#emperor Maxentius

[blueiscoool]

Rome’s Ancient Arch of Constantine Struck by Lightening

During a storm on September 3, lightning struck Rome’s Arch of Constantine, chipping the structure’s marble surface. The 1,700-year-old arch and its neighbor, the Colosseum, were two of several sites affected by the thunderstorm, which produced 2.36 inches of rain in less than an hour. Usually, the city sees a similar amount over the entire month of September.

“A lightning strike hit the arch right here and then hit the corner,” a tourist at the site told Reuters’ Alberto Lingria. “We saw this fly off,” the tourist added while pointing to a fallen block of stone.

Finished in 315 C.E., the Arch of Constantine is one of Rome’s three surviving ancient triumphal arches, each erected to honor a person or event. This arch commemorates Constantine I’s 312 victory over the emperor Maxentius. That same year, Constantine devoted himself to Christianity—the first Roman ruler to do so.

The fierce storm also felled two large trees near the Circus Maximus, flooded the Trevi Fountain and flooded the Colosseum’s subterranean tunnels, reports CNN. After lightning struck the arch, staff of the Colosseum Archaeological Park quickly gathered its dislodged pieces and placed them in a secure location, according to a statement from Italy’s Ministry of Culture.

In the days that followed, some tourists stumbled upon additional pieces on the ground.

​​“My American group found these fragments, and we’re handing them over to the workmen,” tour guide Serena Giuliani told the London Times’ Tom Kington on the morning of September 4.

Specialists are now examining the condition of the fragments. Officials say the damage was limited to the monument’s southern side, where unrelated restoration work had started just days earlier, allowing for quick repairs.

At roughly 70 feet tall and 85 feet wide, the Arch of Constantine contains three separate arches, each framed by columns. The intricately decorated structure is adorned with recycled fragments, or spolia, taken from other ancient buildings, including monuments honoring Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius.

The arch is also decorated with carvings of Constantine, including a series of reliefs depicting his victorious fight against Maxentius in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge.

In 306, Constantine was leading Roman troops in Britain—then part of the Roman Empire—when his military declared him their emperor. His brother-in-law, Maxentius, also declared himself the emperor around the same time. After years of complex power struggles, the two rulers ultimately faced off in 312 at Rome’s Milvian Bridge, which overlooks the river Tiber. Panels on the Arch of Constantine depict the battle’s conclusion, showing Maxentius’ troops drowning in the river.

The arch’s recent encounter with lightning may have carried spiritual significance for its ancient builders, as “the bolts were believed to be the work of the gods,” per the Times. These spots were sacred for the Romans, who sometimes erected temples at such sites.

By Sonja Anderson.

[malbecmusings]

The Mausoleum of Valerius Romulus built by his father, Emperor Maxentius.

[yeltumpar]

This is most cool, I've visited the original pieces in Rome and they are mind blowing, sad I can't see this in person

"The Colossus of Constantine was an early 4th-century monumental statue depicting emperor Constantine the Great. It is believed a pagan statue was repurposed to celebrate Constantine's reign and the recognition of Christianity as a legal religion within the empire. The statue was later broken and pillaged for bronze, before its re-discovery in the 15th century following an excavation at the Basilica of Maxentius. Michelangelo placed and arranged the remaining marble fragments of the Colossus on display inside the courtyard of the Palazzo dei Conservatori (today part of the Musei Capitolini in Rome), including an additional right hand.

At the end of March 2022, Pedro Miró, Otto Lowe and Imran Khan travelled to the Musei Capitolini to record the ten fragments in high-resolution using photogrammetry and LiDAR. Some of the fragments were placed up against the walls of the courtyard, making their recording challenging. However, all data was implemented with great accuracy during the 3D modelling phase.

Another recording carried out by Osama Dawod acquired the data of an additional fragment from the Parco Archeologico del Colosseo. A gypsum copy of a statue of Emperor Claudius as Jupiter, inside the Ara Pacis Museum, was also recorded to be used as a reference for the general posing of the sculpture."

Source with more images, cool graphics and info about the exhibition and recreation https://www.factumfoundation.org/pag/1890/re-creating-the-colossus-of-constantine

[possibly-in-mordland]

a concept:

murderface with an anthropologist s/o? but, like, its a casual thing? maybe they spew off like its trivial stuff (which it def is but who cares)

"did you know that the powhatan people rubbed themselves with bear fat to repel mosquitoes and to keep them warm during the cold months?" - s/o

honestly i think he would be interested in whatever his s/o would have to say regardless, but esp relating to various cultures? bonus points if there's any weaponry facts they know

"did you know the Catherine wheel was named after saint catherine? she was tortured on a wheel by the emperor maxentius for refusing to renounce her christian faith." - also the s/o

"where did you learn thisch?"

"eh...idk...sweden had a really big thing for small feet in the mid-1800s, esp small feet."

"..."

"Tomoe Gozen is considered the first female samurai in the world. She is said to have led 300 female samurai into battle against 2,000 enemies and was one of only five warriors to survive."

"...fashinating."

yeah, i can def see it

maybe, for shits and giggles, they learn the history of the modern bass?

"The bass guitar's modern form was developed in the 1930s by American musician and inventor Paul Tutmarc."

he's on his knee with a ring/sword/whatever it is you want while he asks for you to marry him

[artifacts-archive]

Saint Catherine of Alexandria

French, early 15th century

Saint Catherine, depicted in the delicately jeweled statuette, was seen to embody the power of Christian erudition. According to legend, Saint Catherine's learned arguments on behalf of Christianity converted not only the court philosophers of the pagan emperor Maxentius, but 200 guardian soldiers and the ruler's wife as well. In retribution, all were put to death. The virtuous saint is shown holding the spiked wheel upon which she was tortured before being decapitated. Though the statue is reputed to have come from a convent in Clermont-Ferrand, the fine workmanship, sensitive modeling, and precious gem-studded decoration are consistent with the finest works produced in Paris. The image may have come from a reliquary, where it and figures of other saints would have been integrated into an architectural ensemble.

[portraitsofsaints]

Saint Catherine of Alexandria

282 - 305

Feast Day: November 25th

Patronage: unmarried girls, craftsmen who work with a wheel

Saint Catherine of Alexandria also known as St. Catherine of the Wheel, was both a princess and a noted scholar, who became a Christian at 14. She converted hundreds including the Emperor Maxentius’s wife. He was so incensed at her success that he ordered her tortured and executed by the “breaking” wheel. When she touched it, the wheel shattered. Catherine was then beheaded. St. Joan of Arc identified Catherine as one of the saints who advised her in her visions.

Prints, plaques & holy cards available for purchase here: (website)

[transgenderer]

Actually, Christian emblems appear on Constantine's coins perhaps as early as 313 or at the latest 315, in striking conjunction with his portrait as conquering warrior: to the left of the imperial bust, helmeted and cuirassed, is a cross surmounted by a globe; the helmet bears the monogram of Christ; to the right is the head of a horse. Nevertheless, until 317, and again as late as 325, three-fourths of the coins minted by Constantine continued to be dedicated to "the Unconquerable Sun, his companion," Soli Invicto Comiti, while Christian symbols occasionally appear on the reverse.7 Whatever the innermost convictions of the emperor-during the years between his victories over Maxentius (312) and Licinius (324), his last col league and competitor, he may have been mainly convinced of his divine right to supreme power-he found it convenient to pay his respects to both Christ and Apollo and to make use of Apollonian imagery, perhaps not merely for political purposes

-Chuvin, A Chronicle of the Last Pagans

can you imagine if this level of syncretism had stuck around. explicitly sun-flavored christianity? that'd be awesome

[victusinveritas]

The imperial sceptre of the Roman Emperor Maxentius (306 - 312 CE) - the only surviving example known.

[cruger2984]

THE DESCRIPTION OF SAINT HELENA OF CONSTANTINOPLE Feast Day: August 18

St. Helena was the mother of Constantine the Great, and according to the sixth-century historian Procopius, she was born around AD 248 in Drepanum, which today is located in modern Turkey. Her full name became Flavia Julia Helena Augusta.

She married Constantius Chlorus, who would later become co-Regent of the Western part of the Roman Empire, but in order for that to happen, he had to divorce Helena after twenty-two years of marriage and marry Theodora, the step-daughter of the Emperor Maximinianus.

After the divorce, Helena and her son were dispatched to the court of Emperor Diocletian at Nicomedia where Constantine grew to be a member of the inner circle. Her son remained faithful to her, and following the death of Constantius Chlorus, Constantine succeeded him.

After he became emperor, he summoned his mother to the imperial court and conferred on her the title of Augusta, a Roman imperial honorific title given to empresses and honored women of the imperial families. Augustae could issue their own coinage, wear imperial regalia, and rule their own courts.

Constantine ordered that all honor should be paid to her as the mother of the sovereign, and he had coins struck bearing her effigy. Some of the earliest coins were minted in Nicomedia.

She embraced Christianity following her son’s victory over Maxentius, and, according to Eusebius, she 'became a devout servant of God,' and her influence helped Christianity spread throughout the empire.

She had churches built over the sacred spots in Palestine, and at an advanced age, she undertook a journey to Palestine in the year AD 324, once her son had become the sole emperor of the Roman Empire.

During this journey, she had two special churches constructed, one in Bethlehem, near the Grotto of the Nativity, and the other on the Mount of the Ascension. She had great concern for the poor, financially assisting both individuals and entire communities. It was during this time that a legend, first recorded by Rufinus, began circulating about how she had 'found' the true cross.

There are several versions concerning how the cross was found. In some, Helena has a dream telling her where the cross is buried. In another tradition, the Ethiopian Coptic tradition still celebrated as Mesquel, she followed smoke from a bonfire to the site.

However, in the version that received the most circulation and became popular in the Middle Ages, she asks the people of Jerusalem to tell her the location. When the Jewish leaders of the city are silent, she places one of them, a man named Judas, in a well until he agrees to show her the site. After seven days, he prays to God for guidance and is told to reveal the location to her. Afterwards, Judas converts to Christianity and takes the name Kyriakis, 'he who belongs to the Lord.'

Helena finds three crosses, nails, and the titulus (title) under a pagan temple. To determine which is the right cross, a deathly sick girl was brought to the site. She was touched by all three crosses, but upon being touched by the True Cross, she was restored to health.

St. Helena lived in a lavish house near the Lateran, and a pious tradition associates her with the founding of what would become the Vatican Gardens because, on that site, she spread earth brought from Golgotha to symbolically unite the blood of Jesus with that shed by thousands of early Christians who died under Nero. After her death, her residence was demolished, and the Church of the Holy Cross was built on that site. On November 8, 324, she received the title Augusta, and in AD 327, Constantine changed the name of his mother’s hometown to Helanopolis. She was about eighty-two when she died on August 18, 330, with her son at her side, and her body was brought to Constantinople and laid to rest in the imperial vault of the Church of the Apostles.

She was buried in the Mausoleum of Helena, outside Rome on the Via Labicana. Her sarcophagus is on display in the Pio-Clementine Vatican Museum. Next to her is the sarcophagus of her granddaughter Saint Constantina (Saint Constance).

Her skull is displayed in the Cathedral of Trier, in Germany. As the Muslims began advancing, her body was transferred to the Abbey of Hautvillers in Reims, France in AD 849.

St. Helena is the patron saint of difficult marriages, divorced people, converts, and archaeologists.

Source: Church of St. Helena's - The Bronx, New York

[artthatgivesmefeelings]

Saint Catherine of Alexandria Italian master of the 17th century

The half portrait of the young woman in front of a dark background in elegant robes with a red cloak and a golden crown on her head, a reference to the fact that she was the daughter of King Costus and his wife Sabinella of Cyprus. She has shoulder-length curly hair and with her head held slightly up and the shiny brown eyes she looks up to the sky. With the delicate fingers of her left hand she touches a spiked wheel, her instrument of torture. Fine painting, especially of the flesh tones, with skilful staging of light and dark. She was sentenced to death by Emperor Maxentius because she refused to be dissuaded from the Christian faith.

[ficretus]

Theory: Identifying Joan of Arc Voices in Jaune's story

One of the important aspects of Joan of Arc story that are seemingly completely absent in Jaune's story is Voices Joan heard. In aftermath of her village being sacked, Joan saw Archangel Michael surrounded by angels, he gave her purpose and informed her that she will be contacted by 2 more voices. In this theory, I'd try to find are Voices present in Jaune's story, who are they and what purpose could they serve in narrative down the line.

Starting with what I so far feel is the only voice I can identify in Jaune's story, Pyrrha. In my previous Joan of Arc timeline theory I identified Pyrrha as Archangel Michael. For the sake of time I'll link the theory here since its double timeline aspect plays some importance in this theory as well.

To keep it short in case you don't feel like reading previous theory, she matches some basic aspects of Michael (ideal warrior, patron saint of Joan's village) ,her death matches timeline placement of Joan's first vision of Michael, she was catalyst to Jaune's awakening. Additionally, I'd add something I missed in previous theory: one of the most important aspects of Michael is his battle with Lucifer, often portrayed as serpent or dragon. This matches well with Pyrrha's fight with Cinder and Grimm Wyrm, both having satanic symbolism (Fall can be interpreted as fallen one, Cinder is fire user, Grimm hand gives her seemingly reptilian features). Unlike Michael, Pyrrha lost that fight, her loss allowed Ruby to awaken and make Cinder "fall", once again matching the story of Lucifer.

This leads me to Theory 1: Pyrrha is the only "voice" Jaune will hear during his story, being his main motivation and guiding force. I am not particularly fan of this one, but so far it makes sense. While I will try to identify other 2 voices later on, so far Pyrrha is the only one making the impact. Voices as collective guide Joan, and so far we've only seen Jaune guided by Pyrrha (especially present in early volumes), leading me to believe that she collectively represents all of them.

Theory 2: Other voices will start appearing soon. To be clear, when I say voices in regards to Jaune, I am not talking about literal ones like Joan of Arc story. Voices are more representative of Jaune carrying their will and lessons Jaune learned from their encounters. As for who voices are, in Joan of Arc story, they are Catherine of Alexandria and Margareth of Antioch, both being virgin martyrs. This makes me believe that Jaune's voices also need to have their own theme. Theme I'll go in this theory is "people Jaune couldn't save". So far this is the one that makes most sense to me, but feel free to comment if you have different theming and candidates for remaining 2 slots. My candidates are Penny as Catherine and Alyx as Margareth. I'll briefly break down why I believe that.

Penny=Catherine

Catherine was scholar and is patron saint of scholars. This works with Penny, being both a robot and product of science. She is also patron saint of variety of professions like craftsmen, which works with her Pinocchio inspiration.

Villain of Catherine's story is emperor Maxentius who tried to bring her to his side through various means. Eventually resorted to torture and execution. During her stay in dungeon, Catherine converted many of his men, including the empress. Ever more paranoid Maxentius also executed his wife and some of his top commanders. This parallel works if you imagine Maxentius as Ironwood, growing more paranoid and villainous as story progresses. Catherine converting the empress works both with Fria giving her powers to Penny and Winter turning against Ironwood (especially since Maiden is represented as queen chess piece). Just like Maxentius, Ironwood turned on his commanders and "queen" for not following his orders.

Avoided certain death by spiked breaking wheel with the help of angel. This mostly straight forward, Ambrosius saved Penny from certain death. Breaking wheel became one of Catherine's symbols and if you want to tinfoil it hard, whenever Penny fans out Floating Array it looks like a bladed wheel.

Catherine was tortured through various means, including having her breasts ripped off. She sees vision of Christ who encouraged her, she then told her executioner to kill her. This somewhat works considering fatal wound Penny sustained is having her chest clawed by Cinder. Asking to be executed also works considering Penny persuaded Jaune to kill her.

Next one works with Penny's first death. After having her head cut off, Catherine's body was carried off by angels to mount Sinai, where it remained completely preserved for centuries, always oozing oil like substance. After being torn apart by Pyrrha, Penny's body was brought to Atlas to be rebuilt. Oil like substance works with coolant liquid Penny has a robot.

Alyx=Margareth

Was to be executed by getting swallowed by Satan shapeshifted into dragon. She survived it by irritating its inside with cross. Alyx had an encounter with Jabberwalker, draconic creature with some Satan parallels (demonic being created to prevent Ascension), she survived it using her knife (which is about as close as you can get to cross).

Reading or writing about Margareth was said to give indulgence of sins. This works in two ways since her adventures in Ever After were written by her brother as cautionary story and since Jaune upon completing his fairy tale role is given back his youth, metaphorically having his sins forgiven.

Multiple voices theory would give pay off to plot points in volumes 8 and 9. Because, what was the point of Jaune killing Penny or encountering Alyx if that's not gonna have any influence down the line. Vacuo portion of the story will be nice test ground to see if this theory holds any water.

Theory 3: It's Semblance related. Jaune can manipulate aura with his Semblance. Since aura is soul related, maybe fully realized version of his Semblance will allow him to communicated with the souls of the dead, literally hearing voices of martyrs. This one is most speculative and out there. I personally don't really believe this will happen, but I try to cover all bases.

Reason I suggest this theory is Jaune's Semblance awakening in Volume 5. In my Joan of Arc timeline theory, I equate Jaune saving Weiss to Joan saving duke of Alencon. She was warned by voices and told him to move away from the spot he was standing at. Some time later, artillery hit that spot and killed some nameless soldier. Joan saved Alencon's life thanks to her Voices and Jaune saved Weiss with his Semblance, if we fully equate events, then Voices=Semblance.

Theory 4: It's Indecisive King related. I'll once again link one of my previous theories since I go more into it there.

Long story short, Jaune=Joan=Widow from the story. At the end of the story, Widow put on Crown of Choice and saw the visions of the future which allowed her to resolve the story. Jaune will have literal visions after he uses Crown of Choice. Saints Joan saw in her visions were also carrying crowns, so that's another potential parallel.

It is also possible these theories are not mutually exclusive and we'll see Joan's voices realized through multiple ways.

Moving on to possible implications of Jaune either being influenced by his fallen comrades or having literal visions. What does it build up to?

Theory 1: Avenging Whiteknight

First I'll go for straightforward option. Pyrrha's death and her "voice" guided Jaune forward to find and fight Cinder. This is backed by Joan of Arc story where Joan is guided to meet Robert de Baudricourt (character which I equate to Cinder in my timeline theory). Jaune will continuously fight Cinder over the course of the story, eventually leading to him defeating her. This works with Theories 1 and 3, and partially with theory 2 I made above. Reason I paired this theory with Whiteknight ship is because Weiss is present during the major story points that contain Jaune's voices.

Jaune awakened his Semblance to save Weiss so she wouldn't share Pyrrha's fate. This is even referenced by Cinder taunting him that he is gonna let her die as well. So Pyrrha's "voice" or more specifically, lessons he learned from Pyrrha lead Jaune to awaken and save Weiss. If you believe that Penny is saint Catherine, this works once again. Penny's plea to Jaune lead once again to Jaune saving Weiss' life. If he didn't kill Penny, Cinder wouldn't have gotten distracted and would have killed Weiss on the spot. This theory rides what is seemingly current story trajectory (re-establishing Cinder as Jaune's personal enemy by making him kill Penny and Weiss' crush on him in volume 9).

Flaws I see with this interpretation is that if we go by multiple voices theory, there is no third voice. Alyx is odd one out and doesn't fit the mold here. So to complete this part of theory, we'll need new third martyr, preferably killed by Cinder and with something that can connect both Jaune and Weiss. It has potential to happen, but we'll have to wait and see.

Theory 2: Reedeming Knightfall

Here is my obligatory Knightfall shilling interpretation. Please understand, I only indirectly shilled for Knightfall in my previous theory and withdrawals are kicking in.

So yeah, Pyrrha is consistently guiding Jaune towards Cinder, but end point is Jaune redeeming Cinder, not killing her. Reason I go with this interpretation is because all three voices I listed in theory 2 and people Jaune couldn't save (although irony is that 2 out of 3 he couldn't save from Cinder herself). Cinder is on path that can only lead to her death and enslavement, she is doomed individual Jaune will save. Here is dandy little Cinder flowchart I made for my Indecisive King theory to quickly demonstrate that.

So, why would Jaune be the one to help her? Isn't Ruby more likely to do so considering she is the only one that can save her from her grimmification? Well, someone has to actually bring her to Ruby for that to happen and I have my reason to believe it's Jaune.

Indecisive King story. I'd suggest just reading my Indecisive King theory. Quick summary: Jaune=Widow, Cinder=King, King is plagued with visions of doomed future he cannot avoid. Widow used the vision of the future she saw and advice King gave her at the beginning of the story and helped him make the right choice.

It's consistent with my Joan of Arc interpretations. I'd suggest reading my Joan of Arc timeline theory. Cinder almost perfectly matches king Dauphin. Joan was guided by her voices to help the King. Voices in the story leading Jaune to help Cinder is logical conclusion if Jaune's story follows Joan's.

Alyx connection. Jaune's experience with Alyx will lead him to help Cinder in the end. Both Cinder and Alyx are selfish and villainous individuals who made the deal with powerful ancient being (Salem and CC respectively) to be granted their wish. Alyx had the crisis of faith after talking to Blacksmith and felt remorse for all the damage she did and wanted to make amends. However, she was instead killed by CC for breaking her promise. If we take Indecisive King into consideration, this could be valid speculation: Cinder's sees visions with the Crown (you could also make parallel between Blacksmith and Relic's ghost) and wants to make amends for all the damage she did. But instead of dying to Salem, Jaune saves her and allows her to be redeemed. This could explain why Jaune's involvement with Alyx was even present in the story.

Flaws with this theory is that relies a lot on speculative canon. While I can back most of these with literary references that seem to reference these potential future events, it's still up in the air.

What are your thoughts about the theories? Feel free to comment if I you have your own interpretations.

[blueiscoool]

Very Rare Gold Medallion by Roman Emperor Maxentius 

The gold quaternio struck by the emperor Maxentius around 308 A.D. to celebrate himself for rebuilding the Temple of Venus and Roma in Rome sold at auction on November 2nd for $312,000, well above its pre-sale estimate of $100,000 – $200,000.

The Templum Veneris et Romae was a double temple dedicated to the goddess Venus Felix, mother of Aeneas and through him of the Roman people, and to Roma Aeterna, the deity who was the personification of the city and larger state. The temple was constructed by Emperor Hadrian in 135 A.D., but he didn’t just order it built. He fancied himself something of a draftsman/architect and he personally designed the plans for this temple. They were not universally acclaimed, to put it mildly, and when Trajan’s revered architect Apollodorus of Damascus voiced his objections to Hadrian’s plan, the emperor had him executed and built it the way he wanted.

The temple was huge, built on a platform 475 feet long and 330 feet wide along the Sacred Way on the slopes of the Velia hill next to the Colosseum. More than 100 feet high, it was the largest temple in the city and for centuries one of the most important shrines in the empire. Construction of the temple is what spurred the removal of the colossal statue of Nero, which gave the Flavian Amphitheater its nickname. (The machinery Apollodorus talks about being stored in the temple were the apparatuses used in the spectacles at the amphitheater.) Hadrian took a non-standard approach to temple design, placing the cellae (the rooms where the images of the goddesses dwelled) back-to-back instead of side-by-side. This was a bit of an anagram pun on Hadrian’s part. AMOR (love) is ROMA spelled backwards.

When the temple was heavily damaged in a fire in 307 A.D., Maxentius rebuilt it. He did not follow in Hadrian’s architectural footprints, but instead had it reconstructed in the apdsidal form with vaulted ceilings that was typical of early 4th century Rome. He replaced the burned wooden ceiling with a stone coffered vault and doubled the thickness of the walls to support it. He also redid the cellae so they conformed to the classical design that Hadrian had eschewed. Most of the temple was destroyed in an earthquake in the 9th century and the church built in the ruins, but the remains of the cella and vaulted apse still stand today.

Maxentius made this project the cornerstone of his imperial identity. For four years, the rest of his reign until his death in battle against Constantine in 312 A.D., Maxentius would be the last emperor to live in Rome, but his dedication to the physical fabric of the city was forgotten, largely by design of his successor. Constantine issued a damnatio memoriae decree against Maxentius, destroying all public references to him, including the inscriptions on the buildings he had restored or constructed. Constantine took all the credit for them instead, propped up by Christian writers villainizing his former rival as a tyrannical brute and lionizing Constantine, who built a new capital a thousand miles away and named it after himself, as Rome’s reviver.

Another Roman gold medallion minted for a less virtue-signaling purpose also sold at the same coin auction. It is an eight aurei medallion, so a single gold coin weighing eight times the amount of a circulation aureus, but it sold for $63,000, a fifth of the price of the quaternio. It was minted in Milan in 268 A.D. by a brand-new emperor, Claudius II. His predecessor Gallienus had been assassinated by one of his officers while besieging Milan to quash yet another attempted usurpation. The troops then acclaimed Claudius emperor.

Claudius II

There were rumors that Claudius was in on the assassination, but if so, he was unusually kind to the allies and family of the man he killed to snatch his throne. He spared Gallenius’ supporters from reprisals and focused instead on fighting the Gothic invasion of Rome’s Balkan provinces. To accomplish his military goals, Claudius had to ensure the loyalty of the army. The best way to accomplish that, established by centuries of tradition at this pont, was to buy it. The price to buy off the officers was 10 gold aurei each, an enormous sum. The highest-ranking and most influential officers received their bribes in the form of these gigantic gold medallions.

The eight-aurei medallion of Claudius II features the laureate cuirassed bust of the emperor on the obverse and the goddess Concordia holding the standards of the legions on the reverse. The inscription on the reverse reads CORCORDIA EXERCITVS, ie, “harmony in the army,” because that was exactly what he was buying. Claudius was famous for his strength as a wrestler and in hand-to-hand combat. He once reputedly punched a horse in the face and knocked out its teeth. He was a direct man, to put it mildly, and called them as he saw them even on his giant bribe coins.

It worked, though. In 270, Claudius led the army to a massive victory over the Goths at the Battle of Naissus in modern-day Serbia. He was granted a triumph and the cognomen Gothicus. He didn’t get to enjoy either, but not because of treachery among the officer staff. Plague took his life before the bloom was off the rose. He was immediately deified and heavily mourned in spite of (or perhaps because of) his all-too-brief reign.

[kemetic-dreams]

What did Roman Empire pagan soldiers think of fighting under Constantine and Christianity?

Probably not very much.

The Roman military was a world of its own. More than today, soldiers had their very identity shaped by the institution and people they served. Upon enlisting, they swore allegiance to the emperor and received new names as his servants — Valerius during the tetrarchy and Flavius under Constantine. Those who didn’t speak Latin were pushed to acquire a basic grasp of it, pretty much like the French Foreign Legion of today. Starting from the late republican period, Roman soldiers were accustomed to receiving salaries, booty and pensions from their commanders, not the state in an abstract sense. Under the empire, loyalty often lay with the emperor, as long as he was perceived as strong.

In that frame, Constantine never lost the faith of his men thanks to his talents, accomplishments and image. It surely helped that he was Constantius Chlorus’ son, but dynastic feelings were not so strong in the 4th c. What really mattered was that he was a victorious imperator, with plenty of experience both before and after his ascension. His CV included wars against, and victories over, foreigners (Franks, Goths, Alamanni) and rival emperors (Maxentius, Licinius) alike. That kept soldiers satisfied and himself secure on the throne. Besides, Constantine took care to associate his military exploits with the Christian God. On the contrary, his sons failed to live up to his legacy and had to face claims by men like Magnus Magnentius and Julian.

Another thing to consider is the role of religion in the then Roman military. In general, early Christianity wasn’t unanimously for or against military service, hence a decent minority of soliders were Christians even before Constantine. In the late 3rd c., you could find Christians like St. Marcellus holding even the rank of centurion. The statesman Cassius Dio is reported to have spoken of Christians in the comitatus of all four original tetrarchs. Cases of individual disobedience cannot be excluded, of course, but the military was, above all, a state mechanism. Under Diocletian, they persecuted Christians; under Constantine, they fought the Donatists and may have even destroyed the Asclepieion at Aegae, Cilicia.

On his part, Constantine didn’t adopt Christianity the way most people after his time imagine(d). There was a long, gradual process, for the most part inscribed into the norms of late antiquity. Nomenclature and visual language were preserved to a considerable extent. Separate Christian and non-Christian prayers are reported to have been taking place at the same time. At some point in the 320s, a group of veterans greeted Constantine with the traditional “May the gods preserve you for us” salute. Two elite army units, Diocletian’s Jovians and Maximian’s Herculians, were not rebranded, although their names recalled the gods Jupiter and Hercules whom the late tetrarchs associated themselves with.

With the benefit of hindsight, we now know that the dynamics of that complex situation ended up favouring Christianity — if anything, all of Constantine’s successors were Christians except for Julian. That, however, should not be taken out of context. Few have a panoramic view of their time or the acumen to predict the future, and the provincials who made up the bulk of the late Roman military were not among them. Even if they were, though, they may not have had particularly strong feelings about any potential outcome. At the same time, various (quasi-)henotheistic traditions like the cult of Sol Invictus and Mithraism were around. The period was transitional, hence quite fluid.

[charlesoberonn]

List of Roman Emperors and how many future emperors were born during their reign

"?" is for emperors whose birthdate is unclear, they'd be listed under every possible option

Emperors with no known birthdate won't be counted towards any reign

A lot of the reigns overlap (especially after the Empire is divided between east and west) so some emperors are born during the reign of several previous emperors

Republican Era: 2. Augustus, Tiberius

Agustus (40 years): 5. Caligula, Claudius, Galba, Vitellius, Vespasian

Tiberius (22 years): 2. Otho, Nerva

Caligula (4 years): 2. Nero, Titus

Claudius (14 years): 2. Domitian, Trajan

Nero (14 years): 0.

Galba (7 months): 0.

Otho (3 months): 0.

Vitellius (8 months): 0.

Vespasian (10 years): 1. Hadrian

Titus (2 years): 0.

Domitian (15 years): 1. Antoninus Pius

Nerva (1 year): 0.

Trajan (20 years): 0.

Hadrian (21 years): 4. Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, Pertinax, Didius Julianus

Antoninus Pius (23 years): 2. Septimius Severus, Gordian I

Marcus Aurelius (19 years): 3-4. Commodus, Macrinus, Maximunus Thrax?, Pupienus

Lucius Verus (8 years): 2. Commodus, Macrinus

Commodus (13 years): 4-6. Caracalla, Geta, Maximinus Thrax?, Gordian II, Balbinus, Decius?

Pertinax (3 months): 0.

Didius Julianus (2 months): 0.

Septimius Severus (18 years): 6-8. Elagabalus, Severus Alexander, Philip the Arab, Decius?, Trebonianus Gallus, Aemilianus, Valerian, Tacitus?

Caracalla (6 years): 2. Claudius Gothicus, Aurelian

Geta (1 year): 0.

Macrinus (1 year): 0-1. Gallienus?

Elagabalus (4 years): 0-1. Gallienus?

Severus Alexander (13 years): 2-3. Gordian III, Probus, Carus?

Maximinus Thrax (3 years): 0.

Gordian I (1 month): 0.

Gordian II (1 month): 0.

Pupienus (3 months): 0.

Balbinus (3 months): 0.

Gordian III (5 years): 1. Diocletian

Philip the Arab (6 years): 0.

Decius (2 years): 0-3. Carinus?, Maximian?, Constantius I?

Trebonian Gallus (2 years): 0.

Aemilianus (2 months): 0.

Valerian (7 years): 2. Numerian, Galerius

Gallienus (15 years): 1. Licinius

Claudius Gothicus (2 years): 0.

Aurelian (5 years): 2. Maximinus II, Constantine I

Tacitus (7 months): 0.

Florianus (3 months): 0.

Probus (6 years): 0.

Carus (10 months): 0-1. Maxentius?

Carinus (2 years): 0-1. Maxentius?

Numerian (1 year): 0-1. Maxentius?

Diocletian (20 years): 0.

Maximian (21 years): 0.

Galerius (6 years): 0.

Constantius I (1 year): 0.

Severus II (8 months): 0.

Maxentius (6 years): 0.

Licinius (15 years): 4. Constantine II, Constans I, Constantius II, Valentinian I

Maximinus II (3 years): 0.

Constantine I (31 years): 7. Constantine II, Constans I, Constantius II, Julian, Jovian, Valentinian I, Valens

Constantine II (3 years): 0.

Constans I (12 years): 1. Theodosius I

Constantius II (24 years): 2. Gratian, Theodosius I

Julian (2 years): 0.

Jovian (8 months): 0.

Valentinian I (12 years): 1. Valentinian II

Valens (14 years): 2. Valentinian II, Arcadius

Gratian (8 years): 1. Arcadius

Valentinian II (4 years): 0.

Theodosius I (16 year): 2. Honorius, Marcian

Arcadius (13 years): 2. Theodosius II, Leo I

Honorius (29 years): 2. Theodosius II, Leo I

Theodosius II (42 years): 3-4. Valentinian III, Zeno, Anastasius I, Justin?

Constantius III (7 months): 0.

Valentinian III (29 years): 1-2. Zeno?, Anastasius I

Marcian (6 years): 0-1. Justin I?

Petronius Maximus (2 months): 0.

Avitus (1 year): 0.

Majorian (4 years): 0.

Leo I (17 years): 1. Leo II

Libius Severus (4 years): 0-1. Romulus Augustulus?

Anthemius (5 years): 1. Leo II

Olybrius (7 months): 0.

Glycerius (1 year): 0.

Leo II (10 months): 0.

Julius Nepos (6 years): 0.

Zeno (16 years): 1. Justinian I 

Basiliscus (2 years): 0.

Romulus Augustulus (10 months): 0.

Anastasius I (27 years): 0.

Justin I (9 years): 0.

Justinian I (39 years): 3. Tiberius II, Maurice, Phocas

Justin II (13 years): 1. Heraclius

Tiberius II (4 years): 0.

Maurice (20 years): 0.

Phocas (8 years): 0.

Heraclius (30 years): 3. Constantine III, Heraclonas, Constans II

Constantine III (3 months): 0.

Heraclonas (9 months): 0.

Constans II (27 years): 1. Constatine IV

Constantine IV (17 years): 1-2. Justinian II, Leo III?

Justinian II (16 years, non-consecutive): 0-1. Leo III?

Leontius (3 years): 0.

Tiberius III (7 years): 0.

Philippicus (2 years): 0.

Anastasius II (2 years): 0.

Theodosius III (2 years): 0.

Leo III (24 years): 1. Constantine V

Constantine V (34 years): 6-7. Leo IV, Constantine VI, Irene, Nikephoros I, Michael I, Leo V?, Michael II

Leo IV (5 years): 0-1. Leo V?

Constantine VI (17 years): 0-1. Staurakios?

Irene (5 years): 0-1. Staurakios?

Nikephoros I (9 years): 0-1. Basil I?

Staurakios (2 months): 0-1. Basil I?

Michael I (2 years): 0-2. Theophilos?, Basil I?

Leo V (7 years): 0-1. Theophilos?

Michael II (9 years): 0.

Theophilos (12 years): 1-2. Michael II, Basil I?

Michael III (26 years): 1. Leo VI

Basil I (19 years): 2. Alexander, Romanos I

Leo VI (26 years): 1-2. Constantine VII, Nikephoros II?

Alexander (1 year): 0-1. Nikephoros II?

Constantine VII (46 years): 3. Romanos II, John I, Basil II

Romanos I (24 years): 2. Romanos II, John I

Romanos II (3 years): 1. Constantine VIII

Nikephoros II (6 years): 1. Romanos III

John I (6 years): 0.

Basil II (50 years): 9. Michael IV, Michael V, Zeo, Theodora, Constantine IX, Michael VI, Isaac I, Constantine X, Nikephoros III

Constantine VIII (3 years): 0.

Romanos III (5 years): 1. Romanos IV

Michael IV (8 years): 0.

Michael V (4 months): 0.

Zoe (2 months): 0.

Theodora (2 years): 0.

Constantine IX (13 years): 1. Michael VII

Michael VI (1 year): 0-1. Alexios I?

Isaac I (2 years): 0-1. Alexios I?

Constantine X (7 years): 0.

Romanos IV (4 years): 0.

Michael VII (6 years): 0.

Nikephoros III (8 years): 0.

Alexios I (37 years): 1-2. John II, Andronikos I?

John II (25 years): 4-5. Manuel I, Andronikos I?, Isaac II, Alexios III, Alexios V

Manuel I (37 years): 2. Alexios II, Theodore I,

Alexios II (3 years): 1. Alexios IV

Andronikos I (2 years): 0.

Isaac II (10 years): 1. John III

Alexios III (8 years): 0.

Alexios IV (6 months): 0.

Alexios V (2 months): 0.

Theodore I (16 years): 0-1. Theodore II?

John III (33 years): 2-3. Theodore II?, John IV, Michael VIII

Theodore II (4 years): 0.

John IV (3 years): 0.

Michael VIII (24 years): 2. Andronikos II, Michael IX

Andronikos II (45 years): 2. Andronikos III, John VI

Michael IX (26 years): 1. Andronikos III

Andronikos III (13 years): 1. John V

John V (50 years): 3. Andronikos IV, John VII, Manuel II

John VI (8 years): 2. Andronikos IV, Manuel II

Andronikos IV (3 years): 0.

John VII (5 years): 0.

Manuel II (34 years): 2. John VIII, Constantine XI

John VIII (23 years): 0.

Constantine XI (4 years): 0.

[head-post]

Lightning damaged Constantine Arch in Rome amid thunderstorm

Lightning struck the Arch of Constantine in Rome near the Colosseum during a severe thunderstorm, according to AP News.

Fragments from Tuesday’s lightning strike were immediately collected and secured by workers at the Colosseum Archeological Park, officials reported.

The recovery work by technicians was timely. Our workers arrived immediately after the lightning strike. All of the fragments were recovered and secured.

The Arch of Constantine, over 20 metres (almost 70 feet) high, was erected in 315 AD to commemorate Emperor Constantine’s victory over Maxentius after the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. The extent of the damage is estimated.

Read more HERE

[thepastisalreadywritten]

SAINT OF THE DAY (November 25)

Catholics and other Christians around the world celebrate today, November 25, the memorial of St. Catherine of Alexandria, a revered martyr of the fourth century.

St. Catherine was the subject of great interest and devotion among later medieval Christians.

Devotees relished tales of her rejection of marriage, her rebuke to an emperor, and her decision to cleave to Christ even under threat of torture.

Pope John Paul II restored the celebration of her memorial to the Roman Catholic calendar in 2002.

Catherine's popularity as a figure of devotion, during an era of imaginative hagiography, has obscured the facts of her life.

It is likely that she was of noble birth, a convert to Christianity, a virgin by choice (before the emergence of organized monasticism), and eventually a martyr for the faith.

Accounts of Catherine's life also agree on the location where she was born, educated, and bore witness to her faith.

The Egyptian city of Alexandria was a center of learning in the ancient world, and tradition represents Catherine as the highly educated daughter of a noble pagan family.

It is said that a vision of the Virgin Mary and the child Jesus spurred her conversion. The story has inspired works of art, which depict her decision to live as a virginal “spouse of Christ.”

Emperor Maxentius ruled Egypt during Catherine's brief lifetime, a period when multiple co-emperors jointly governed the Roman Empire.

During this time, just before Emperor Constantine's embrace and legalization of Christianity, the Church was growing but also attracting persecution.

Catherine, eager to defend the faith she had embraced, came before Maxentius to protest a brutal campaign against the Church.

At first, the emperor decided to try and persuade her to renounce Christ.

But in a debate that the emperor proceeded to arrange between Catherine and a number of pagan philosophers, Catherine prevailed – with her skillful apologetics converting them instead.

Maxentius' next stratagem involved an offer to make her his mistress.

She not only rebuffed the emperor but also reportedly convinced his wife to be baptized.

Enraged by Catherine's boldness and resolve, the Emperor resolved to break her will through torture on a spiked wheel. 

Tradition holds that she was miraculously freed from the wheel, either before or during torture. Finally, she was beheaded.

Maxentius later died in a historic battle against his co-Emperor Constantine in October of 312, after which he was remembered disdainfully, if at all.

St. Catherine, meanwhile, inspired generations of philosophers, consecrated women, and martyrs.

Ironically, or perhaps appropriately – given both her embrace of virginity and her “mystic marriage” to Christ – young women in many Western European countries were once known to seek her intercession in finding their husbands.

Regrettably, the torture wheel to which she herself may have been subjected was subsequently nicknamed the “Catherine wheel” and used even among Christian kingdoms.

Today, St. Catherine of Alexandria is more appropriately known as the namesake of a monastery at Mount Sinai that claims to be the oldest in the world.