#emirate of granada

[cincinnatusvirtue]

The Reconquista & Moorish Resistance in Spain: Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1499-1501)

1492 was one of the most consequential years for the nationhood of what is now Spain.  Not only was it the year Christopher Columbus & his crew reached the Americas in the name of the Spanish monarchs. An event that ignited the subsequent centuries long European exploration & conquest of the North American & South American continents.  1492 was also the year that most historians deemed the official end of the so-called Reconquista.

The Reconquista (reconquest) was also commonly viewed as a centuries long project of entailing conflict between the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain & Portugal) aimed at “retaking” the land from the Islamic invaders who hailed from North Africa & the Middle East and ruled over large swaths of land collectively known as Al-Andalus.  The grouping of Muslims in Iberia came to collectively be referred to as the Moors.  As we’ll elaborate in this post, the Reconquista fitting into a binary Christian European versus foreign Muslim narrative is probably too narrow to accurately the describe the period in question.  Nor as we’ll discuss later does the year 1492 automatically signal an end to the Moorish community such as it was within Iberia.  As with much of history there is much more nuance to these topics.  To get a more accurate picture of history requires accepting that nuance however inconvenient to our preconceived notions did in fact & does in fact exist in virtually every historical event recorded across the spans of time & space.  

Let’s then define the rough time period we mean, when we discuss the Reconquista.  Historians commonly refer to the Reconquista to be roughly from the year 718/722 AD/CE starting with the Battle of Covadonga lasting until the Fall of Granada in 1492 AD/CE.  These are generally the bookends of Reconquista which are more or less accepted by historians today.  For further context, let’s remind ourselves of what brought about the Reconquista & then discuss whether that it was a simple case of Christian vs. Muslim.  

The Islamic Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula is generally believed to have begun in the year 711 AD/CE when a force of Muslims made up of mostly Berber or Amazigh (native peoples from North Africa) with some Arabs crossed the Straits of Gibraltar from modern Morocco & invaded modern-day Spain.  This force was led by one Tariq ibn Ziyad (670 CE-720 CE).  Tariq was a Berber from North Africa whose people had only within the last few decades come to embrace Islam & not completely.  The early Islamic conquests spread rapidly following the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE.  Muhammad had largely succeeded in uniting the Arabian Peninsula under Islamic rule by his death.  From there under the first Islamic empire of sorts, the Rashidun Caliphate (632 CE-631 CE) saw conquests of both some of the Middle East and some of North Africa, namely Egypt from the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) & Iranian Plateau from the Persian Sassanian Empire.  Following the First Fitna (civil war), the Rashidun Caliphate was succeeded following the death of Muhammad’s cousin & son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib, the 4th and final caliph of the Rashidun (rightly guided).  They were succeeded by the Umayyad Caliphate (661 CE-750 CE), the 2nd major Islamic caliphate.   The Umayyads were an Arab dynasty & distant relatives of Muhammad taking power after the First Fitna from their power base in Syria.  They changed the trajectory of Islamic history in a number of ways.  In a leadership level, they became the first hereditary Islamic dynasty, making the caliph less of a religious & political leader & primarily a political leader akin to a king or emperor in practice though nominally had the religious leadership attached to the title but this would decrease in practice overtime.  The succession of caliphs were now passed essentially from father to son whereas the Rashidun caliphs were elected by a council called a shura who tried to assess the merits of the candidates proposed.  Leadership was intended to be based on those whose character & ability would exemplify Islamic teaching & virtue as they believed the Prophet Muhammad had exhibited in his leadership.

The Umayyads greatly expanded the Islamic conquest to the whole of North Africa by the late 7th century & all the way into parts of Central Asia & the Indus Valley in modern Pakistan & India.  They also extended northward into Byzantine held Anatolia (modern Turkey) and the southern Caucasus (Armenia).  They further extended their reach into Europe with raids in the Mediterranean including the Iberian Peninsula by the late 7th & early 8th centuries CE. While Islamic teachings held that all Muslims were equal in terms of value regardless of ethnic or geographic background & the Umayyads did indeed rule over a vast multiethnic & multireligious empire, in practice they maintained a preference for Arab Muslims among the bureaucracy & aristocracy to rule over the empire.  A hierarchy formed with the Arabs at top, non-Arab Muslims such as Persians, Egyptians, Greeks, Armenians & Berbers who recently converted as generally beneath the Arabs & below them Christians & Jews who did not convert to Islam along with other non-Abrahamic religions at the bottom of the hierarchy.  Christians & Jews however were allowed to practice their religion without interference so long as the jiyza poll tax was paid to fund the caliphate’s operations in part.

It was under the Umayyad Governor of Ifriqiya “Africa” (modern Tunisia, Algeria & Libya) Musa ibn Nusayr, an Arab from Syria that Tariq ibn Ziyad was ordered to cross the Straits of Gibraltar & invade Iberia.  At the time Iberia was under the control of the Kingdom of the Visigoths.  The Visigoths were a Germanic people from Northern & Eastern Europe that moved nomadically into the Roman Empire during the late classical period into the early medieval period.  They were among the so-called barbarian hordes that overran the western Roman Empire & had famously sacked Rome itself in 410 AD/CE.  This contributed to the eventual downfall of the Western half of the Roman Empire.  The Visigoths in time however along with other Germanic peoples like the Ostrogoths, Vandals & Franks began to adopt elements of Roman culture from the areas over which they now ruled.  Picking up Latin as an official language & even adopting Christianity.  The Visigoths had helped the Romans at one point fend off Attila the Hun and his nomadic empire in the plains of France.  The Visigoths had settled in southern France before crossing into Spain where they overtook the Hispano-Roman population.  The Hispano-Romans were a mixture of native Iberians, Celts, Carthaginian & Greco-Roman settlers among others in Iberia who more or less coalesced into a common people that spoke Latin & practiced a precursor to Catholic Christianity.  Iberia likewise contained the native Basque peoples who maintained their own unique language & culture to this day, largely protected by their residence in the mountainous northern reaches of Iberia & southern France.  The Visigoths ruled over them as powerful warrior minority who overtime increasingly assimilated into Hispano-Roman majority but still maintained serious differences.  The brand of Christianity practiced by the Visigoths was known as Arianism & differed from the Christianity of Hispano-Romans.  They also dealt with somewhat unsettled monarchical rules.  Civil war occurred among the Visigoths for kingship which was not necessarily hereditary.  

It is said that the rule of a Visigoth King by the name of Roderic who reigned from 710-711 was the impetus for the Muslim invasion.  There is much debate about whether Roderic’s reign itself was the cause for the invasion as there is a fabled tale that he seduced or raped the daughter of one of his nobles who turned to the Muslims of the Umayyad Caliphate to act as a mercenary force to avenge & depose Roderic in exchange for conquest of the peninsula.  This tale was sometimes accepted as fact but may actually be a tale or contain some elements of truth, the historical record to this day is limited on this.  However, what seems to be known is that Roderic’s reign was not fully accepted by other Visigoth nobles within the kingdom & was disputed at best & perhaps ignited civil war or at least created a division that may have led to conspiracy between Visigoth nobles & Umayyads.  Whatever the reality, the opposition to Roderic did create an opportune moment for an army of Berber and Arab Muslims (Moors) to land at the Rock of Gibraltar & begin their in-land push to begin conquering the Iberian Peninsula also known as Hispania.  Gibraltar in fact takes its name from Tariq ibn Ziyad’s first name.  In Arabic the rock which is the symbol of the modern British possession Gibraltar was known as Jabel-al-Tariq (Rock of Tariq), in antiquity it was known as one of the Pillars of Hercules. Roderic raised an army to oppose the Muslims and was defeated it is said due to betrayal of his own forces at Battle of Guadalete.  This is turn opened a rapid conquest of virtually all of the peninsula within a decade.  The Muslims received more Berber & Arab reinforcements and were more or less accepted by some of the Visigoths & Hispano-Roman population.  The Umayyads had added the regions known in Arabic as Al-Andalus or land of the Vandals (Germanic peoples who reigned in Iberia earlier) as their western most province.  

For virtually a decade their conquest went unimpeded due to the divisions among the Visigoths & the Hispano-Romans.  However, the northern mountains of Hispania did protect some retreating Visigoth & Hispano-Roman Christians as it did their Basque neighbors.  Creating a relative safe haven for them in the form of a new kingdom, the Kingdom of Asturias.  Additionally, the Muslims had to now consolidate their hold over southern & central Iberia as well as the coasts.  Further strains to the Islamic cause came in the form of division between Arab & Berber.  The Arabs typically were new to North Africa much less Europe & due to Umayyad preferences were often given leadership positions & the greater spoils of war over the more numerous Berbers who acted as the rank & file soldier typically, leading to lingering resentment.  These divisions would persist off and on throughout the history of Al-Andalus, notably in the Great Berber Revolt of 740-43.  The Battle of Covadonga fought in either 718 or 722 CE saw the Asturians defeat the Umayyads for the first discernable time & allowed a check on their ambition to completely rule the peninsula.  Other setbacks to Muslim conquests came in their invasions of France where in 721 they were defeated in the Siege of Toulouse & in 732 the Franks decisively defeated the Muslims at the Battle of Tours.

In 750 CE, the Umayyads were overthrown by a new Arab dynasty with closer blood ties to the Prophet Muhammad, the Abbasid dynasty.  The Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 & 1261-1517) were descended from the Prophet’s uncle & while they maintained the Umayyad preference for hereditary succession to the caliphate, they reversed the Umayyad preference for an Arab only bureaucracy, largely using Persians to fill government roles & allowing other non-Arabs likewise to fulfill leadership roles.  The Abbasids would likewise preside over an age of cultural flowering within the Islamic world, the so-called Islamic Golden Age with the establishment of Baghdad in Iraq as their capital.  They’d rule over the largest Islamic empire in history but one not entirely united as they would soon lose Al-Andalus.  

The Abbasids would try to kill every remaining Umayyad but one named Abd Al-Rahman Al-Dahkil (the Entrant) managed to escape Syria while witnessing his brother’s execution.  Abd Al-Rahman’s father was Arab but his mother was Berber & he sought refuge among his mother’s relatives in North Africa which had become relatively autonomous under the Umayyads due to the rule of another Arab noble dynasty known as the Fihrids.  They accepted Abd Al-Rahman’s exile within their borders as they themselves were not eager to accept Abbasid rule & did so nominally.  The Fihrids had spearheaded the Arab conquest of North Africa & now ruled as governors of Al-Andalus well into the 8th century but divisions amongst the Yemeni & Syrian Arab factions and Berber factions created an opportune moment for Abd Al-Rahman to make his way into Iberia.  There with an army of Syrian Arabs & Berbers he defeated the Fihrid governor of Al-Andalus.  In turn he now created an independent Emirate (Principality), the Emirate of Cordoba (756 CE-929CE) which later evolved into the independent and rival Caliphate of Cordoba (929 CE-1031 CE).  The Umayyad direct rule over Cordoba likewise saw a cultural flowering which rivalled that of the Abbasids in Baghdad.  With geography & other more pressing issues closer at home, the Abbasids de-facto accepted the Umayyad reign over Al-Andalus.  This peaked under the reign of Abd Al-Rahman III who reigned as Emir from 912-929 before declaring himself as Caliph of Cordoba and ruling as caliph from 929 to 961.  Cordoba became a major center of learning in Western Europe & both as an emirate & caliphate saw much knowledge transfer between Muslim, Christian & Jews. These people could live side by side but by the 10th & 11th centuries CE, the majority population of the Iberian Peninsula was in fact majority Muslim.  This populace became collectively known as the Moors to the Chrisitan European world.  

What constituted the term Moor?  It is derived from the term Mauri originally derived from the Greek term for the Berber tribes of northern Morocco & Algeria, that term was Maurusii or Mauri as it was adopted in Latin later by the Romans after their conquest of North Africa.  It also applied to the Latin name for the province of Mauretania.  Originally it applied to the Berber peoples of this region, but this preceded the Islamic era by centuries & had no religious connotations. By the time of Al-Andalus, Mauri remained the Latin term for the Berbers but the Muslims were never strictly only Berbers but a combination of Berber & Arabs.  The term Moor in English is in turn derived from the Latin daughter Romance languages of Spanish, Italian & French which used the term moro & maure.  By the time of Al-Andalus as the Caliphate of Cordoba, Moor was applied to all Muslims within the Iberian Peninsula.  This applied equally to Berbers, Arabs & European converts to Islam, the Hispano-Romans & Visigoths also to some degree converted to Islam, as did slaves imported from Eastern Europe via the Arab slave trade.  These latter two groups (Hispano-Romans & the Slavic slaves) helped constitute the majority of Iberia’s previously Christian population & it was through this conversion that Islam became the predominant religion of Iberia during much of the Middle Ages.  They were known as muwallad.   

Moors never truly constituted a specific ethnicity in Spain & Portugal.  It was perhaps better described as a cultural or religious designation rather than an ethnic or racial one.  Moors came from various ethnic backgrounds spanning 3 continents (Europe, West Asia & North Africa) and could range in skin color from dark to light & fair skinned as it was not a racial designation.  Furthermore, the racial divides between Berber & Arabs during the earlier Al-Andalus period began to dissipate gradually over the centuries due to intermarriage between the two communities & this also included muwallad (Hispano-Roman) marriage with Berber & Arab communities as well.  In time leading to a community that became better known as Andalusian (taken from Al-Andalus) or to the Christians as Moors.  

As the Islamic power changed overtime from emirate to caliphate likewise new Christian kingdoms arose from the north of Iberia.  Asturias gave way to the Kingdom of Leon & the Basques formed the Kingdom of Pamplona.  In time the kingdoms of Castile & Aragon formed & Pamplona turned into the kingdom of Navarre.   As the Reconquista progressed the political interplay between Christian & Muslim powers became complex & despite the common narrative of a strict Christian vs. Muslim conflict much like the Crusades of the Middle East from the late 11th century onward, a more nuanced reality existed.  The caliphs of Cordoba were in fact mostly European being only patrilineal descendants of the Arab Umayyads.  Their mothers were made up of generations of either European slaves taken in raids or in some cases the Basque & Hispano-Roman royalty of the northern kingdoms who made treaties with the Umayyads & sometimes sent their daughters or sisters to become wives of the emirs & caliphs so as to ensure peace between their respective kingdom.  Abd Al-Rahman III, Caliph of Cordoba was the grandson of a princess from Pamplona & great-grandson of the Basque king of Pamplona.  He was said to have had fair skin & light eyes & hair/beard which he dyed black to make it appear more “Arab” despite that three-quarters of his grandparents were completely European, the remaining quarter was partially Arab intermixed with European captives in the emir’s harem.  Subsequently his cousins constituted the fellow monarchs of northern Iberia he had to contend with both through war & diplomacy.  

Throughout the Reconquista era, interaction between Christian & Muslim occurred at all levels in Iberia.  Trade, commerce, art, education & cultural exchange was not uncommon in addition to the familial ties of politicians & the ever-shifting alliances.  Christian powers were in competition with each other & Al-Andalus, matters complicated further following the collapse of the Caliphate of Cordoba which saw the break apart into numerous Muslim petty kingdoms called taifas.  Some ruled by Arab, Berber or muwallad dynasties.  Some paired with Christian powers against rival Muslim powers & likewise Christian powers teamed with Muslim powers against fellow Christian powers but the fractured nature of the taifas gave opportunity for Christian kingdoms like Castile & Aragon to gradually take more territory.  This was encouraged by the papacy in Rome and other players in Western Europe which sometimes saw French, English and other European mercenaries serve in the Iberian Christian armies against the Muslims.  So, it’s not inaccurate to say the Reconquista contained elements of a Christian vs. Muslim narrative & indeed it was a goal of many if not all Christian rulers in Iberia to drive the Muslims ultimately out of Iberia & unite the lands under their own rule, but their ambitions also extended to leadership over their fellow Christians too.  The question was would achieve this.  

Before this could happen, intervention from Morocco took place with a Berber led religious movement/dynasty known as the Almoravids intervened in Iberia & defeated a Castilian & Aragonese combined force at the Battle of Sagrajas in 1086.  They had been invited by the taifa rulers of Al-Andalus who realizing their own power slipping due to their infighting & subsequent losses to the Christian north needed a united front against complete collapse.  The Almoravids indeed halted the Reconquista but in the 12th century as home in Morocco they were supplanted by yet another Berber religious movement & dynasty, the Almohads. The Almohads not only took over Morocco but much of North Africa & eventually Al-Andalus.  Likewise, they had to compete with Christian powers and the remaining taifas of Iberia more or less determined to maintain some autonomy.  

However, the tide seemed to forever turn in the Christian favor following the 1212 CE Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in which a Christian coalition of Castile, Aragon, Navarre and a host of Crusader military orders & mercenaries from throughout Western Europe defeated the Almohads decisively.  This subsequently saw the Almohads eventually collapse in Iberia while they likewise power to various dynasties in North Africa spanning from Morocco to Libya.  The third taifa period in Iberia came after the Almohad collapse.  This likewise saw the taifas being subsumed by the Christian kingdoms.  The one relatively strong Muslim power to remain in Iberia was a relatively new one which became the Emirate of Granada (1230 CE-1492 CE).

Granada had the Sierra Nevada mountains to offer it a modicum of defense from the Christian north & its ruling dynasty, the Nasrids were of Arab stock.  The Nasrids two lasting contributions would be in architecture & historical placement.  Their architecture was best exemplified in the form of the world famous Alhambra palace complex.  Which served as a fort & series of palaces built on a hill overlooking Granada that saw expansion over the coming centuries.  The Nasrids unfortunately for the Muslims of Iberia were known in history as the rulers of the last independent Muslim realm in Western Europe.  As time went on they became vassals of the Kingdom of Castile, the most powerful & leading Christian realm in Iberia.  They alternated between war & peace with Castile, inflicting defeat & suffering defeat to the Castilians a gradual loss of territory to the Christians became irreversible & more and more the Muslims of Iberia of Berber, Arab & muwallad background rallied around their religious & cultural identity, becoming more culturally & geographically Andalusian as ethnic identifiers continued to wane in importance.  Granada’s ever shrinking borders became the last safe haven for the free practice of Islam in Iberia, something that had lasted for nearly 800 years.  

1491-1492 would see the Emirate of Granada come to end, along with it a successful completion of Reconquista and the end of Muslim rule in Iberia for all time up to the present.  The Catholic Monarchs, Isabella I of Castile & her husband Ferdinand II of Aragon created a personal union between the two most powerful kingdoms in all Iberia.  Their marriage also saw a renewed joint focus on ending Granada with the idea of removing the last Muslim power in the peninsula.  Starting in 1482 Castile & Aragon fought a decade long war with Granada but it was the siege of Granada itself in 1491 that caused Muhammad XII, the Nasrid emir of Granada to surrender the city, the whole of the emirate & the Alhambra palace built by his ancestors to Isabella & Ferdinand.  Christian success came when the besieging forces bombarded the city with early gunpowder artillery & cutoff the water supply & demoralized the Muslim defenders.  Additionally, there was rampant bribery going on between both sides which added an air of confusion & distrust between peoples within & outside of Granada.  Finally, the terms offered by the Catholic Monarchs to Muhammad XII caused him to capitulate as they were deemed generous to the Muslims of Granada & this was preferable to complete death & destruction.         

The Treaty of Granada signed in November 1491 gave a truce that stated on January 2nd,1492 the city would be handed over to the Christians effectively ending the Reconquista.  The treaty had many articles but largely can be summed as saying the Muslims of Granada in exchange for their submission to Isabella & Ferdinand would be able to essentially keep their property & maintain their free practice of religion & custom with little or no interference.

While this officially ended the Reconquista, it also helped give birth to the modern nation of Spain as Spanish nationhood became a more discussed notion following the fall of Granada.  The Alhambra was eventually converted into a Christian palace, particularly under Isabella & Ferdinand’s grandson’s (Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor) reign.

Initially, these generous terms afforded to the Muslims of Granada from their new sovereigns was adhered to but for both Jews & Muslims in Spain, the subsequent Spanish Inquisition by the Catholic Church would lead to massive disruptions.  However, their remained a difference of opinion between the church and the monarchs.  Church officials wanted the state to apply pressure to the Muslims & Jews of the kingdom with an eye towards conversion en masse.  Meanwhile, the king & queen sought to uphold the terms & let the Muslims passively convert to Christianity if possible.  In 1499, during their visit to Granada the population (many Muslim) actually cheered the crown for nearly a decade of respectfully adhering to the provisions of the treaty in 1491.

This rapidly changed that same year when the Archbishop of Toledo moved to Granada & begin asking for the imprisonment of Muslims including the nobles.  Once in prison they faced torture until conversion.  Spurred on by this the Archbishop begin to increase the pressure by having a loophole in the trearty allow for the questioning of Christians who had become Muslim converts & done so in front of Muslim clerics. These converts were summoned to prison for questioning & often women were targeted which angered their Muslim male relatives.  This reached a breaking point when one convert woman openly decried she was being forced to convert to Christianity, the officials escorting her to prison were surrounded by a Muslim crowd, one was killed while the other escaped & this in turn triggered an open revolt.

The archbishop demanded the Muslims hand over the killers of his agent which failed.  Instead, he called up soldiers to help provide a show of force if necessary to put down the revolt.  After negotiation the killers were turned over the rebellion died down due Muslims handing over their weapons.  Nonetheless the archbishop was recalled to Seville by Ferdinand who was angered.  The archbishop nevertheless convinced him that Muslims broke the treaty through their open revolt.  Furthermore, he managed to get the Catholic Monarchs to pardon all rebels in exchange for their conversion to Christianity.  This conversion was nominal for the whole Muslim populace of Granada.    

While Granada’s Muslims calmed their own rebellion down through negotiation, the rebel attitude spilled over to the countryside.  Particularly into the Alpujarras mountain range south of Granada.  There the Andalusian Muslims were living fairly free lives devoid of much interference & enforcement of the treaty.  Fearing the forced conversions that befell Granada, they declared the revolt in the name of preserving their religion & culture.  Due to the mountainous terrain & well led tacticians, they were able muster up a guerrilla warfare campaign against Christian rule.  However, the Christians were able to send roughly 80,000 soldiers into the region to put down the rebellion eventually with Ferdinand overseeing the war efforts.  The Muslim guerillas lacked an organized structure of command & overall strategy & this in turn allowed the Christian forces to defeat the rebels piecemeal.  Rebel lives could be spared on the condition of conversion to Christianity.  Furthermore, the Christian forces now took to preserving little to no quarter to the enemy.  In the town of Laujar de Andarax 3,000 Muslims were killed included hundreds of women & children blown up in a mosque in which they sought refuge due to ignited gunpowder supplied to besiege the town.  By early 1501, Ferdinand declared the rebellion over.  The Muslims continued to rebel & they were met with both defeat & victory but realizing they could not have a great chance at winning the war without a defined command & strategy, they sued for peace.  Ferdinand likewise felt the peace was needed since his army couldn’t sustain the logistical challenges of a long-drawn-out guerilla war in the mountains.

The terms of Ferdinand’s accepting the Muslim’s surrender was no longer the generous terms of 1491 a decade before.   The rebels must convert through baptism, reject baptism & face death or enslavement or finally choose exile outside of Iberia.  The cost of exile was to be self-funded too & for many, it was far too expensive & extortionate for the average Andalusian Muslim.    This left few any decision but to remain & nominally convert.  All Muslims in Granada were in name Christian if in practice they continued to defy the laws they now were forced to follow.  Many continued to practice Islamic customs in secret, but they were able to maintain their Islamic dress & some would still speak Arabic & maintain other customs.  The enforcement by the Christian authorities was stricter than before the rebellion but it was not always feasible, especially in the mountainous Alpujarras.  They publicly professed to be Christians but were determined in many cases to remain Muslim despite the threat of death which hung over them.  These lingering tensions & suspicions by the subsequent Spanish monarchs & the church led to increased scrutiny & enforcement in the form of dress codes, inquisitions into the sincerity of their conversion & harsh punishment for those found to violate the new royal proclamations.  By now, the Muslims in Iberia were referred to as Moriscos in Spanish, which translates as “little Moors” & applied to these Spanish Muslims who now professed to be Christian through conversion but still secretly practiced Islam & maintained Islamic traditions in private.  For the Moriscos, the tension between state & mosque was eventually going to be too much to withstand. Events would boil over into a second and even larger rebellion later in the 16th century one which would determine the fate of Iberian Moors for centuries to come...

[purplelinks]

4/14/2025: 4

[memories-of-ancients]

Gold pedant necklace, Emirate of Granada, Islamic Spain, 14th-15th century

from The National Archaeological Museum, Madrid

[whencyclopedia]

Leo Africanus

Leo Africanus (al-Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Wazzan al-Fasi al-Granati, 1485-1554) was a diplomat, merchant traveller and scholar who famously voyaged from Timbuktu to the Niger River and wrote 'The History and Description of Africa' (La Descrittione dell'Africa, 1526). Captured by Mediterranean pirates, he so impressed them with his learning and linguistic ability, that they gifted him as a slave to Pope Leo X (1498 -1526).

Leo Africanus was born into a family of clerics and accountants to the court of the Nasrid Dynasty (1238-1492) of Granada during the last days of their rule over the Emirate of Granada. Hasan was baptised Johannes Leo Africanus, and known in Italian as Giovanni Leone. He trained as an Islamic scholar and became a diplomat, travelling across West Africa, from Cairo and Aswan across to the Hejaz and Syria. It was during his return journey from Egypt that he was kidnapped by Mediterranean Christian pirates and ended up becoming a slave to the Vatican Pope Leo X (born Giovanni de’ Medici). Pope Leo X offered Hasan his freedom on condition that he converted to Christianity.

Leo Africanus' scholarship and translations from Arabic inspired early modern ideas of Africa and the Islamic world. His work Descrittione dell'Africa became a blueprint for European explorers seeking to monopolise trade and resources from the African subcontinent. Some historians believe that William Shakespeare’s (1564-1616) Othello is based on Leo Africanus. Descrittione dell'Africa was widely read in Europe. It became an important resource and guidebook on Africa, until the European colonisation during the 19th century.

Hasan al-Wazzan

Hasan al-Wazzan’s father, Ahmad al-Wazzan was a cleric in the court of Abu Abdallah Muhammad XII (c. 1460–1533), known in Europe as Boabdil. Hasan’s forbearers worked as aids to the court muhtasib of Granada – a magistrate who oversaw merchant trade and accounts, while also upholding morality and decorum in the public sphere. Hasan grew up alongside his father and grandfather under the influence of the Nasrid court. As a child, he spoke Arabic at home and Spanish in the streets.

Leo Africanus as Shakespeare's Othello

Théodore Chassériau (Public Domain)

In 1492, after a decade long war, Boabdil surrendered Granada to the Spanish Catholic monarchs Isabella I of Castile (1451-1504) and Ferdinand II, King of Aragon (1452 –1516), marking the end of 700 years of Muslim rule. Hasan’s family may have left Granada before 1492, or they could have stayed until the Reconquista. Hasan was a young child when his family, like many Andalusian migrants, fled persecution under the new Christian monarchs, crossing the Mediterranean to settle in Fez. Luckily Hasan’s family was well connected thanks to his uncle, already settled in Fez, who was a diplomat to the Wattasid rulers, serving Sultan Muhammad al-Shaykh (1490-1557). Consequently, they secured a home in a prominent quarter of Fez. His father purchased land north of the Rif Mountains and rented a castle above Fez. Other emigrant families from Granada however struggled greatly in Fez and complained publicly.

Continue reading...

[pinturasdeguerra]

1482-1492 Guerra de Granada, bombarda - Angus McBride

The Reconquista was only completed after the improvement of artillery in late 15th century which enabled the conquest of the Emirate of Granada. The Granadine fortresses situated on difficult terrain would make this conquest too costly without such powerful siege weapons.

[ofliterarynature]

TBR TAKEDOWN: GOODREADS, WEEK 17.b

The Bird King by G Willow Wilson

I'm trying to trim down my tbr list(s) and I'm asking for your help! Descriptions and more info under the cut. Please reblog and add your thoughts!

* * * *

From award-winning author G. Willow Wilson, The Bird King is an epic journey set during the reign of the last sultan in the Iberian peninsula at the height of the Spanish Inquisition.

G. Willow Wilson's debut novel Alif the Unseen was an NPR and Washington Post Best Book of the Year, and it established her as a vital American Muslim literary voice. Now she delivers The Bird King, a stunning new novel that tells the story of Fatima, a concubine in the royal court of Granada, the last emirate of Muslim Spain, and her dearest friend Hassan, the palace mapmaker. Hassan has a secret--he can draw maps of places he's never seen and bend the shape of reality. When representatives of the newly formed Spanish monarchy arrive to negotiate the sultan's surrender, Fatima befriends one of the women, not realizing that she will see Hassan's gift as sorcery and a threat to Christian Spanish rule. With their freedoms at stake, what will Fatima risk to save Hassan and escape the palace walls? As Fatima and Hassan traverse Spain with the help of a clever jinn to find safety, The Bird King asks us to consider what love is and the price of freedom at a time when the West and the Muslim world were not yet separate.

Date added: 2019

Goodreads: 3.73

Storygraph: 3.75

PRO:

Historical magical realism?!?!!!!!

Political intrigue perhaps?

Available from my library in print and ebook

CON:

NOT available from the library in my preferred format (audiobook) (unless I want a book on CD. lmao WHY)

[noosphe-re]

Motto of the Emirate of Granada (Nasrid Kingdom of Granada): Wala ghaliba illa Allah (Arabic: ولا غالب إلا الله, lit. 'There is no victor but God')

[beevean]

I noticed you were confused by Julia being French in the 5th chapter of Sarabande of Healing. In the game, Julia chalked up her past (and that of her brother Isaac) to a single line of dialogue:

"A witch. I escaped from the western lands, where we were hunted like vermin."

The notable countries west of mainland Europe are France, Portugal, and Spain. And France was most well-known for having the large-scale witch hunts across the continent, having 2000 witch trials in total. While that specific era began in the year 1550 all the way to the 1700s, there were some records that witches were already being persecuted way back in the early 14th century.

Honestly, had they stuck with the original Isaac for the show, this backstory alone is reason enough for why he held so much hatred for humans and also why he stood for Dracula despite his atrocities. He and Julia might've seen their family die due to the witch hunts, and they both had their way of coping with it. Watching his master's wife die the same way as the supposed "witches" in his homeland must've triggered his inner trauma.

Or it could be because their surname sounds French.

I think Julia and Isaac are Italian, actually!

It's very possible that "Laforeze" was meant to be spelled "Laforese", with an S. Although rare, that's an Italian surname, which I was able to find in the Apulian region - the Kingdom of Naples, back then. Furthermore, Julia in Italian is spelled Giulia and pronounced exactly the same.

(Isaac should be Isacco, though, which pains my soul)

Italy as a country is basically Southwest Europe lol. Depending on the region, we're culturally close to France, Spain and Greece. So when Julia says she fled from the West, I can see her meaning one of the Italian states. Alternatively, she could be Spanish - aside from the obvious Inquisition reasons, I remember someone proposing this theory based on the fact that her theme is called Sarabande of Healing, the sarabande being a Spanish genre.

I didnt't know that about France, though, TIL!

As for Isaac's backstory, well, in the games it's heavily implied that he too fled from persecution for being a sorcerer and found refuge at Dracula's castle, and that's why he didn't mind following Dracula's plan of mass slaughter. It makes his execution of Rosaly even more cruel, if you think about it. And as for the show, I will never stop insisting that it would have been so clever if he fled from the Reconquista of the Emirate of Granada: the timeline matches! It would have been more original and historically accurate than "black man is slave of evil white man". You wanted to make him Muslim and not white, commit.

[volterran-wine]

𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐢 𝐅𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐚𝐬𝐭: 𝘈𝘥𝘳𝘪𝘦𝘯 𝘉𝘳𝘰𝘥𝘺 𝘢𝘴 𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐚𝐳𝐚𝐫 Eleazar was born in 1451 AD in the Emirate of Granada. He lived with his family making his dues, providing for himself, his mother and three younger siblings. This was all until the Granada War broke out, whose aftermath would mean the expulsion of Eleazar and his people from now was considered the Kingdom of Spain. En route through Europe he was separated from his family, and in September of 1492 Eleazar would be turned by a wayward vampire who left him in the gutter. Due to his gentle nature he did not take to the transformation well, and he felt no purpose could be sought out in this new and strange life he lived. That, was until he encountered Demetri and Afton on a job in 1502 AD.

[neonlight2]

Chapter 4: Trials of Power

Masterlist

...

The challenge had been set. Princess Maria of Castile had made it clear—she would not be won by sweet words alone. If Juan and Cesare Borgia wanted her, they would have to prove their worth through action.

Neither brother intended to lose.

Juan’s Gambit

Juan moved quickly. He knew that the best way to impress Maria was through spectacle—glory won on the battlefield, the kind of victory that could not be ignored. Spain was still threatened by remnants of the Nasrid Emirate in the south, and while Maria’s parents had driven the Moors from Granada, there were still whispers of uprisings, of factions unwilling to yield.

Juan saw an opportunity.

Within weeks, he had rallied a force under the banner of Castile, swearing before the court that he would ride to the frontier and stamp out any sign of rebellion in Maria’s name. He wanted her to see him as a conqueror, a warrior worthy of a queen’s hand.

Before he left, he stood before Maria in the courtyard, clad in his finest armor, the sun gleaming off his polished breastplate. A crowd had gathered to watch him depart.

“Mark my words, Princess,” Juan declared, loud enough for all to hear. “When I return, it will be with the heads of your enemies at my feet.”

Maria, seated in her place of honor, regarded him with an impassive expression. “Do not make promises lightly, Juan. A man is only as strong as the victories he keeps.”

Juan smirked, bowing deeply. “Then you shall see how strong I truly am.”

With that, he rode off, his soldiers trailing behind him in a cloud of dust.

Cesare’s Strategy

Unlike Juan, Cesare had no intention of chasing glory on the battlefield—not yet. He knew that Maria did not just need a man who could fight. She needed one who could secure her throne before she even wore the crown.

So while Juan sought to prove himself with war, Cesare played the game of politics.

He met with nobles in secret, learning who among them harbored ambitions of their own. He bribed courtiers, whispered into the ears of Spain’s most powerful men, and uncovered plots that threatened Maria’s future rule. More importantly, he made certain that when the time came, Maria would not simply ascend the throne—she would command it without opposition.

One night, he requested an audience with her.

She met him in a quiet chamber, away from prying eyes. A single candle burned between them, casting flickering shadows on the stone walls.

“You have not left to fight like your brother,” Maria observed, studying him. “Is this your way of conceding?”

Cesare smirked. “Juan plays at war. I play for the crown.”

She tilted her head. “And what crown is that?”

“The one that will be placed upon your head,” Cesare said smoothly. “A queen does not need a husband who can wield a sword. She needs one who can make certain she keeps her throne once it is hers.”

Maria leaned forward slightly. “And you think you can do that?”

“I know I can,” he murmured. “I have already uncovered three plots against your future reign. Men who whisper of replacing you with a cousin, a brother, even a distant French alliance.” He watched her reaction carefully. “But I have ensured their silence. They will not challenge you.”

Maria’s expression did not change, but something in her eyes shifted—interest, calculation. “And what is your price for such loyalty?”

Cesare smiled, but it was not soft. It was the smile of a man who had already decided what he wanted.

“You know what I want.”

Maria held his gaze, and for the first time, she did not look away.

The Reckoning

Weeks passed.

Juan returned from his campaign, victorious and full of pride. He paraded through the streets of the palace, his soldiers cheering as he presented Maria with the spoils of war—gold, banners stripped from fallen enemies, and even prisoners captured in battle.

He stood before her in the grand hall, triumphant. “I have done as I promised, Princess. I have won in your name.”

Maria regarded him, her expression unreadable. “A bold display.”

Juan grinned. “And proof that I am the man you need at your side.”

Before Maria could respond, Cesare stepped forward.

“And yet, while you were chasing battles, Maria’s enemies within this very court were sharpening their knives,” he said, his voice calm but cutting. “They did not fear your victories, Juan. They feared what she might become. I made certain they no longer had a choice.”

Juan scowled. “You scheme in the shadows while I fight in the light.”

“And yet, in the end,” Cesare said, turning to Maria, “which of us has done more to secure your rule?”

Maria sat in silence for a long moment, looking between them.

“You both have given me much,” she finally said. “And yet, there is still one thing neither of you have proven.”

Juan frowned. “And what is that?”

Maria stood, her gaze sharp and unwavering. “That I can trust you.”

The brothers tensed.

She smiled faintly. “And I will not make my decision until I know who among you is truly loyal to me—and no one else.”

The game was not over. It had only just begun.

[thelovelygods]

Known as the gateway to the Alpujarra mountains in Andalusía’s Granada province, Órgiva is also one of Spain’s most culturally diverse places, a bustling market town of around 6,000 people and according to the local council, home to 68 different nationalities.

And Baraka, a restaurant and tearoom with tables and chairs outside on a quiet street in the town center, is a pleasant reminder of Órgiva’s relaxed multiculturalism. It’s run by 41-year-old Pedro Barrio, a former wine taster and restaurant owner from Bilbao who changed his name to Qasim when he converted to Islam more than a decade ago.

Like around 35 other families in Órgiva’s Spanish Islamic community, Qasim adheres to Sufism, described by 14th-century Arab historian Ibn Khaldun as “dedication to worship, total dedication to Allah most High, disregard for the finery and ornament of the world, abstinence from the pleasure, wealth, and prestige sought by most men, and retiring from others to worship alone.”

Qasim says his faith gives him “hope and security,” but admits it has also caused him problems, particularly with his family and friends, who have come to associate Islam with jihadists and Salafists, and a radical interpretation of the Koran. Spain’s Sufi community has also been monitored by the National Intelligence Center.

Mansur, formerly José Carlos Sánchez, explains that Sufis live in the world without necessarily being of this world. “Every day I ask Allah to help me convert my ego into my prayer mat,” says the 41-year-old university graduate. “There is an undoubted rejection of Muslims in our society.”

His wife, Bahía (María José Villa), aged 35, agrees: “We converts are seen as strange. Islam isn’t what people think it is. Islam is peace. Islam is asking God for love, so that you can share that love with others. Unless your intention in life is to become pure love, then your Islam makes no sense.”

Muhammad Iskander, a former merchant seaman in his mid-fifties, says it is precisely the pacifist element of Sufism that Islamist radicals find so hard to accept: “They do not tolerate us, and are trying to abrogate the Koran’s message of mercy for that of the sword.”

Most Spanish Sufis belong to the Naqshbandi order, which traces its spiritual lineage back to Abu Bakr as-Siddiq, the first Caliph and a companion of the prophet Muhammad. The order’s emir in Spain is Umar (formerly Felipe Margarit), who was appointed in the mid-1970s by Shaykh Nazim al-Haqqani, the leader of the Naqshbandi order who died in May of last year at the age of 92.

Umar describes the Naqshbandi order as “a cross between a spiritual center and a hospital. “Nazim welcomed all those who had been wounded by our society. He described himself as a zero, saying his life was only meaningful if God, the One, was at his side. His son, who has succeeded him, believes the same.”

There are around 1,200 Naqshbandi Sufis in Spain, and the largest community is to be found in Órgiva. The reason for this is a happy accident: it’s where Umar was living before he converted to Islam. And once he had been proclaimed emir by Shaykh Nazim, those Spanish Sufi Muslims who could, moved to the town. The second-largest Sufi community in Spain is in Villanueva de la Vera, in the western province of Cáceres.

Amid weak winter sunshine, a group of Sufi farmers gathers olives in the mountains that surround Órgiva. They and their families live a simple life, but are not isolated from the world, like other religious groups such as the Amish are. They are connected to the internet, watch television, and read newspapers, and their children attend local schools.

On Thursdays at nightfall, the community meets in the dargah, a temple hidden away in the olive and orange groves around three kilometers outside Órgiva to celebrate the dhikr, or the recitation of the names of Allah, along with the hadra, a meditational process that consists of intoning a series of chants in praise of God, accompanied by rhythmic swaying and percussion.

“This reminds us of the moment when God filled Adam with breath,” says Amin (Andrés Fernández). “On Fridays, the holy day of Islam, we also celebrate Jummah prayers, and then the community sits to eat together. All our prayers are recited in Arabic, although that is all we know of the language. Our Islamic education has come from many sources, from conversations with other, wiser, brothers, and from the Shaykh’s sermons. The Naqshbandi are probably the least intellectual of the Sufis: we are more interested in the heart.”

Around 500 kilometers away, in Cáceres, is the tiny community of Aldea Tudal, a district of Villanueva de la Vera, which is home to Spain’s second-largest Naqshbandi Sufi community, led by Abdul Wahid (Cristóbal Martín). In the outskirts of the village, we’re met by Omar Ibrahim, originally from Madrid, but who lived in Germany for 35 years, where he ran a chain of restaurants: “Then I sold up and came to live here.”

It’s Thursday, and Omar is waiting for his fellow Sufis to arrive at his house, which doubles as the community’s dargah, to celebrate dhikr. “I converted to Islam almost 30 years ago. That was when I first felt like a true Christian. There is no contradiction, because Jesus Christ is respected as a prophet in Islam. We believe in the saints: we venerate their tombs and their relics. This distinguishes us from other Muslims,” says Omar.

He goes on to explain why Spanish converts to Sufism have adopted new, Arabic names. “You choose your Arabic name. This new name expresses the essence of who you really are and the disciple aspires to reach its meaning. Omar, for example, means force or sustenance.”

As with the community living in Órgiva, the Sufis of Villanueva de la Vera are all Spanish. “In fact, there is only one Moroccan here,” says Yamaluddin (Juan Andrés Molina). The bearded 44-year-old from Madrid is wearing the traditional Naqshbandi ring as worn by Muhammad, along with a waistcoat and baggy pants, and a green turban that will eventually serve as his winding sheet when his naked body is buried.

Sufi women also wear ample, baggy clothing, along with a headscarf, as 41-year-old Hawa (Ana Rosa Soto) explains: “Women should dress modestly. But we also cover ourselves to protect two energy centers on our body: the head and the throat. Thanks to Islam, I have recovered my femininity,” she says. “And nobody has ever given me any problems for dressing like this.”

Mariam Sakina Scott, who was born a Muslim in Órgiva 22 years ago, to American and Spanish parents who had converted to Islam, says that wearing the headscarf has created problems for her, particularly at school. “Everybody knew I was a Muslim, but I don’t make a big deal about it. In our society, there is this idea that Islam is a fanatical religion. But people have absolutely no idea about Sufism. There are people who ask me if I belong to a sect. I tell them that Sufism is about respect and love between all God’s creatures.”

Shaykh Umar Magarit explains that Sufism “obliges us to ask who we are in reality. And that question can only be answered by looking for Allah in our hearts. And to do that, Sufis comply with all the precepts of Islam, and then try to transcend them.”

The Salafists in Egypt and Libya, as well as the Taliban in Pakistan, have all persecuted Sufi communities, branding them heretics. But Sufism is an integral and ancient part of Islam, and some studies suggest it even predates Muhammad, and emerged in Khorasan in what is today Iran as a result of Christian, Hindu, Buddhist, and Greek philosophical thinking, along with shamanistic influences from Central Asia.

Sufis say that while their religion is embedded within Islam, its purpose is the same as all the great monotheistic faiths: union with God. The only way to achieve this is through unconditional love for everything and everybody. Ibn Arabi, the Sufi mystical poet who lived in Spain in the 12th century, wrote: “My heart can adapt to all forms. It is pasture for gazelles. And a monastery for Christian monks, and a temple for idols, and the Kaaba of the pilgrims, and the tables of the Torah, and the book of the Koran. Because I follow the religion of love.”

[purplelinks]

1/22/2025: 2

[crisvesan]

FRUTOS SILVESTRES de Otoño

La Granada...

"Dentro de su enorme terreno ajardinado, al Rusafa contaba con un soberbio granado enviado desde Siria por la hermana de Abd al-Rahman. El cortesano Safar plantó sus semillas en un jardín experimental cerca de Málaga, cuando creció se las envió a Abd-al- Rahman. El emir admiró su descubrimiento... Aquella especie de granado se extendió y la gente plantaba huertos enteros..."

Se le considera símbolo de amor y fecundidad. Por su longevidad es usado frecuentemente como elemento ornamental, e incluso puede ser cultivado en macetas. Tiene propiedades medicinales. La corteza de la raiz es venenosa. Con los frutos puede fabricarse un colorante amarillo para tejidos.

Fuente: Guía de plantas

[nanshe-of-nina]

There was no one "Moorish Empire" in Spain that lasted from 711 to 1492.

There was the Emirate and Caliphate of the Córdoba, the independent Taifa kingdoms, the Almoravids, the Almohad Caliphate, and finally the Nasrid Emirate of Granada.

All were ruled by different families of different origins: the Umayyads of Córdoba and Nasrids of Granada were Arab, the Taifa kings varied, but were mostly Arab, and the Almoravids and Almohads were both Berber.

Nor did they have the same geographic power base. The Umayyads were based in Córdoba, the Almoravids and Almohads in Marrakesh, and the Nasrids in Granada.

It wouldn’t be historically accurate for my story to include BIPOC!

This is an argument often made about European-style fantasy media like Game of Thrones, Lord of the Rings, and Disney’s Frozen. Audiences, often white, assume that due to the majority-white setting, adding any visible number of BIPOC to the story would be unrealistic.

What these critics fail to realize is that BIPOC do in fact live, and have lived, in these settings, and records of BIPOC presence in places assumed to be majority-white have been buried, written out, or not taught due to white supremacist and/or colonial bias in the field of history. There are historical European settings that were far more diverse than is often portrayed. Consider:

The Moorish Empire exerted an extensive influence over life and culture in Southern Europe from Spain from 711 to 1492

The Ottomans were heavily involved in European affairs up until the treaty of Karlowitz in 1699, but still considered a part of Europe even through the 19th century

The sheer size of the Roman Empire ensured the continued movement of people from various backgrounds within the Mediterranean well until the end of the Byzantine Empire.

“Historical accuracy” should not be used as an excuse for media to be exclusively white in its casting. While there are places which are or were predominantly white, there will always be factors like global trade and immigration that bring multiculturalism to their doors.

And even if the presence of a certain demographic is unrealistic for a certain setting? Consider that we’ve accepted far worse inaccuracies in historical fiction in the name of artistic license. Consider that our understanding of human history is, and will always be, incomplete.

Further Reading:

Historically Diverse London, “Historical Accuracy,” and Creator Accountability

Making a Black Pride and Prejudice Resonate

---

This Q&A is an excerpt from our General FAQ for Newcomers, which can be found in our new Masterpost of rules and FAQs. If you're new to Writing With Color and/or want more writing resources, check it out!

-Writing With Color

[seeking-the-mercy-of-allah]

Wa la ghaliba illa Allah" (ولا غالب إلا الله) is an Arabic phrase that translates to "And there is no victor except Allah" or "There is no conqueror but Allah". It was the motto of the Nasrid Emirate of Granada, the last Muslim state in the Iberian Peninsula. The phrase is often found inscribed in the Alhambra palace.

Here's a more detailed breakdown:

Meaning:

The phrase emphasizes the belief that ultimate victory and power belong to Allah (God).

Usage:

It was used as a motto by the Nasrid rulers of Granada, a testament to their faith and belief in divine power.

Inscriptions:

The phrase is frequently found inscribed in various places within the Alhambra palace, demonstrating its significance in Nasrid culture and art.

Islamic Art:

The phrase is often incorporated into Islamic art and calligraphy, serving as a reminder of the divine nature of power and victory.

#الله #اللهﷻ #الرحمان #رب‎ #اللهم #سبحانالله #اَلحَمْدُلِله #اللهأكبر #القرآنالكريم #ذكرالله #لاإلهإلااللهمحمدرسولالله‎

#محمدﷺ

#allah #islam #lailahailallah #rasulullahﷺ #quran #subhanallah #alhamdulillah #allahuakbar #astagfirullah #almightyallah #mercifulallah #worshipallah #praiseallah #glorifyallah #allahisgreat #thereisnogodbutallah #praytoallah #fearallah #victor

[7-charles-7]

Isabel, Fernando e Colombo

Em 1420, o Infante D. Henrique, o Navegador, começou a enviar navios para a costa africana, ansioso por encontrar uma rota comercial para a Índia que evitasse os riscos e custos da travessia da Arábia. O próprio Henrique nunca viajou, vivendo como um eremita virtual em Sagres, no extremo sul do seu país. Aí estudava os seus mapas e aguardava o regresso dos seus capitães, que todos os anos traziam histórias de novas terras.

Na década de 450, Henrique enviava frotas para os Açores, a Madeira, as Canárias, a Guiné e o Senegal. Em 1456, chegou à Península de Cabo Verde, mercado de compra de quantidades de ouro. De repente, a fronteira ocidental da Europa com o Atlântico parecia permeável. Para Daniel Boorstin, o empreendimento de Henrique foi a verdadeira Renascença, uma aventura da mente, um impulso da imaginação de alguém ....

explorador era um homem solitário, a pensar.

Em Espanha, apenas Granada estava ainda nas mãos dos muçulmanos. Córdova tinha sido conquistada por Castela em 1236, mas Granada sobreviveu como centro comercial e refúgio para os refugiados da intolerância religiosa. Em 1469, Castela uniu-se à sua vizinha Aragão através do casamento de Isabel de Castela (viveu em 1451-1504) com Fernando (viveu em 1452-1516), herdeiro do trono de Aragão.

Ambos eram ainda adolescentes, mas depressa se tornaram governantes dos respectivos países e, a partir de 1479, governantes conjuntos de ambos. Juntos, forjaram um novo Estado e fundaram uma dinastia que levaria o Sacro Império Romano à sua apoteose.

Fernando era um soldado e administrador assíduo, Isabel era enérgica e fanaticamente piedosa. Estava determinada a banir de Espanha todas as outras fés e seitas. Em 1478, o seu confessor dominicano, Torquemada, persuadiu-a de que a conversão dos judeus na antiga Andaluzia mourisca não era suficientemente rigorosa e ela, por sua vez, persuadiu o Papa Sisto a iniciar um "inquérito sobre estas conversões".

Este inquérito tornou-se a Inquisição Espanhola, dirigida por Torquemada de 1483 a 1498. John Julius Norwich reflecte sobre a ironia de "o autor de um dos mais belos edifícios do mundo [a Capela Sistina] ter sido também o inspirador de uma das suas mais odiosas instituições.

A Espanha assistiu agora a uma campanha de conversão, expulsão ou execução, primeiro de judeus e depois de muçulmanos. Foram recolhidas provas de práticas suspeitas por parte dos supostos convertidos, com torturas e queimaduras na fogueira. Isto apesar da pressão do Papa a favor da tolerância, que se reflectia na permissão de apelos a Roma contra a Inquisição.

Estas foram ignoradas por Torquemada. Em 1492, deu-se o annus mirabilis da chamada monarquia dual. Após uma campanha de dez anos, Fernando conquistou Granada e o último emir entregou as chaves do palácio de Alhambra.

Fernando ofereceu aos mouros a liberdade de circulação e de religião, mas não cumpriu imediatamente a sua promessa. O Decreto de Alhambra de 1492 exigia a conversão ou a expulsão de todos os não católicos de Granada, bem como do resto de Espanha. Cerca de 40.000 judeus converteram-se e mais de 100.000 fugiram para o exílio, a maioria dos quais inicialmente para Portugal.

A grande biblioteca de Granada, com cerca de 5.000 livros islâmicos, ardeu em chamas. Pensa-se que 2.000 judeus morreram às mãos da Inquisição.

A Espanha, recentemente encorajada, encontrava-se agora em rivalidade aberta com Portugal. Em 1488, um capitão português, Bartolomeu Dias, tinha contornado o Cabo da Boa Esperança e apercebeu-se da perspetiva de uma nova rota marítima para o Oriente. Ao longo desta costa surgiram feitorias portuguesas. No espaço de uma década, outro português, Vasco da Gama, chegou à Índia e o monopólio árabe sobre o comércio da Europa com o Oriente foi quebrado. A Espanha decidiu competir. Em 1492, Isabel e Fernando celebraram a queda de Granada apoiando o projeto de um almirante genovês, Cristóvão Colombo, de encontrar uma rota alternativa à portuguesa para o Oriente, navegando para oeste através do Atlântico. O facto de Colombo se ter baseado no cálculo de Ptolomeu, do século II, da circunferência da Terra (com três quartos do seu comprimento real), mostra o pouco avanço da ciência europeia num milénio. Partiu do princípio de que chegaria à China em três meses. Até levou consigo um intérprete chinês. Se a tripulação de Colombo soubesse a distância real da China, nunca teria partido.

O regresso de Colombo das Caraíbas desencadeou um frenesim de exploração, em parte comercial, em parte nacionalista e em parte missionária. Já em 1494, os monarcas de Portugal e de Espanha evitaram um conflito entre si ao acordarem o Tratado de Tordesilhas, mediado pelo Papa. Este dividia o Novo Mundo de um lado e do outro de uma linha de longitude situada a 1.100 milhas a oeste de Cabo Verde, cabendo as terras a oeste a Espanha e as terras a leste, ou seja, África, a Portugal. Mais tarde, descobriu-se que a linha cortava a costa da América do Sul, que se tornou o Brasil português e que fala português até hoje.

Fonte ~ Uma breve história da Europa ~ por Simon Jenkins