#emperor Maxentius

[blueiscoool]

Rome’s Ancient Arch of Constantine Struck by Lightening

During a storm on September 3, lightning struck Rome’s Arch of Constantine, chipping the structure’s marble surface. The 1,700-year-old arch and its neighbor, the Colosseum, were two of several sites affected by the thunderstorm, which produced 2.36 inches of rain in less than an hour. Usually, the city sees a similar amount over the entire month of September.

“A lightning strike hit the arch right here and then hit the corner,” a tourist at the site told Reuters’ Alberto Lingria. “We saw this fly off,” the tourist added while pointing to a fallen block of stone.

Finished in 315 C.E., the Arch of Constantine is one of Rome’s three surviving ancient triumphal arches, each erected to honor a person or event. This arch commemorates Constantine I’s 312 victory over the emperor Maxentius. That same year, Constantine devoted himself to Christianity—the first Roman ruler to do so.

The fierce storm also felled two large trees near the Circus Maximus, flooded the Trevi Fountain and flooded the Colosseum’s subterranean tunnels, reports CNN. After lightning struck the arch, staff of the Colosseum Archaeological Park quickly gathered its dislodged pieces and placed them in a secure location, according to a statement from Italy’s Ministry of Culture.

In the days that followed, some tourists stumbled upon additional pieces on the ground.

​​“My American group found these fragments, and we’re handing them over to the workmen,” tour guide Serena Giuliani told the London Times’ Tom Kington on the morning of September 4.

Specialists are now examining the condition of the fragments. Officials say the damage was limited to the monument’s southern side, where unrelated restoration work had started just days earlier, allowing for quick repairs.

At roughly 70 feet tall and 85 feet wide, the Arch of Constantine contains three separate arches, each framed by columns. The intricately decorated structure is adorned with recycled fragments, or spolia, taken from other ancient buildings, including monuments honoring Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius.

The arch is also decorated with carvings of Constantine, including a series of reliefs depicting his victorious fight against Maxentius in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge.

In 306, Constantine was leading Roman troops in Britain—then part of the Roman Empire—when his military declared him their emperor. His brother-in-law, Maxentius, also declared himself the emperor around the same time. After years of complex power struggles, the two rulers ultimately faced off in 312 at Rome’s Milvian Bridge, which overlooks the river Tiber. Panels on the Arch of Constantine depict the battle’s conclusion, showing Maxentius’ troops drowning in the river.

The arch’s recent encounter with lightning may have carried spiritual significance for its ancient builders, as “the bolts were believed to be the work of the gods,” per the Times. These spots were sacred for the Romans, who sometimes erected temples at such sites.

By Sonja Anderson.

[escapismsworld]

This image depicts the imperial scepter of Roman Emperor Maxentius (r. 306-312 CE), a significant historical artifact. It is notable as the only surviving imperial scepter from ancient Rome. The scepter, topped with a crystal sphere, was discovered in 2006 near the Palatine Hill in Rome, alongside several imperial banners.

The Palatine Hill was an important site in ancient Rome, often associated with imperial power, and the discovery of these objects adds important archaeological insight into the symbolism and authority of Roman emperors. Maxentius was a notable figure, remembered for his rivalry with Constantine the Great, which culminated in the famous Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 CE.

[malbecmusings]

The Mausoleum of Valerius Romulus built by his father, Emperor Maxentius.

[portraitsofsaints]

Happy Feast Day

Saint Catherine of Alexandria

282 - 305

Feast Day: November 25th

Patronage: unmarried girls, craftsmen who work with a wheel

Saint Catherine of Alexandria also known as St. Catherine of the Wheel, was both a princess and a noted scholar, who became a Christian at 14. She converted hundreds including the Emperor Maxentius’s wife. He was so incensed at her success that he ordered her tortured and executed by the “breaking” wheel. When she touched it, the wheel shattered. Catherine was then beheaded. St. Joan of Arc identified Catherine as one of the saints who advised her in her visions.

Prints, plaques & holy cards available for purchase. (website)

[themuseumofwitchcraftandpaganism]

Did Christianity Steal From Paganism? Yes... No... It's Complicated. Part 1: Rome

Tis the season so I figured I'd talk about the topic that's been the subject of debate for a long time, most recently with the 2024 Olympics. I will be discussing the visual aspect of these religions, not the theological aspects.

Short answer: Yes

Long answer: No

Let's get into it: It took about a hundred years after the death of Christ for Christianity to start gaining popularity in the Roman Empire. At around 100 AD the first congregations secretly started meeting in basements and had to be very subtle with their worship. Being Christian at this time was a crime; they refused to pay the federal taxes that exalted the emperor as a god. At this point, after the Roman Emperor died, the Senate would vote to either add them to the pantheon or erase their legacy from public consciousness. Some emperors weren't very lucky but most of them got deified. The Christian citizens of Rome refused to offer sacrifices to the emperor because it broke the first of the Ten Commandments, "Thou shalt not have no other gods before me." There isn't much Christian art from this time, and they were definitely the religious minority.

Skip forward to 306 AD, there's yet another civil war over the throne of the Empire. The two men fighting for it were Constantine I and Maxentius. In addition to battles, the two of them funded public projects to gain the approval of the people. They both built baths, aqueducts, and basilicas. Basilicas were the Roman equivalent of city halls: the local government operated out of them, trials and town meetings were held there, and there were small niches in the walls dedicated to different gods. Maxentius built the basilica on the left (below) and Constantine built the one on the right (below). Constatine's basilica, Aula Palatina, is still the largest remaining Roman structure that's a single room.

Maxentius' basilica was bigger but in 310 AD Constatine beat him and took the throne, partly because of the support he got from the Christian citizens. In 312 AD, Constatine converted to Christianity and enacted the Edict of Milan which made Christianity legal.

But look at Aula Palatina. It looks like our modern idea of a church. It has rows of benches, which would've been used for town meetings, and a semicircular niche at the end called an apse. In a Christian church, the apse is where the altar goes just like the niches in the Roman Pagan basilicas where different gods would be worshiped. Constantine didn't change the design from a Pagan basilica at all --because why fix what isn't broken? -- and just placed it into a Christian context.

For the next hundred years, Roman citizens started to mix Christian and Pagan imagery.

Families would bury both Christian and Pagan members in the same catacomb and decorated it accordingly. The fresco below (320-340 AD) is from the Catacombs of Priscilla (200-400 AD). It has an image of Christ as the Good Shepard in the middle, but the birds along the outside represent the four seasons; an image that featured commonly in Pagan catacomb frescos. Christ's clothing and contrapposto posing is also reminiscent of Pagan statues, particularly of the god Apollo.

The fresco on the left (below) from the Catacombs of Saints Marcellinus and Peter (~300 AD), is visually similar to the last one fresco we looked at. Christ is in the middle and around him are the four Evangelists and Bible stories like Jonah and the whale. In the four corners again, there are personifications of the four seasons. Elsewhere in the Catacomb, there's a depiction of Christ as Orpheus (right, below), again combining these Pagan and Christian icons. In the Bible, it says that Christ will tame all the wild animals, and the artist is likening that to the Roman Pagan story of Orpheus taming animals with his music.

If you look at the middle of this complex fresco on the left (below) from the Catacomb of Commodilla (100-800 AD), it has a depiction of Jesus and three of the apostles dressed like Roman senators (300-400 AD). On the right is a depiction of St. Paul as a Roman philosopher from the same Catacomb.

But this interest in combining artistic traditions extended to the sarcophagi that people were buried in too. Roman Pagans usually opted to be cremated rather than buried but when they did choose to be buried, they liked to carve scenes of their gods into their sarcophagi. Roman Christians, who almost always chose to be buried, did the same. The sarcophagus on the left (below) belonged to a woman named Arria (b.~350 -- d.~400 AD) and depicts a story about the Roman Pagan moon goddess Selene. The one on the right (below) belonged to a Senator named Junius Bassus (b. 317 -- d.359 AD) depicts difference scenes from the Bible like Adam and Eve and Jesus entering Jerusalem. Do you see the visual similarities? Both sarcophagi are also carved from marble.

The mosaic below is perhaps the best example of how Christian and Pagan imagery and theologies were mixed. It used to be the floor in a wealthy Roman's villa and was found in Hinton St Mary, Dorset, England; it's the furthest north Roman mosaic ever found. The bottom panel depicts a beardless Christ with a chi-rho behind his head. (The chi-rho, XP, came from the first two letters of Christ's name in Latin. It's a Christian symbol that's still used to denote that a figure is Christ.) On either side of him is a pomegranate. Pomegranates were sacred to the goddess Persephone; Roman Pagan religion taught that she went down to the Underworld for half the year and then up to the mortal world for half the year, fueling the changing seasons. Persephone and Christ are both gods that went to the afterlife and then came back to bring new life to humans; it's not hard to see how they got conflated on this mosaic. In the corners around Christ there are four men. Their imagery is reminiscent of both the four Evangelists and the gods of the four winds, again doubling Pagan and Christian imagery. In the upper panel, there's a scene portraying the Pagan story of Bellerophon spearing the Chimæra while flying on Pegasus. That story is frequently understood to be the "Good triumphing over Evil" story archetype, much like the story of Christ triumphing over death/sin is. Whoever owned this villa literally mixing both the visual and theological elements of both Paganism and Christianity.

In the late 300s, the Emperors (who were all Christian now) started introducing laws that made it harder for Pagans to practice. They banned animal sacrifices eventually Christianity was officially declared the religion of Rome in the late 400s. However, the enforcement of these laws wasn't applied very well and people continued to practice Roman Paganism until the fall of the Empire.

But even after the fall of Rome, Roman Pagan imagery persisted in a Christian context. In the West, Emperor Charlemagne of the Holy Roman Empire, which was Christian, purposely copied the imagery of the Roman Emperors. He used equestrian statues and coinage of him wearing a Roman laurel to demonstrate his power. The top two images below are of the Chrisitan Emperor Charlemagne and the bottom two are of the Pagan Emperor Marcus Aurelius.

In the East, the early Byzantine Empire were still interested in Roman drapery and architecture. Below is Archangel Michael (left) as well as Emperor Justinian and Theodora (right) preparing the Eucharist. Both images display Roman architecture and drapery. Byzantine would eventually move away from Roman influences but in its early days, they were definitely inspired by it.

So, the answer everyone is looking for is NO.

The Christians didn't steal anything from the Pagans, they made an association. They produced art in the style that was popular and followed the artistic trends of the time. Christian and Pagan imagery was produced in the same medium and combined until Paganism was phased out over hundreds of years. They saw similar gods and iconography and combined them to make a message that was understandable to all audiences.

Happy Yule! Happy Winter Solstice!

Further readings:

The Deification of Roman Emperors (Chapter 4) - Invented History, Fabricated Power

BBC - History - Ancient History in depth: Roman Religion GalleryThe Paleochristian Art of the Roman Catacombs ~ Liturgical Arts Journal

Chi Rho - Wikipedia

History of Christianity - Wikipedia

Anglicanism: a Gift in Christ – Part 1: An Ancient Church

Constantine the Great - Wikipedia

Maxentius - Wikipedia

Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus - Wikipedia

Marble sarcophagus with the myth of Selene and Endymion | Roman | Severan | The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Smarthistory – Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius

Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire - Wikipedia

Equestrian statuette of Charlemagne - Wikipedia

Smarthistory – San Vitale and the Justinian and Theodora Mosaics

ARH1000 Early Christian & Byzantine Art.pdf | Free Download

The image of Christ in Late Antiquity | Semantic Scholar

mosaic floor | British Museum

[ancientrome]

Marble portrait head of the Emperor Constantine I. Roman ca. 325–370 CE. x

Constantine the Great was the first Christian emperor of Rome, and his reign had a profound effect on the subsequent development of the Roman, later Byzantine, world. By 325 he had succeeded in reunifying the empire, having defeated the last of his former tetrarchic colleagues, the eastern emperor Licinius. He thereafter aimed to establish a new dynasty and to found a new capital, named Constantinople after himself. Christianity played an important role not only in Constantine’s personal life and success, but also in the program of reform and renewal that he had planned for the Roman Empire. Although the court and administration no longer resided at Rome, Constantine was careful not to neglect the old imperial city and adorned it with many new secular and Christian buildings. The most famous of these is the triumphal arch, the Arch of Constantine, which still stands near the Colosseum. Similarly, the fragments of a colossal statue that now adorn the courtyard of the Museo del Palazzo dei Conservatori in Rome, probably once stood in imposing grandeur in the main hall of the Basilica of Maxentius, a building that was completed by Constantine. Both of these works contain re-used material from earlier monuments, a practice that was not only economical but probably was also intended to shed reflected glory of the emperor by associating his reign in a very direct and practical way with that of famous “good” emperors from the past. The long face, neatly arranged hairstyle, and the clean-shaven appearance of this portrait head are a deliberate attempt to evoke memories of earlier rulers such as Trajan, who in the later third and fourth centuries was seen as an ideal example of a Roman emperor. Certainly, by the time that the head was set up, as part of either a bust or, more probably, an over life-sized statue, Constantine had adopted an official image that was intended to set him apart from his immediate predecessors.

[possibly-in-mordland]

a concept:

murderface with an anthropologist s/o? but, like, its a casual thing? maybe they spew off like its trivial stuff (which it def is but who cares)

"did you know that the powhatan people rubbed themselves with bear fat to repel mosquitoes and to keep them warm during the cold months?" - s/o

honestly i think he would be interested in whatever his s/o would have to say regardless, but esp relating to various cultures? bonus points if there's any weaponry facts they know

"did you know the Catherine wheel was named after saint catherine? she was tortured on a wheel by the emperor maxentius for refusing to renounce her christian faith." - also the s/o

"where did you learn thisch?"

"eh...idk...sweden had a really big thing for small feet in the mid-1800s, esp small feet."

"..."

"Tomoe Gozen is considered the first female samurai in the world. She is said to have led 300 female samurai into battle against 2,000 enemies and was one of only five warriors to survive."

"...fashinating."

yeah, i can def see it

maybe, for shits and giggles, they learn the history of the modern bass?

"The bass guitar's modern form was developed in the 1930s by American musician and inventor Paul Tutmarc."

he's on his knee with a ring/sword/whatever it is you want while he asks for you to marry him

[artifacts-archive]

Saint Catherine of Alexandria

French, early 15th century

Saint Catherine, depicted in the delicately jeweled statuette, was seen to embody the power of Christian erudition. According to legend, Saint Catherine's learned arguments on behalf of Christianity converted not only the court philosophers of the pagan emperor Maxentius, but 200 guardian soldiers and the ruler's wife as well. In retribution, all were put to death. The virtuous saint is shown holding the spiked wheel upon which she was tortured before being decapitated. Though the statue is reputed to have come from a convent in Clermont-Ferrand, the fine workmanship, sensitive modeling, and precious gem-studded decoration are consistent with the finest works produced in Paris. The image may have come from a reliquary, where it and figures of other saints would have been integrated into an architectural ensemble.

[transgenderer]

Actually, Christian emblems appear on Constantine's coins perhaps as early as 313 or at the latest 315, in striking conjunction with his portrait as conquering warrior: to the left of the imperial bust, helmeted and cuirassed, is a cross surmounted by a globe; the helmet bears the monogram of Christ; to the right is the head of a horse. Nevertheless, until 317, and again as late as 325, three-fourths of the coins minted by Constantine continued to be dedicated to "the Unconquerable Sun, his companion," Soli Invicto Comiti, while Christian symbols occasionally appear on the reverse.7 Whatever the innermost convictions of the emperor-during the years between his victories over Maxentius (312) and Licinius (324), his last col league and competitor, he may have been mainly convinced of his divine right to supreme power-he found it convenient to pay his respects to both Christ and Apollo and to make use of Apollonian imagery, perhaps not merely for political purposes

-Chuvin, A Chronicle of the Last Pagans

can you imagine if this level of syncretism had stuck around. explicitly sun-flavored christianity? that'd be awesome

[victusinveritas]

The imperial sceptre of the Roman Emperor Maxentius (306 - 312 CE) - the only surviving example known.

[cruger2984]

THE DESCRIPTION OF SAINT HELENA OF CONSTANTINOPLE Feast Day: August 18

St. Helena was the mother of Constantine the Great, and according to the sixth-century historian Procopius, she was born around AD 248 in Drepanum, which today is located in modern Turkey. Her full name became Flavia Julia Helena Augusta.

She married Constantius Chlorus, who would later become co-Regent of the Western part of the Roman Empire, but in order for that to happen, he had to divorce Helena after twenty-two years of marriage and marry Theodora, the step-daughter of the Emperor Maximinianus.

After the divorce, Helena and her son were dispatched to the court of Emperor Diocletian at Nicomedia where Constantine grew to be a member of the inner circle. Her son remained faithful to her, and following the death of Constantius Chlorus, Constantine succeeded him.

After he became emperor, he summoned his mother to the imperial court and conferred on her the title of Augusta, a Roman imperial honorific title given to empresses and honored women of the imperial families. Augustae could issue their own coinage, wear imperial regalia, and rule their own courts.

Constantine ordered that all honor should be paid to her as the mother of the sovereign, and he had coins struck bearing her effigy. Some of the earliest coins were minted in Nicomedia.

She embraced Christianity following her son’s victory over Maxentius, and, according to Eusebius, she 'became a devout servant of God,' and her influence helped Christianity spread throughout the empire.

She had churches built over the sacred spots in Palestine, and at an advanced age, she undertook a journey to Palestine in the year AD 324, once her son had become the sole emperor of the Roman Empire.

During this journey, she had two special churches constructed, one in Bethlehem, near the Grotto of the Nativity, and the other on the Mount of the Ascension. She had great concern for the poor, financially assisting both individuals and entire communities. It was during this time that a legend, first recorded by Rufinus, began circulating about how she had 'found' the true cross.

There are several versions concerning how the cross was found. In some, Helena has a dream telling her where the cross is buried. In another tradition, the Ethiopian Coptic tradition still celebrated as Mesquel, she followed smoke from a bonfire to the site.

However, in the version that received the most circulation and became popular in the Middle Ages, she asks the people of Jerusalem to tell her the location. When the Jewish leaders of the city are silent, she places one of them, a man named Judas, in a well until he agrees to show her the site. After seven days, he prays to God for guidance and is told to reveal the location to her. Afterwards, Judas converts to Christianity and takes the name Kyriakis, 'he who belongs to the Lord.'

Helena finds three crosses, nails, and the titulus (title) under a pagan temple. To determine which is the right cross, a deathly sick girl was brought to the site. She was touched by all three crosses, but upon being touched by the True Cross, she was restored to health.

St. Helena lived in a lavish house near the Lateran, and a pious tradition associates her with the founding of what would become the Vatican Gardens because, on that site, she spread earth brought from Golgotha to symbolically unite the blood of Jesus with that shed by thousands of early Christians who died under Nero. After her death, her residence was demolished, and the Church of the Holy Cross was built on that site. On November 8, 324, she received the title Augusta, and in AD 327, Constantine changed the name of his mother’s hometown to Helanopolis. She was about eighty-two when she died on August 18, 330, with her son at her side, and her body was brought to Constantinople and laid to rest in the imperial vault of the Church of the Apostles.

She was buried in the Mausoleum of Helena, outside Rome on the Via Labicana. Her sarcophagus is on display in the Pio-Clementine Vatican Museum. Next to her is the sarcophagus of her granddaughter Saint Constantina (Saint Constance).

Her skull is displayed in the Cathedral of Trier, in Germany. As the Muslims began advancing, her body was transferred to the Abbey of Hautvillers in Reims, France in AD 849.

St. Helena is the patron saint of difficult marriages, divorced people, converts, and archaeologists.

Source: Church of St. Helena's - The Bronx, New York

[blueiscoool]

The Rise and Fall of The Praetorian Guard

THE PRAETORIAN GUARD WERE AN ELITE UNIT WITHIN THE IMPERIAL ARMY, SERVING PRIMARILY AS PERSONAL PROTECTORS AND INTELLIGENCE OPERATIVES FOR THE ROMAN EMPERORS.

The roots of the guard can be found during the Roman Republic, when soldiers served as protectors for Roman generals and important figures, or as elite guards for military praetors.

High-ranked generals with imperium held public office by serving as a magistrate or promagistrate. They were assigned a civil servant, lictors, to serve as an attendant and bodyguard. Where no personal bodyguard was assigned, senior field officers safeguarded themselves with temporary bodyguard units of selected soldiers.

Around 40 BC, Octavian, who would later become Emperor Caesar Augustus, installed praetorians within the pomerium (a religious boundary around the city of Rome), the first example of troops being permanently garrisoned in Rome proper.

Members of the guard accompanied Augustus on active campaigns, protecting the civic administrations and rule of law. At camp, the cohors praetoria (a cohort of praetorians guarding the commander), were posted near the praetorium, the tent of the commander, which the guard is believed to be named after.

After the construction of Rome’s Praetorian camp known as the Castra Praetoria around 23 BC, their role extended to escorting the emperor and the members of the imperial family, and to serve as a policing force during times of riot.

According to the Roman historian and politician, Tacitus, the guard around this time numbered nine Praetorian cohorts (4500 men, the equivalent of a legion), however, an inscription from near the end of Augustus’s rule suggests that their numbers were briefly increased to twelve.

The Praetorian Guard, like all legionaries, shared similar insignia, mainly on their shields. Praetorian Guard shields included wings and thunderbolts, referring to Jupiter, and also uniquely included scorpions, stars and crescents.

The first military engagement of the Praetorian Guard took place during the mutinies of Pannonia and the mutinies of Germania. Drusus Julius Caesar, son of Tiberius, accompanied by two Praetorian cohorts, the Praetorian Cavalry, and Imperial German Bodyguards, suppressed the mutinies of Pannonia. Germanicus, later known as Germanicus Julius Caesar, led a force of legions and detachments of the Praetorian Guard in a two-year campaign in Germania against the uprising.

In the three centuries that followed, the guard influenced imperial politics by overthrowing emperors and proclaiming the successor. Members of the guard were also directly involved in the assassination of emperors, such as: Aurelian, Balbinus, Caligula, Caracalla, Commodus, Elagabalus, Galba, Pupienus, Pertinax, Philip II, and Probus.

In AD 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicated, and the former Caesares, Constantius and Galerius became Augusti. Although two sons of emperors, Constantine I and Maxentius were eligible, they were passed over for a new tetrarchy, and Valerius Severus and Maximinus Daza were appointed Caesars.

Severus planned to disband the Praetorian Guard on the orders of Galerius, resulting in the guard giving their allegiance to Maxentius and proclaiming him emperor. By AD 312, Constantine I marched on Rome with a force of 40,000 soldiers to eliminate Maxentius, facing off against an army that encompassed the bulk of the Praetorian Guard garrisoned in Rome at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge on the River Tiber.

Contemporary accounts record Maxentius’s forces being pushed back against the river and retreating across the bridge. The weight of soldiers fleeing caused the bridge to collapse, stranding elements of the guard on the northern bank of the river who were either killed or taken prisoner.

Lucius Caecilius Firmianus, a Christian author and advisor to Constantine recorded the events: “The bridge in his rear was broken down. At sight of that the battle grew hotter. The hand of the Lord prevailed, and the forces of Maxentius were routed. He fled towards the broken bridge; but the multitude pressing on him, he was driven headlong into the Tiber [drowned].”

Maxentius’ body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated, and his head was paraded through the streets of Rome. Supporters of Maxentius were eliminated and the Praetorian Guard and Imperial Horse Guard were disbanded. The remaining guard were sent in exile to the corners of the empire, and the Castra Praetoria was dismantled in a grand gesture that marked the end of the Praetorians.

[valkyries-things]

CATHERINE OF ALEXANDRIA // SAINT

“She is, according to tradition, a Christian saint and virgin, who was martyred in the early fourth century at the hands of the emperor Maxentius. According to her hagiography, she was both a princess and a noted scholar who became a Christian around the age of 14, converted hundreds of people to Christianity and was martyred around the age of 18. More than 1,100 years after Catherine's martyrdom, Joan of Arc identified her as one of the saints who appeared to and counselled her.”

[thepastisalreadywritten]

SAINT OF THE DAY (November 16)

Nothing of Marcellus' life before his papacy has survived the centuries.

He became Pope at the end of the persecutions of Diocletian around 308-309.

The persecutions had disrupted the Church so much that there had been a gap of over a year with no pope.

Once he was elected, he faced several challenges, including reconsituting the clergy, which had been decimated and whose remnant had practiced their vocation only covertly and with the expectation of martyrdom.

He worked hard to recover and welcome back all who had denied the faith in order to keep from being murdered.

When a group of the apostacized, known as the Lapsi, refused to do penance, Marcellus refused to allow their return to the Church.

The Lapsi had a bit of political pull, and some members caused such civil disruption that Emperor Maxentius exiled the Pope in order to settle the matter.

Legend says that Marcellus was forced to work as a stable slave as punishment, but this appears to be fiction.

However, we do know that he died of the terrible conditions he suffered in exile and is considered a martyr because of that.

He was initially buried in the cemetery of Saint Priscilla in Rome, but his relics were later transferred to beneath the altar of San Marcello al Corso Church in Rome where they remain today.

[portraitsofsaints]

Saint Catherine of Alexandria

282 - 305

Feast Day: November 25th

Patronage: unmarried girls, craftsmen who work with a wheel

Saint Catherine of Alexandria also known as St. Catherine of the Wheel, was both a princess and a noted scholar, who became a Christian at 14. She converted hundreds including the Emperor Maxentius’s wife. He was so incensed at her success that he ordered her tortured and executed by the “breaking” wheel. When she touched it, the wheel shattered. Catherine was then beheaded. St. Joan of Arc identified Catherine as one of the saints who advised her in her visions.

Prints, plaques & holy cards available for purchase here: (website)

[ficretus]

Theory: Identifying Joan of Arc Voices in Jaune's story

One of the important aspects of Joan of Arc story that are seemingly completely absent in Jaune's story is Voices Joan heard. In aftermath of her village being sacked, Joan saw Archangel Michael surrounded by angels, he gave her purpose and informed her that she will be contacted by 2 more voices. In this theory, I'd try to find are Voices present in Jaune's story, who are they and what purpose could they serve in narrative down the line.

Starting with what I so far feel is the only voice I can identify in Jaune's story, Pyrrha. In my previous Joan of Arc timeline theory I identified Pyrrha as Archangel Michael. For the sake of time I'll link the theory here since its double timeline aspect plays some importance in this theory as well.

To keep it short in case you don't feel like reading previous theory, she matches some basic aspects of Michael (ideal warrior, patron saint of Joan's village) ,her death matches timeline placement of Joan's first vision of Michael, she was catalyst to Jaune's awakening. Additionally, I'd add something I missed in previous theory: one of the most important aspects of Michael is his battle with Lucifer, often portrayed as serpent or dragon. This matches well with Pyrrha's fight with Cinder and Grimm Wyrm, both having satanic symbolism (Fall can be interpreted as fallen one, Cinder is fire user, Grimm hand gives her seemingly reptilian features). Unlike Michael, Pyrrha lost that fight, her loss allowed Ruby to awaken and make Cinder "fall", once again matching the story of Lucifer.

This leads me to Theory 1: Pyrrha is the only "voice" Jaune will hear during his story, being his main motivation and guiding force. I am not particularly fan of this one, but so far it makes sense. While I will try to identify other 2 voices later on, so far Pyrrha is the only one making the impact. Voices as collective guide Joan, and so far we've only seen Jaune guided by Pyrrha (especially present in early volumes), leading me to believe that she collectively represents all of them.

Theory 2: Other voices will start appearing soon. To be clear, when I say voices in regards to Jaune, I am not talking about literal ones like Joan of Arc story. Voices are more representative of Jaune carrying their will and lessons Jaune learned from their encounters. As for who voices are, in Joan of Arc story, they are Catherine of Alexandria and Margareth of Antioch, both being virgin martyrs. This makes me believe that Jaune's voices also need to have their own theme. Theme I'll go in this theory is "people Jaune couldn't save". So far this is the one that makes most sense to me, but feel free to comment if you have different theming and candidates for remaining 2 slots. My candidates are Penny as Catherine and Alyx as Margareth. I'll briefly break down why I believe that.

Penny=Catherine

Catherine was scholar and is patron saint of scholars. This works with Penny, being both a robot and product of science. She is also patron saint of variety of professions like craftsmen, which works with her Pinocchio inspiration.

Villain of Catherine's story is emperor Maxentius who tried to bring her to his side through various means. Eventually resorted to torture and execution. During her stay in dungeon, Catherine converted many of his men, including the empress. Ever more paranoid Maxentius also executed his wife and some of his top commanders. This parallel works if you imagine Maxentius as Ironwood, growing more paranoid and villainous as story progresses. Catherine converting the empress works both with Fria giving her powers to Penny and Winter turning against Ironwood (especially since Maiden is represented as queen chess piece). Just like Maxentius, Ironwood turned on his commanders and "queen" for not following his orders.

Avoided certain death by spiked breaking wheel with the help of angel. This mostly straight forward, Ambrosius saved Penny from certain death. Breaking wheel became one of Catherine's symbols and if you want to tinfoil it hard, whenever Penny fans out Floating Array it looks like a bladed wheel.

Catherine was tortured through various means, including having her breasts ripped off. She sees vision of Christ who encouraged her, she then told her executioner to kill her. This somewhat works considering fatal wound Penny sustained is having her chest clawed by Cinder. Asking to be executed also works considering Penny persuaded Jaune to kill her.

Next one works with Penny's first death. After having her head cut off, Catherine's body was carried off by angels to mount Sinai, where it remained completely preserved for centuries, always oozing oil like substance. After being torn apart by Pyrrha, Penny's body was brought to Atlas to be rebuilt. Oil like substance works with coolant liquid Penny has a robot.

Alyx=Margareth

Was to be executed by getting swallowed by Satan shapeshifted into dragon. She survived it by irritating its inside with cross. Alyx had an encounter with Jabberwalker, draconic creature with some Satan parallels (demonic being created to prevent Ascension), she survived it using her knife (which is about as close as you can get to cross).

Reading or writing about Margareth was said to give indulgence of sins. This works in two ways since her adventures in Ever After were written by her brother as cautionary story and since Jaune upon completing his fairy tale role is given back his youth, metaphorically having his sins forgiven.

Multiple voices theory would give pay off to plot points in volumes 8 and 9. Because, what was the point of Jaune killing Penny or encountering Alyx if that's not gonna have any influence down the line. Vacuo portion of the story will be nice test ground to see if this theory holds any water.

Theory 3: It's Semblance related. Jaune can manipulate aura with his Semblance. Since aura is soul related, maybe fully realized version of his Semblance will allow him to communicated with the souls of the dead, literally hearing voices of martyrs. This one is most speculative and out there. I personally don't really believe this will happen, but I try to cover all bases.

Reason I suggest this theory is Jaune's Semblance awakening in Volume 5. In my Joan of Arc timeline theory, I equate Jaune saving Weiss to Joan saving duke of Alencon. She was warned by voices and told him to move away from the spot he was standing at. Some time later, artillery hit that spot and killed some nameless soldier. Joan saved Alencon's life thanks to her Voices and Jaune saved Weiss with his Semblance, if we fully equate events, then Voices=Semblance.

Theory 4: It's Indecisive King related. I'll once again link one of my previous theories since I go more into it there.

Long story short, Jaune=Joan=Widow from the story. At the end of the story, Widow put on Crown of Choice and saw the visions of the future which allowed her to resolve the story. Jaune will have literal visions after he uses Crown of Choice. Saints Joan saw in her visions were also carrying crowns, so that's another potential parallel.

It is also possible these theories are not mutually exclusive and we'll see Joan's voices realized through multiple ways.

Moving on to possible implications of Jaune either being influenced by his fallen comrades or having literal visions. What does it build up to?

Theory 1: Avenging Whiteknight

First I'll go for straightforward option. Pyrrha's death and her "voice" guided Jaune forward to find and fight Cinder. This is backed by Joan of Arc story where Joan is guided to meet Robert de Baudricourt (character which I equate to Cinder in my timeline theory). Jaune will continuously fight Cinder over the course of the story, eventually leading to him defeating her. This works with Theories 1 and 3, and partially with theory 2 I made above. Reason I paired this theory with Whiteknight ship is because Weiss is present during the major story points that contain Jaune's voices.

Jaune awakened his Semblance to save Weiss so she wouldn't share Pyrrha's fate. This is even referenced by Cinder taunting him that he is gonna let her die as well. So Pyrrha's "voice" or more specifically, lessons he learned from Pyrrha lead Jaune to awaken and save Weiss. If you believe that Penny is saint Catherine, this works once again. Penny's plea to Jaune lead once again to Jaune saving Weiss' life. If he didn't kill Penny, Cinder wouldn't have gotten distracted and would have killed Weiss on the spot. This theory rides what is seemingly current story trajectory (re-establishing Cinder as Jaune's personal enemy by making him kill Penny and Weiss' crush on him in volume 9).

Flaws I see with this interpretation is that if we go by multiple voices theory, there is no third voice. Alyx is odd one out and doesn't fit the mold here. So to complete this part of theory, we'll need new third martyr, preferably killed by Cinder and with something that can connect both Jaune and Weiss. It has potential to happen, but we'll have to wait and see.

Theory 2: Reedeming Knightfall

Here is my obligatory Knightfall shilling interpretation. Please understand, I only indirectly shilled for Knightfall in my previous theory and withdrawals are kicking in.

So yeah, Pyrrha is consistently guiding Jaune towards Cinder, but end point is Jaune redeeming Cinder, not killing her. Reason I go with this interpretation is because all three voices I listed in theory 2 and people Jaune couldn't save (although irony is that 2 out of 3 he couldn't save from Cinder herself). Cinder is on path that can only lead to her death and enslavement, she is doomed individual Jaune will save. Here is dandy little Cinder flowchart I made for my Indecisive King theory to quickly demonstrate that.

So, why would Jaune be the one to help her? Isn't Ruby more likely to do so considering she is the only one that can save her from her grimmification? Well, someone has to actually bring her to Ruby for that to happen and I have my reason to believe it's Jaune.

Indecisive King story. I'd suggest just reading my Indecisive King theory. Quick summary: Jaune=Widow, Cinder=King, King is plagued with visions of doomed future he cannot avoid. Widow used the vision of the future she saw and advice King gave her at the beginning of the story and helped him make the right choice.

It's consistent with my Joan of Arc interpretations. I'd suggest reading my Joan of Arc timeline theory. Cinder almost perfectly matches king Dauphin. Joan was guided by her voices to help the King. Voices in the story leading Jaune to help Cinder is logical conclusion if Jaune's story follows Joan's.

Alyx connection. Jaune's experience with Alyx will lead him to help Cinder in the end. Both Cinder and Alyx are selfish and villainous individuals who made the deal with powerful ancient being (Salem and CC respectively) to be granted their wish. Alyx had the crisis of faith after talking to Blacksmith and felt remorse for all the damage she did and wanted to make amends. However, she was instead killed by CC for breaking her promise. If we take Indecisive King into consideration, this could be valid speculation: Cinder's sees visions with the Crown (you could also make parallel between Blacksmith and Relic's ghost) and wants to make amends for all the damage she did. But instead of dying to Salem, Jaune saves her and allows her to be redeemed. This could explain why Jaune's involvement with Alyx was even present in the story.

Flaws with this theory is that relies a lot on speculative canon. While I can back most of these with literary references that seem to reference these potential future events, it's still up in the air.

What are your thoughts about the theories? Feel free to comment if I you have your own interpretations.