation Army, with between 241 and 10,000 dead (an unofficial estimate). 1989 – Solidarity's victory in the 1989 Polish legislative election, the first election since the Communist Polish United Workers' Party abandoned its monopoly of power. It sparks off the Revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe. 1989 – Ufa train disaster: A natural gas explosion near Ufa, Russia, kills 575 as two trains passing each other throw sparks near a leaky pipeline. 1996 – The first flight of Ariane 5 explodes after roughly 37 seconds. It was a Cluster mission. 1998 – Terry Nichols is sentenced to life in prison for his role in the Oklahoma City bombing. 2005 – The Civic Forum of the Romanians of Covasna, Harghita and Mureș is founded. 2010 – Falcon 9 Flight 1 is the maiden flight of the SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket, which launches from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 40. 2023 – Protests begin in Poland against the Duda government. 2023 – Four people are killed when a Cessna Citation V crashes into Mine Bank Mountain in Augusta County, Virginia.

[bestseosagar]

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[citationsbuildinggroup]

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[joey38bing]

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[sfc-paulchambers]

U.S. Army soldier Walter C. Wetzel of Huntington, West Virginia, was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his heroic actions on April 3, 1945, in Birken, Germany. Wetzel joined the Army in July 1941 and, by April 3, 1945, was serving as a Private First Class in the 13th Infantry Regiment, 8th Infantry Division. On that day, in Birken, Germany, Wetzel smothered the blasts of German-thrown grenades with his body, sacrificing himself to protect those around him. He was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor ten months later, on February 26, 1946, by President Truman. His Medal of Honor citation reads: "Pfc. Wetzel, an acting squad leader with the Antitank Company of the 13th Infantry, was guarding his platoon's command post in a house at Birken, Germany, during the early morning hours of 3 April 1945, when he detected strong enemy forces moving in to attack. He ran into the house, alerted the occupants and immediately began defending the post against heavy automatic weapons fire coming from the hostile troops. Under cover of darkness, the Germans forced their way close to the building where they hurled grenades, 2 of which landed in the room where Pfc. Wetzel and the others had taken up firing positions. Shouting a warning to his fellow soldiers, Pfc. Wetzel threw himself on the grenades and, as they exploded, absorbed their entire blast, suffering wounds from which he died. The supreme gallantry of Pfc. Wetzel saved his comrades from death or serious injury and made it possible for them to continue the defense of the command post and break the power of a dangerous local counterthrust by the enemy. His unhesitating sacrifice of his life was in keeping with the U.S. Army's highest traditions of bravery and heroism." #WeRememberThem Posted @withregram • @wwiimemorial (at Huntington, West Virginia) https://www.instagram.com/p/Cqk8UiFOksK/?igshid=NGJjMDIxMWI=

[3liza]

"bean" could be a mistranslation to english but i dont know anything about translating this field of texts (or anything really) but my guess is that, much like the "the barbarians live up to their necks in the swamp literally, im serious" stuff and a lot of other writing about the germanics/celts/etc (and frankly about anything), the conventions of "factual reporting" were just not established at the time.

"citation: it came to me in a dream" or "a guy told me at the bar and he seemed reasonable" were acceptable ways to write your histories, official reports, and newsletters until relatively recently in most of the world. also, exactly like modern travelers, guys in ancient rome would show up somewhere foreign and then people would mess with them and lie to them on purpose, or not understand what they were asking about (see also: later european settlers to Oceania and the Americas naming every landscape feature and population group "the mountain" or 'the river" or "those people who live over there" in whatever the local language was of the closest indigenous people they asked).

the romans also just didn't understand what they were observing a lot of the time, and often reported as much: the modern neopagan practice of "casting runes" is based on a report by rome (maybe Tacitus but i cant remember) of the ancient germans doing something divinatory with "chips" from a fruit tree (?) with something written on them (??) but the description is so vague it can be interpreted a lot of different ways and we dont actually know what it means. ditto for physical descriptions: the pop culture conception of "vikings" as having dreadlocks, full-body tattoos, and the celts as being "painted with woad" etc date back mostly to the Victorian era when people really started to romanticize archaeology and ancient history in a much bigger way than before and a lot of very sentimental Victorians just sort of decided that a description as vague as Ahmad Ibn Fadlan (who was a better reporter than every Roman imo) describing a norse (Rus) person "being covered in pictures[?]" meant tattoos, when we don't actually know. lots of humans paint themselves or stain our skin, and without Fadlan specifically saying "i saw them poking pigment into their skin with needles" it's not clear, and usually when people are writing reports of that kind they dont feel the need to be forensically descriptive (unfortunately)

like any traveler who's way out his depth and doesnt speak the local language, the romans would also just not understand what the locals were doing and make assumptions, or see one guy doing one thing one time and go "ah, i see that barbarian loves eating horseradish on pizza, they all must eat horseradish on pizza for every single meal, i saw it with my own eyes" and then go home and tell everyone about it. so the various histories and campaign reports by the ancient romans and greeks reporting on the behavior of foreigners has to be squinted at pretty hard, and every time you run into something like "they live neck-deep in mud and eat one bean-sized serving of food" you can make some guesses about exaggerations and correct for it. "they live in the swamp and eat one bean of butter" can be squinted into "they live near the wetlands and swim a lot (or look like they do, or someone told me they did and then laughed), and eat [small amounts of] high calorie food", which is actually true for some northern europeans and we can verify it from the archaeological evidence.

not to mention all writing of this kind is political, even today, and these guys were writing war reports. so making the enemy or the colonized people seem as alien and savage and confusing as possible was/is intentional.

the bog butter knobs (actual term for a portion of butter) we've recovered have been between fist- and watermelon-sized as far as i know, and still edible. we probably wont find any roman invasion-era butter but if we do i am going to be on the news

[rwood2477]

Remember the guy who wouldn't take the flag pole down on his Virginia property awhile back? You might remember the news story several months ago about a crotchety old man in Virginia who defied his local Homeowners Association and refused to take down the flag pole on his property along with the large American flag he flew on it.

Now we learn who that old man was. On June 15, 1919, Van T. Barfoot was born in Edinburg, Texas . That probably didn't make news back then.

But twenty five years later, on May 23, 1944, near Cyrano, Italy, That same Van T. Barfoot, who had in 1940 enlisted in the U.S. Army, set out alone to flank German machine gun

positions from which gunfire was raining down on his fellow soldiers. His advance took him through a minefield but

having done so, he proceeded to single-handedly take out three enemy machine gun positions, returning with 17 prisoners of war.

And if that weren’t enough for a day's work, he later took on and destroyed three German tanks sent to retake the machine gun positions.

That probably didn’t make much news either, given the scope of the war, but it did earn Van T. Barfoot, who retired as a Colonel after also serving In Korea and Vietnam , a well deserved Congressional Medal of Honor.

What did make news was his Neighborhood Association's quibble with how the 90-year-old Veteran chose to fly the American flag outside his suburban Virginia home. Seems the HOA rules said it was OK to fly a flag on a house-mounted bracket, but, for decorum, items such as Barfoot's 21-foot

flagpole were "unsuitable".

Van Barfoot had been denied a permit for the pole, but erected it anyway and was facing Court action unless he agreed to take it down.

Then the HOA story made national TV, and the Neighborhood Association rethought its position and agreed to indulge this

aging hero who dwelt among them.

"In the timeI have left", he said to the Associated Press, "I plan to continue to fly the American flag without interference."

As well he should. And if any of his neighbors had taken a notion to contest him further, they might have done well to read his Medal of Honor citation first. Seems it Indicates Mr. Van Barfoot wasn't particularly good at backing down.

If you've read this post and don't share it, - Guess what -You need your butt kicked. I share this with you because I don't want MY butt kicked anymore and I'm tired of seeing those who hate our country yet march in our streets, tear down our statues, burn our stores and loot our businesses have a free hand to do whatever they want.

WE ONLY LIVE IN THE LAND OF THE FREE BECAUSE OF THE BRAVE! AND, BECAUSE OF BRAVE OLD MEN LIKE VAN BARFOOT!

[fatehbaz]

aw i swear i reblogged a post of yours with a reading rec and now i can't find it. :( but i was interested in learning more about indigenous vs colonial/imperial relationships with nature (especially in terms of nature as a food source) and was wondering if you had any books (or other resources) you could recommend? thank you for all the resources and information you share!

Thank you for the kind message. :)

Are you thinking about the new book on how the US, despite formally occupying the islands at the time, also simultaneously flexed some so-called “Soft Power” (which is, of course, violent and never actually “soft”) and asserted itself in the Philippines by messing around with food culture and changing food traditions? Taste of Control: Food and the Filipino Colonial Mentality Under American Rule. From 2020, by R. Alexander D. Orquiza. (The book focuses on the period between 1898 and 1940s.)

Maybe you’d be interested in these? These are some posts from me. Each post contains short excerpts. (Like, the juicy bits and short enough to not be overwhelming, y’know? Then, if the subject seems cool, the author names and full citation are included. Some of the posts contain maps, photos of plants/animals, other visual aid, and direct links to read the longer full articles for free.) These are posts about local food sovereignty; differences between worldviews of traditional food systems and settler-colonial food systems; difference between traditional and imperial relationships to plants; Empire’s use of food, plants, botany, and scientific institutions to undermine Indigenous autonomy; and contrasts between imperial and traditional human-plant-animal relationships.

-- Manoomin, the imperial plot to domesticate wild rice, “cottage colonialism” in Canada, imaginative control, the power of names and naming plants, different understanding of food contrasted between Empire and Indigenous knowledge. (Covers 1880s to Present.)

-- Pineapple, domestication of breadfruit, and plantations ��doing the work of Empire” in Hawaii. Difference between Indigenous Polynesian respect for plants/food, and imperial/industrial food extraction.

-- Leslie Marmon Silko: Gardens. Food sovereignty and imperialist use of food to gain control. Settler-colonial theft of Indigenous plant knowledge. She says: “It wasn’t too long before I realized how very political gardens are. I had actually stumbled into the most political thing of all – how you grow your food, whether you eat, the fact that the plant collectors followed the Conquistadors.”

-- “We don’t need to know what starfish know”: Aboriginal knowledge-holders of Bawaka Country discuss contrast between traditional and settler-colonial understandings of food harvest and multispecies communities.

-- Anna Boswell’s discussion of endemic longfin eels of Aotearoa as example of contrast between Maori worldviews and settler-colonial understanding of ecology; and the problem with making “land-water” distinctions in Euro-American agriculture and land management.

-- Robin Wall Kimmerer speaking frankly about paying attention to plants, and the differences between kinds of inquiry, difference between settler-colonial institutionalized knowledge compared to Indigenous/land-based “ways of knowing”.

-- Native food and imperial appropriation of food/plants: “The Nineteenth-Century Garden: Imperialism, Subsistence, and Subversion in Leslie Marmon Silko's Gardens in the Dunes.”  

-- Mapuche cultural autonomy, Valdivian temperate rainforest, and European  plots to dismantle the rainforest to create “Swiss or German pastoral farm landscape” in Chile.

-- The debris and ruins of imperial sugar plantations in the Caribbean, and modern Caribbean art

-- Easy-to-access compilation of audio recordings and oral histories of bioregional foodsheds, from 13 Native food autonomy advocates. (New England maple syrup. New Mexico. Louisiana’s Gulf Coast. Abalone/acorns in California. Salmon in PNW, etc.)

-- “Ghostly non-places; settler-colonial hallucinations and fantasy visions; monstrous plants and animals; hiding, destroying, re-making ecological worlds; permanent cataclysm; the horror of settlement”: Anna Boswell on settler-colonial agriculture and ecology.

-- Some fresh annoying OC from me. Vegetation as a weapon: On soil degradation and the use of non-native plants to change landscapes and sever cultural relationships to land; extinction of megafauna; and on the dramatically under-reported but massive scale of anthropogenic environmental change wrought by early empires and “civilizations” in the Bronze Age, Iron Age, and ancient world (including the Fertile Crescent, Rome, and early China)

-- Indigenous Sami reindeer herding contrasted with colonial/industrial resource extraction; “eternal catastrophe”; power over death; “disaster as a form of governance”; apocalypse. From the great writing of Hugo Reinert.

-- Anna Boswell on stoats; native plants/animals of Aotearoa; and how settler-colonial environmental management targets species (and humans) for persecution or sacrifice.

--- Calcutta Botanic Gardens abduction and use of Chinese slaves; Kew Gardens (successfully) plotting to steal cinchona from people of Bolivia to service their staff in India; botanic gardens’ role in large-scale dispossession to create plantations in Assam and Ooty (1790s - 1870s).

-- The role of grasslands, deforestation, and English grasses in ecological imperialism in Aotearoa, early 20th century.

-- “Forage wars” between Native food harvesters and California legal institutions: Abalone, native foodsheds, and food harvesting in Pomo, Yurok, Coast Yuki, and other Klamath Mountains and coastal Northern California communities.

-- Zoe Todd discussing connection to local place, traditional ecological knowledge, and knowledge appropriation: “Not all knowledge is for your consumption.”

-- The grand tale of breadfruit domestication, the mutiny on the Bounty,  and plantation owners plotting with Kew Gardens to domesticate crops to  undermine slave gardens in the Caribbean. (Also includes comments on the under-reported central role of media/PR manipulation and slavery in the “mutiny on the Bounty” story.)

-- Conflating women with “bloodthirsty” and “flesh-eating” plants, and the  dehumanization of Indigenous cultures through scientific illustrations of imperial scientific agents and artistic depictions of plants from  colonized ecosystems (Euro-American art and science of botany in1700s to early 1900s),

-- Robin Wall Kimmerer: Paying attention to plants and her love for strawberries, from Braiding Sweetgrass.

-- “Coyote’s biota”: Comcaac (Seri) and O’Odaham food, plant knowledge, and the ascribing of special names to native plants and Euro-American plants to distinguish between types of food.

-- In the Falkland Islands: Intersections of extinction; the “Antarctic wolf”; colonialism, whiteness, racism, “invasion,” indigeneity; environmental history; decline of penguins; introduction of non-native European sheep, cats, cattle, pigs and ecological reinforcement of settler-colonial culture, etc.

-- Bogong moths and ethics of killing insects in settler-colonial Australian imaginary

-- “The British Museum was built on coral, butterflies, and slavery”: Hans Sloane, Caribbean ecology, museums and curiosity cabinets, and how plantation money and slavery built British scientific institutions

-- Human relationship with bees; use of insects in imperialism

-- Racism in depictions Melanesia; the mapping and naming of Polynesia and Melanesia

-- Records and details of extreme deforestation in ancient Eastern Mediterranean and Mesopotamia around 4500 BC; extreme landscape modification in Asiatic steppes in first millennium AD.

-- Zoe Todd on human-fish relationships in Alberta, prairie, and boreal forest.

-- Dandelions, other non-native plants, and settler gardens changing soil of the Canadian Arctic. (Late 1800s and early 1900s.) From Broken Frontier: Ecological Imperialism in the Canadian North.

---------

And some of the so-called “classic” authors:

-- Zoe Todd: Might be most famous in popular media for her criticism of the Eurocentrism of the  “Anthropocene concept; for writing about racism and anti-Indigenous prejudice in academia; and for her 2014 essay, a retort to Euroamerican anthropologists. But aside from her advocacy, her academic research is often concerned with fish, food, plants, and traditional ecological knowledge of Indigenous communities in Canada (she is Metis, from Alberta). You’d be able to find many of her articles online, though I linked some above.

-- Neel Ahuja: Pretty famous scholar, “leading” author on biopolitics. References foodsheds and contrasts local and imperial food production, but also more broadly addresses interspecies/multispecies relationships; entanglements of race, gender, speciesism; health, medicine, and control of disease; control of food and personal bodies as sites of colonization.

-- Robin Wall Kimmerer: Wonderful. She’s a botanist, she loves moss, and she’s concerned with traditional ecological knowledge. (She is Potawatomi.) She does explicitly contrast imaginaries, like the difference between Settler-colonial/imperial perceptions of plants/ecosystems, and Indigenous/local/”attentive” perceptions of plants/ecosystems.

-- Vandana Shiva: She has many, many lectures and publications available. Her politics aren’t always great, but she might be most famous for advocating food sovereignty and resistance to corporate agriculture and food giants. Often speaks of development, industrialization, and gender hierarchies. But one influential text was Biopiracy: the plunder of nature and knowledge from 1997.

-- Anna Boswell: Perhaps most famous for writing about the plight of the endemic Aotearoa longfin eel, she specifically focuses on the contrast between, on the one hand, Indigenous/local perceptions and Maori knowledge of landscape/living creatures, and, on the other hand, settler-colonial and industrial/extractivist perceptions of land. She uses some certain animals/plants of Aotearoa as case studies to clearly demonstrate different treatment/perception of land, to criticize settler-colonial “world reordering” (landscaping, pasture, plantation, etc.) as a form of “deathwork.”

(1) Aotearoa longfin eel and devaluing species; (2) tuatara and colonial environmental change; (3) non-native stoats and persecution; (4) settler-colonial landscapes, fantasy-visions, and ecological apocalypse.

-------

Something I mentioned in the tags on that post about food in the Philippines was that an early formative learning experience for Young Me was when I met a teacher who had worked with ecology and horticulture in Southeast Asia, who stressed that, even after Euro-American imperial powers formally end their colonial occupation of a place, we have to ask: What avenues of food sovereignty are available, if plantation monoculture has destroyed the soil microorganism lifeforms and traditional knowledge systems have been deliberately dismantled or subjugated? Soil is dead, local traditional knowledge has been appropriated and undermined (and traditional knowledge is deliberately targeted during campaigns of erasure and overt violence). And so, even “liberated” places might be forced to drink corporate soda products. There might not be a military occupation, but corporate entities and financial institutions can now act as de facto occupiers. Destroy somebody’s food garden, and you force them to shop at your supermarket. Words like “independence” and “post-colonial” are haunted, because Empire continues, reasserts, finds “new” ways to dominate. But are these tactics really “new”? Just like in earlier historical periods of power consolidation, Empire seems to achieve great power by disturbing, changing, or severing connection between people and their local landscape/environment.

And food is at the center of that human-environment relationship.

If soils are damaged and people are dispossessed, no longer with access to a backyard garden; people of a Caribbean island might no longer be able to grow staple tubers, and instead the US-owned grocer franchise becomes the food source, entangling people involuntarily. Instead of eating Louisiana’s gumbo or the Pacific Northwest’s huckleberries, you can instead eat the same standardized meal at a fast food restaurant in New Orleans and in Seattle, at opposite edges of a continent, which has the effect of undermining potential regional cultural practices situated in local landscape, local plants, local food.

You know what I mean? Anyway.

------

Hope these are interesting. Sorry for all of this, an overwhelming amount of text. :)

[theoutcastrogue]

Banditry in the Ottoman Empire

[Article found on LevantineHeritage.com. Although it comes with citations, I didn’t see an author name.]

n.b. The Zeybeks were a group of irregular militia and/or outlaw bandits, from the 17th to the early 20th century. The legendary outlaws Çakırcalı Mehmet Efe and Atçalı Kel Mehmet, proper Robin Hood figures in Anatolia, were both Zeybeks.

1. General

Banditry in the Ottoman Empire resulted from changes in the state’s military and fiscal organisation and the Empire’s integration into the world economy starting in the XVIth century. The bandit groups consisted of current mercenaries, ancient soldiers, nomads and peasants in a continuously redefined area of state-subject relationship. [1]

In the Ottoman Empire’s classical period, the timar-holding (military fief) sipahi (cavalry soldiers) formed the backbone of the Ottoman army and most of the military expenses were met by way of timar assignments, that is, through the collection of state taxes by the sipahi from timar assigned to them in the provinces. During the XVIth century, each military campaign caused the growth of the number of troops in the growing territorial scope. As a result, the State Treasury was frequently in need of a ready cash for the military's upkeep, especially in time of war. Therefore, the government was faced with the major task of reorganizing state finances to meet the challenging needs of changing times. [2]

2. Banditry in the 16th century

The major changes that had taken place beginning with the 1580s were brought about mainly by the decay of the timar and has (state’s domain), held earlier by beys, pashas (paşa), and other officials, came, at a swiftly growing rate, under the direct control of the State Treasury. Once under government control, most of the timar and has revenues were farmed out by iltizam; that is, the state, instead of assigning the revenues of sancaks to pashas or beys as has, farmed them out as mukata’a (tax farm) to mültezims [n.b. the highest bidders] or to governors who acted as mültezims. [3]

The treasury also tried to reduce expenditure on armed forces stationed in the provinces and more governors were expected to provide and pay for their own military retinues. Sekban sarıca (Anatolian mercenaries) or levend (vagrant peasant) troops began to be maintained by the local governors as part of their retinues. Therefore, a sizable number of armed bands roamed the Anatolian countryside in search of employment. Moreover, in order to survive they exacted illegal taxes called salgun from the peasants in spite of the government's attempt to secure its tax base and thus protect the peasants. [4]

In this context, the mercenaries who became vagrant during peace and the peasants exploited by increased arbitrary tax burdens started to engage in banditry activity in the Ottoman countryside. The famous Celali rebellions [5] emerged in this context as threat to the central authority. At the end of the XVIth century certain leaders of mercenary troops were able to traverse all of Anatolia, and set siege to major fortified towns. Nevertheless, Celali leaders whose main pretext for rebellion was the need to feed their mercenaries could be integrated into the system by the government; when they were given public office, the need of rebellion disappeared. [6]

3. Banditry in the 19th century

Another period in which the state military and fiscal organisation underwent transformation resulting in banditry was the XIXth century. The destruction of the Janissary troops in 1826 and Mahmut II’s consequent efforts to create a general conscription system led to the increase of banditry activity in the Empire. The former Janissaries continued their career as bandits and the subjects who faced for the first time the direct control of the central state began to desert and join the bandit groups. Especially after the Ottoman-Russian War of 1828-1829, the soldiers who could return to their homelands in search of employment often became bandits. Moreover, the conquest of Algeria by France in the 1830s caused the unemployment of young people who were sent regularly to Algeria from İzmir. They found refuge with the bandits active in the hinterland of İzmir. [7]

Robbers Attack Train in Ottoman Turkey, 1891

The fiscal transformation brought about by the tanzimat period also led to further development of banditry in the Ottoman provinces. The peasants who faced the new taxation structure and the notables who lost their ancient privileges resisted the military and fiscal centralisation attempts of the Tanzimat governments. [8] During 1840s and 1850s the government could not even collect the taxes imposed of the Aydın-İzmir region. [9]

Banditry intensified especially in the second half of the XIXth century. Particularly in the hinterland of İzmir around Ödemiş, Çine, Bayındır, Milas, Tire, and Nazilli, it was the bandits who were the actual masters of the region. The government, which could not prevent banditry and was in need of soldiers, forgave the bandits in return that they join to the army that would fight in the Ottoman-Russian War of 1877-1878. The bandits accepted the offer; nevertheless, after the war they continued their usual activities in the region. [10]

4. Kidnappings

The integration of the Ottoman lands into the world economy also agitated the Ottoman subjects in the countryside. Foreigners, due to their increased numbers and extensive economic activity in this period, became a target for bandits, especially in the less well-policed countryside. The usual method was to kidnap persons and release them in exchange for a ransom. Between 1880 and 1902, a large proportion of these kidnappings, eight out of twenty-one, occurred in the Province of Aydın, the majority of these in or near İzmir [11].

5. Brigand gangs and leaders

Banditry had perhaps never been absent in rural western Anatolia. Brigands known as zeybek and pallikaria (in Greek: brave young men) were very active in the second half of the XIXth and in the begining of the XXth century. The most notorious Turkish bandit-leaders of the time were Çakırcalı Ahmed, killed in December 1883, and Çakırcalı Mehmed, who reportedly acted as a sort of Robin Hood, robbing the rich while distributing the booty among the poor. The government, unable to suppress his activities, tried to pacify him and his gang by offering a fixed annual income (in 1905) and later (in 1908) a “neutral zone” near Muğla, containing a çiftlik and including a monthly salary of TL 20. In October 1909, he was reported arrested near Ödemiş. This certainly was not true; he finally died in a surprise attack by government troops in the mountains near Milas in 1911. Hacı Mustafa, Mehmed’s cousin, succeeded him as gang-leader.

“Captain” Gheorghios, “Captain” Dhimos (both in the surroundings of Bornova and Buca), Kara Ali, Arnavut Ahmed, Arnavut Kazım, Tekeoğlu, Costa, and Çerkes Sami were also active in the region. The Dutch consul had the impression that these and other gangs of brigands had divided the whole province of Aydın among themselves, although conflicts between them sometimes must have led to bloodshed. In the period shortly before the Young-Turkish “revolution” (in July, 1908), acts of banditry seem to have increased because of bad harvests due to drought and the increased tax burden: the Dutch consul in İzmir reported on the plundering of wagons loaded with grain in Aleppo, and on customs stores robbed for the same reason in Beirut in November 1907. [12]

[Source]

List of Kidnappings

Locations of kidnappings in southwestern Anatolia, 1885-1911

Fritz Charnaud was kidnapped on September 21, 1885, at Salihli (“Saladin, 60 miles from Smyrna”); he was released on ransom of TL 1500 (TL 18 000 had at first been demanded). Three of the gang were killed and a fourth mortally wounded.

Messrs. R.C.H. and W.J. Wilkin and O. Whittal were kidnapped on September 24, 1887, near İzmir; one captive was released to negotiate; the ransom finally agreed upon was TL 800 (the demanded sum had been TL 3000); O.Whittal eventually died of privation during his captivity.

M. Waligorski, French entrepreneur of the İzmir-Kasaba railway, was captured by a gang of five men (three Montenegrines and two Bosnians, former workers of the railway company) in August 1896 not far from Alaşehir, probably as an act of personal revenge; he was released within 24 hours, against a ransom of TL 4000 paid by the company.

Captain Marriott was kidnapped at Köyceğiz on October 25, 1896; although the brigands demanded a ransom of TL 15 000, the local authorities paid TL 120 and granted a “free pardon” to the culprits.

James Whittal was captured on November 19, 1898, between İzmir and Burnova; he was released against a ransom of TL 500.

Messrs. Alphons Mille and Menoti were kidnapped by a gang of five brigands at a distance of 12 km from İzmir on January 4, 1901; they were released on January 7, against a ransom of TL 1000 (original demand: TL 5000); the culprits were arrested after some days; most of the money was recovered.

The abduction of a German called Richter, who was captured by a band of robbers, took place at the foot of Mount Olympus (meant is probably by Nif Dağ, present Kemalpaşa Dağı, east of İzmir) in about 1910. The ransom was paid by friends and the owners of the factory of optical instruments for which he worked.

Despite being accompanied by a guard at the time of his kidnapping, a Belgian, Lucien Tak, farmer at Çıplak near Tire, was kidnapped while en route to Tire by a brigand called Gülükçe. The ransom demanded was TL 5000, but the victim had no relatives and little money. He was released with the payment of TL 2700, brought together by the local Belgian community: TL 100 from the Belgian poor relief fund (armenkas) and the rest consisting of loans that would ruin him.

On june 3, 1914, finally the ethnic Greek (but Ottoman subject) Yanni Sokianos, employed in “Abbott’s Emery Mines Ltd.” was captured at Aziziye (three hours by railway from İzmir) by Turkish brigands and released for a ransom of TL 350 (originally TL 3000 had been demanded, but the firm had refused to pay).

Baron van Heemstra, owner of tobacco-plantations in Malkacıl and Oğlananası (one hour by train from İzmir plus one hour’s drive), was attacked by five armed men returning from Malkacık. He was held hostage at the Nymph Dağ (Nif Dağı); the kidnappers demanded a ransom of TL 10.000. The ransom was paid and Baron was released on May 23. A member of the band, Hadgi Vassili, was denounced to the authorities in Akhisar. The gang-leader Andrea (Captain Andrea) was overmastered, and Costa, another member, was arrested two days later. The rest escaped to Papazlı. In November 1911, Athanase Tromara, a member of the Andrea gang who had escaped from the Bodrum prison to Athens, sent a menacing letter to the Baron in which he demanded that he restore to him his valuables confiscated by the Turkish authorities or TL 65.

Notes

1. Uluçay, Ç., 18 ve 19. Yüzyillarda Saruhan'da Eşkiyalık ve Halk Hareketleri (İstanbul 1955).

2. İnalcık, H., “Military and Fiscal Transformation in the Ottoman Empire 1600-1700”, Archivum Ottomanicum, vol 4(1980), p. 312.

3. Ibid., p. 330.

4. İnalcık, H., “Centralisation and Decentralisation in Ottoman Administration” in: Thomas Naff and Roger Owen (eds), Studies in Eighteenth Century Islamic History, (Southern Illinois University Press 1977).

5. Akdağ M., Celali İsyanları, (Ankara 1963), Akdağ M., Türkiye'nin İktisadî ve İçtimiaî Tarihi. vol 2, 1453-1559 (Ankara 1971).

6. Barkey, K., Bandits and Bureaucrats: the Ottoman Route to State Centralisation (New York 1994).

7. In 1829, the "romantic" bandit of the Aydın region Atçalı Kel Mehmet appeared as a threat to the local government. While he was a poor peasant, the fact that he could not marry with the landlord’s girl he liked made him the Robin Hood of the region. Even the people of Tire, Bayındır and Ödemiş acknowledged his authority in the region; therefore he declared himself as the vali (provincial governor). After a series of unsuccessful attempts, the government forces could capture him by means of collaboration of the local notables. Uluçay, Ç., Atçalı Kel Mehmet (İstanbul 1968).

8. Uzun, A., Tanzimat ve Sosyal Direnişler, (İstanbul 2002); İnalcık, H., “Application of the Tanzimat and Its Social Effects”, Archivum Ottomanicum, vol. 5(1973), 97-127; İnalcık, H., Tanzimat ve Bulgar Meselesi, (İstanbul 1992).

9. One of the most important bandits of the mid of XIXth century was Katırcıyani. In the 1850s his gang engaged in numerous activities: they kidnapped traders, landlords and peasants in exchange for ransom, and attacked caravans and post offices. He had a large network of anchorage and many helpers: innkeepers, grocers and keepers of coffee shops. He also collaborated with foreign merchants and some local governors. Yetkin, S., Ege’de Eşkiyalar, (İstanbul 1996), pp. 55-60.

10. Ibid, pp. 49-62.

11. Schmidt, J., “Banditry and the Dutch Colony in the Vilayet of Aydın” in Through The Legatıon Wındow 1876-1926, four essays on Dutch, Dutch-Indian and Ottoman History (Istanbul 1992), pp. 2-6.

12. Ibid., pp.10-13.