#double torsion spring design

[garagedoorrepairmissouricity]

Garage Door Repair Missouri City

The procedure of installing a new or replacement garage door in Missouri City, Texas, enhances curb appeal, convenience, and security. This crucial home renovation project requires precision and expertise to guarantee the door opens correctly and safely. Accuracy and experience with a variety of door types, designs, and materials are necessary for this difficult work. Additionally, it is essential to confirm that the installation conforms with local safety regulations and building codes. Your garage door will function optimally and in compliance with regional building codes.

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[bellamyd]

Torsion Spring

Torsion springs are the ultimate in variants of springs, from single torsion springs to double torsion springs, shaped torsion springs, and even all kinds of torsion bar variants, which can be shaped according to the design.

#stamping #cnc #factory #spring

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[autogorilla30]

Understanding Suspension Systems and Their Components: The Backbone of Vehicle Comfort and Control

A vehicle’s suspension system is crucial for ensuring a smooth ride, maintaining control, and enhancing safety. This blog delves into the intricacies of suspension systems, exploring their types, components, and the importance of regular maintenance.

The Basics of Suspension Systems

How Suspension Systems Work

A suspension system is designed to maximize the friction between the tires and the road surface, providing steering stability with good handling and ensuring passenger comfort by absorbing and damping shock loads from road conditions.

Main Functions

Support Weight: Suspension supports the weight of the vehicle.

Absorb and Dampen Shocks: Reduces the impact of road irregularities.

Maintain Tire Contact: Ensures that tires remain in contact with the road for optimal traction.

Control Vehicle Direction: Facilitates proper handling and steering stability.

Key Components of Suspension Systems

Springs

Springs are the primary component that absorbs energy from bumps and dips in the road.

Coil Springs: Common in most vehicles, they compress and expand to absorb shock.

Leaf Springs: Typically found in trucks and heavy vehicles, consisting of layers of metal bound together.

Torsion Bars: Use twisting motion to absorb impact, often used in front suspensions.

Air Springs: Use air pressure to provide a smooth ride, commonly found in luxury vehicles.

Shock Absorbers (Dampers)

Shock absorbers dampen the oscillations from the springs, preventing excessive bouncing.

Hydraulic Shocks: Use hydraulic fluid to absorb shock energy.

Gas-Charged Shocks: Incorporate gas to reduce aeration and improve performance.

Struts: Combine a shock absorber with a coil spring in one unit, often used in front suspensions.

Control Arms

Control arms connect the suspension to the vehicle’s frame, allowing for controlled motion and support.

Upper and Lower Control Arms: Provide pivot points for the suspension to absorb vertical motion.

A-Arms: Shaped like an “A,” these are used to ensure stability and support.

Ball Joints

Ball joints act as pivot points between the control arms and the wheels, allowing for smooth steering and suspension movement.

Stabilizer Bar (Anti-Roll Bar)

The stabilizer bar reduces body roll during cornering, connecting opposite wheels through short lever arms linked by a torsion spring.

Bushings

Bushings are rubber or polyurethane components that absorb shock and reduce vibration between metal parts.

Types of Suspension Systems

Independent Suspension

Each wheel on the same axle moves independently, providing better ride quality and handling.

MacPherson Strut: A common type of independent suspension for front wheels.

Double Wishbone: Offers excellent handling, used in performance and luxury vehicles.

Dependent Suspension

Wheels are linked, so movement on one side affects the other.

Solid Axle: Common in trucks and heavy-duty vehicles for durability and load-carrying capacity.

Semi-Independent Suspension

A compromise between independent and dependent suspensions, providing a balance of performance and cost.

Importance of Suspension Maintenance

Regular suspension maintenance is essential for vehicle safety, comfort, and performance. Key maintenance tasks include:

Inspecting and Replacing Worn Components: Regularly check and replace worn shocks, struts, and bushings.

Wheel Alignment: Ensure wheels are properly aligned to prevent uneven tire wear and handling issues.

Checking Tire Pressure and Wear: Proper tire maintenance can significantly impact suspension performance.

Lubricating Moving Parts: Keeps the suspension components working smoothly.

Signs of Suspension Problems

Excessive Bouncing: Indicates worn shocks or struts.

Nose Dives or Rear Squats: Suggests suspension issues when braking or accelerating.

Uneven Tire Wear: May point to alignment or suspension component problems.

Pulling to One Side: Could indicate issues with control arms or alignment.

Steering Difficulties: May be caused by worn suspension parts or alignment issues.

Conclusion

A well-maintained suspension system is crucial for vehicle safety, comfort, and performance. Understanding how your suspension works, recognizing signs of trouble, and performing regular maintenance can ensure a smoother ride and better handling. Keep your suspension system in top shape to enjoy a safer and more comfortable driving experience.

Regular checks and prompt repairs not only enhance the longevity of your vehicle but also ensure that every ride is smooth, controlled, and enjoyable.

[springsmaker]

Double the Power, Twice the Precision: Unleashing Innovation with Double Torsion Springs!

Elevate your engineering endeavors with the dynamic prowess of "Double Torsion Springs." Dive into a world where rotational force meets exceptional balance, as these springs deliver dual torque with precision and reliability. From industrial applications to specialized machinery, explore the versatility of double torsion springs designed to exceed expectations. Join us in unraveling the engineering marvel behind these coiled wonders, where every twist and turn brings unmatched performance. Whether you're a designer seeking optimal functionality or an enthusiast fascinated by mechanical ingenuity, discover the transformative power of double torsion springs. Experience the dual force that propels your projects to new heights – because when it comes to precision, two coils are better than one!

[car-hamro]

SCORPIO PICKUP — THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO SCORPIO PICKUP

The Scorpio Pick-up is a luxurious yet functional pick-up vehicle launched by Mahindra in Nepal. This pickup has a powerful engine and a good ground clearance that is the best fit for the terrain and bumpy roads of Nepal.

Would you like to have one for yourself to get that magical experience? If so, keep reading this article to get the proper guidance about the Scorpio Pickup.

The history of the Mahindra Scorpio truck dates back to 2003. It was first sold in Europe as the Mahindra Goa, and its first sales were in Italy.

There is a range of Scorpio pickups which is available in Nepal depending on the engine size, model, and usage. The brand-new Mahindra Scorpio of 2020 model will cost you Rs. 36 30,000 in Nepal.

The Mahindra Scorpio is a rugged pickup truck that is meant to provide excellent comfort rides in any type of terrain. Its mHawk engines are a true blessing along with the ballistics protection up to CEN Level B6.

The brand new Mahindra Scorpio pickup in Nepal.

This vehicle’s armor plates have higher strength as it is stitch-welded with high-intensity MIG welders. The heavy-duty door hinges and armored doors provide stability along with durability.

It is available in both two-wheel and four-wheel drive. The 2WD one has an independent coil spring, anti-roll bar, and a double-wishbone.

Whereas the 4WD one had an independent torsion Bar.

Also you may also customize the interiors of this SUV as per your preferences. This Scorpio pick-up truck has different color options; visit the nearest store to book yours.

In Nepal, Mahindra products are launched and endorsed by Agni Incorporated. In fact, they are the authorized dealers of the Mahindra vehicles.

THE ENGINE

It has a mHawk Diesel Engine with a displacement of 2179.0 cc. This powerful engine gives a maximum power of 140 bhp at 3750 rpm and a maximum torque of 320 Nm at 1500 to 3000 rpm.

Likewise, the vehicle has four-cylinder each with four valves, and the valves have a DOHC type configuration. Also, it has a type fuel supply system and manual transmission with 6-speed gearboxes.

This vehicle has a fuel tank capacity of 60.0 liters.

THE BUILD OF THE SCORPIO PICKUP

The Scorpio pickup from Mahindra has the SUV body type. It has a length of 4456 mm, a width of 1820 mm, and a wheelbase of 2670 mm.

This vehicle has a ground clearance of 180mm, which is essential for the roads of Nepal’s geography. Likewise, it is a seven-seater vehicle with a rear-wheel-drive type.

The entire vehicle has a gross weight of 2510 kg and a headroom of 980 to 1020 mm. It also has five doors.

INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR DESIGN

The interior of this vehicle has a luxurious finish. It has leather seats with fabric upholstery. Also, the steering wheel and gear-shift selector have a leather wrap.

The luxurious seats of Mahindra Scorpio Pickup.

It also has other features like an electronic multi-tripmeter digital odometer, tachometer, digital clock, and glove compartment.

Likewise, the exterior of Mahindra’s Scorpio pickup has adjustable headlights and front fog lights. It also has a power-adjustable exterior rear-view mirror.

The SUV also has features like a rain-sensing wiper, read window wiper, rear window washer, and rear window defogger. It also has alloy wheels, which makes the ride comparatively smoother.

CONVENIENT FEATURES AND COMFORT

There is no compromise in comfort and convenience in this Scorpio pickup. It has power steering power windows in front and rear.

Likewise, the vehicle features adjustable steering and a remote fuel lid opener.

It has features like an air conditioner, heater, and automatic climate control.

INFOTAINMENT SYSTEM

The Scorpio pickup has a commendable entertainment system.

It has integrated 2 DIN Audio and features like radio, Bluetooth connectivity, USB, and auxiliary input. The vehicle also features front and rear speakers.

SAFETY FEATURES

The makers of this pickup have taken care of efficient features. It has an anti-lock braking system and central locking. The doors have power locks, and they also feature child safety locks.

There are airbags both in the passenger and driver seat of this SUV. However, there is no facility for airbags on both sides of the front and rear seats.

It also has a passenger-side rearview mirror and an anti-theft alarm.

OTHER SPECIFICATIONS

The Mahindra Scorpio pickup has other specific features like front suspension of double wishbone type with an independent front coil spring.

Likewise, the rear suspension is a multi-link coil spring suspension with Anti-roll Bar.

It has the hydraulic double-acting telescopic type of shock absorbers. It has a hydraulic type of steering with tilt and a collapsible steering column. The steering has a rack and pinion type of gear.

The interior details of Scorpio pickup.

The SUV also features a turning radius of 5.4 meters. It has a ventilated disc brake in front and a drum rear brake.

The tires of this SUV are P245/75 R16.

For More Details, Click Here

[i-am-an-abyss-of-gender]

Panzer IV The Panzerkampfwagen IV (Pz.Kpfw. IV), commonly known as the Panzer IV, was a German medium tank developed in the late 1930s and used extensively during the Second World War. Its ordnance inventory designation was Sd.Kfz. 161. Panzerkampfwagen IV Sd.Kfz. 161/VK 622 (Ausf. A) Panzermuseum Munster 2010 0128.JPG A Panzer IV Ausf. G "413" in desert colours, bearing the palm tree insignia of the Afrika Korps, "Friederike" script written on the gun barrel near the mantlet. This tank was on display at the Deutsches Panzermuseum. Type Medium tank Place of origin Nazi Germany Service history In service 1939–1945 (Nazi Germany) 1954[1]–1967 (Syria) Used by Nazi Germany Romania Turkey Hungary Bulgaria Italy Finland Spain Croatia Syria Wars World War II, 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Six-Day War Production history Designer Krupp Designed 1936 Manufacturer Krupp, Vomag, Nibelungenwerk Unit cost ≈103,462 Reichsmarks and 115,962 Reichmarks With 7,5 cm KwK 40 (L/43)[2] Produced 1936–1945 No. built ≈8,553 of all tank variants[3] Variants StuG IV, Jagdpanzer IV, Brummbär/Sturmpanzer IV, Nashorn, Wirbelwind, Ostwind Specifications (Pz. IV Ausf. H, 1943[5]) Mass 25.0 tonnes (27.6 short tons; 24.6 long tons) Length 5.92 metres (19 ft 5 in) 7.02 metres (23 ft 0 in) gun forward Width 2.88 m (9 ft 5 in) Height 2.68 m (8 ft 10 in) Crew 5 (commander, gunner, loader, driver, radio operator/bow machine-gunner) Armor Hull front: 80 mm (3.1 in) Hull side (upper and lower): 30 mm (1.2 in) Hull rear (upper and lower): 20 mm (0.79 in) Hull roof and floor: 10 mm (0.39 in) Schürzen: 5 mm (0.20 in) to 8 mm (0.31 in)[4] Turret front: 50 mm (2.0 in) Turret side and rear: 30 mm (1.2 in) Turret roof: 10 mm (0.39 in) Main armament 7.5 cm (2.95 in) KwK 40 L/48 main gun (87 rounds) Secondary armament 2 × 7.92 mm MG 34 machine guns (3,150 rounds) Engine Maybach HL120 TRM 12-cylinder gasoline engine 300 PS (296 hp, 220 kW) Power/weight 12 PS (8.8 kW) / tonne Transmission (Synchromesh ZF SSG 77) 6 forward and 1 reverse ratios Suspension Leaf spring Fuel capacity 470 l (120 US gal) Operational range 200 km (120 mi) Maximum speed 38 to 42 km/h (24 to 26 mph) maximum, 25 km/h (16 mph) max sustained road speed 16 km/h (9.9 mph) off road The Panzer IV was the most numerous German tank and the second-most numerous German armored fighting vehicle of the Second World War, with some 8,500 built. Its chassis was also used as the base for many other fighting vehicles, including the Sturmgeschütz IV assault gun, the Jagdpanzer IV tank destroyer, the Wirbelwind self-propelled anti-aircraft gun, and the Brummbär self-propelled gun. The Panzer IV saw service in all combat theaters involving Germany and was the only German tank to remain in continuous production throughout the war. It was originally designed for infantry support, while the similar Panzer III was to fight armoured fighting vehicles. However as the Germans faced the formidable T-34, the Panzer IV had more development potential, with a larger turret ring to mount more powerful guns, so the two switched roles. It received various upgrades and design modifications, intended to counter new threats, extending its service life. Generally, these involved increasing the armor protection or upgrading the weapons, although during the last months of the war, with Germany's pressing need for rapid replacement of losses, design changes also included simplifications to speed up the manufacturing process. The Panzer IV was partially succeeded by the Panther medium tank, which was introduced to counter the Soviet T-34, although it continued to be a significant component of German armoured formations to the end of the war. It was the most widely exported tank in German service, with around 300 sold to Finland, Romania, Spain and Bulgaria. After the war, Syria procured Panzer IVs from France and Czechoslovakia, which saw combat in the 1967 Six-Day War. 8,553 Panzer IVs of all versions were built during World War II, a production run in Axis forces only exceeded by the StuG III assault gun with 10,086

vehicles. Development history Origins The Panzer IV was the brainchild of the German general and innovative armored warfare theorist Heinz Guderian.[6] In concept, it was intended to be a support tank for use against enemy anti-tank guns and fortifications.[7] Ideally, each tank battalion in a panzer division was to have three medium companies of Panzer IIIs and one heavy company of Panzer IVs.[8] On 11 January 1934, the German army wrote the specifications for a "medium tractor", and issued them to a number of defense companies. To support the Panzer III, which would be armed with a 37-millimetre (1.46 in) anti-tank gun, the new vehicle would have a short-barreled, howitzer-like 75-millimetre (2.95 in) as its main gun, and was allotted a weight limit of 24 tonnes (26.46 short tons). Development was carried out under the name Begleitwagen ("accompanying vehicle"),[9] or BW, to disguise its actual purpose, given that Germany was still theoretically bound by the Treaty of Versailles ban on tanks.[10] MAN, Krupp, and Rheinmetall-Borsig each developed prototypes,[8] with Krupp's being selected for further development.[11] The chassis had originally been designed with a six-wheeled Schachtellaufwerk interleaved-roadwheel suspension (as already adopted for German half-tracks), but the German Army amended this to a torsion bar system. Permitting greater vertical deflection of the roadwheels, this was intended to improve performance and crew comfort both on- and off-road.[11][12] However, due to the urgent requirement for the new tank, neither proposal was adopted, and Krupp instead equipped it with a simple leaf spring double-bogie suspension, with eight rubber-rimmed roadwheels per side. The prototype had a crew of five; the hull contained the engine bay to the rear, with the driver and radio operator, who doubled as the hull machine gunner, seated at the front-left and front-right, respectively. In the turret, the tank commander sat beneath his roof hatch, while the gunner was situated to the left of the gun breech and the loader to the right. The torque shaft ran from the rear engine to the transmission box in the front hull between the driver and radio operator. To keep the shaft clear of the rotary base junction, which provided electrical power to the turret including the motor to turn it, the turret was offset 66.5 mm (2.62 in) to the left of the chassis center line, and the engine was moved 152.4 mm (6.00 in) to the right. Due to the asymmetric layout, the right side of the tank contained the bulk of its stowage volume, which was taken up by ready-use ammunition lockers.[11] Accepted into service under the designation Versuchskraftfahrzeug 622 (Vs.Kfz. 622), "experimental motor vehicle 622",[10] production began in 1936 at Fried. Krupp Grusonwerk AG factory at Magdeburg.[13] Ausf. A to Ausf. F1 Panzer IV Ausf. A in 1939 Panzer IV Ausf. C 1943 The first mass-produced version of the Panzer IV was the Ausführung A (abbreviated to Ausf. A, meaning "Variant A"), in 1936. It was powered by a Maybach HL108 TR, producing 250 PS (183.87 kW), and used the SGR 75 transmission with five forward gears and one reverse,[14] achieving a maximum road speed of 31 kilometres per hour (19.26 mph).[15] As main armament, the vehicle mounted the short-barreled, howitzer-like 75 mm (2.95 in) Kampfwagenkanone 37 L/24 (7.5 cm KwK 37 L/24) tank gun, which was a low-velocity weapon mainly designed to fire high-explosive shells.[16] Against armored targets, firing the Panzergranate (armor-piercing shell) at 430 metres per second (1,410 ft/s) the KwK 37 could penetrate 43 millimetres (1.69 in), inclined at 30 degrees, at ranges of up to 700 metres (2,300 ft).[17] A 7.92 mm (0.31 in) MG 34 machine gun was mounted coaxially with the main weapon in the turret, while a second machine gun of the same type was mounted in the front plate of the hull.[11] The main weapon and coaxial machine gun were sighted with a Turmzielfernrohr 5b optic while the hull machine gun was sighted with a Kugelzielfernrohr 2 optic.[18] The Ausf. A was protected by

14.5 mm (0.57 in) of steel armor on the front plate of the chassis, and 20 mm (0.79 in) on the turret. This was only capable of stopping artillery fragments, small-arms fire, and light anti-tank projectiles.[19] A total of 35 A versions were produced.[10] The 300 horsepower Maybach HL 120TRM engine used in most Panzer IV production models. PzKpfw IV Ausf. D In 1937 production moved to the Ausf. B.[10] Improvements included the replacement of the original engine with the more powerful 300 PS (220.65 kW) Maybach HL 120TR, and the transmission with the new SSG 75 transmission, with six forward gears and one reverse gear. Despite a weight increase to 16 t (18 short tons), this improved the tank's speed to 42 kilometres per hour (26.10 mph).[20] The glacis plate was augmented to a maximum thickness of 30 millimetres (1.18 in),[19] while a new driver's visor was installed on the straightened hull front plate, and the hull-mounted machine gun was replaced by a covered pistol port and visor flap.[20] The superstructure width and ammunition stowage were reduced to save weight.[20] A new commander's cupola was introduced which was adopted from the Panzer III Ausf. C.[20] A Nebelkerzenabwurfvorrichtung (smoke grenade discharger rack) was mounted on the rear of the hull starting in July 1938[20] and was back fitted to earlier Ausf. A and Ausf. B chassis starting in August 1938.[21] Forty-two Panzer IV Ausf. Bs were manufactured.[10] The Ausf. C replaced the B in 1938.[10][22] This saw the turret armor increased to 30 mm (1.18 in), which brought the tank's weight to 18.14 t (20.00 short tons).[22] After assembling 40 Ausf. Cs, starting with chassis number 80341, the engine was replaced with the improved HL 120TRM. The last of the 140 Ausf. Cs was produced in August 1939. Production changed to the Ausf. D; this variant, of which 248 vehicles were produced, reintroduced the hull machine gun and changed the turret's internal gun mantlet to a 35 mm (1.38 in)[23] thick external mantlet.[22] Again, protection was upgraded, this time by increasing side armor to 20 mm (0.79 in).[16] As the German invasion of Poland in September 1939 came to an end, it was decided to scale up production of the Panzer IV, which was adopted for general use on 27 September 1939 as the Sonderkraftfahrzeug 161 (Sd.Kfz. 161).[10] In response to the difficulty of penetrating the thick armor of British infantry tanks (Matilda and Matilda II) during the Battle of France, the Germans had tested a 50 mm (1.97 in) gun — based on the 5 cm Pak 38 anti-tank gun — on a Panzer IV Ausf. D. However, with the rapid German victory in France, the original order of 80 tanks was cancelled before they entered production.[24] In October 1940, the Ausf. E was introduced. This had 30 millimetres (1.18 in) of armor on the bow plate, while a 30-millimetre (1.18 in) appliqué steel plate was added to the glacis as an interim measure. A new driver's visor, adopted from the Sturmgeschütz III was installed on the hull front plate.[25] A new commander's cupola, adopted from the Panzer III Ausf. G, was relocated forward on the turret eliminating the bulge underneath the cupola.[26] Older model Panzer IV tanks were retrofitted with these features when returned to the manufacturer for servicing. 206 Ausf. Es were produced between October 1940 and April 1941.[3] The short-barreled Panzer IV Ausf. F1. In April 1941, production of the Panzer IV Ausf. F started. It featured 50 mm (1.97 in) single-plate armor on the turret and hull, as opposed to the appliqué armor added to the Ausf. E,[22] and a further increase in side armor to 30 mm (1.18 in).[27] The main engine exhaust muffler was shortened and a compact auxiliary generator muffler was mounted to its left.[25] The weight of the vehicle was now 22.3 tonnes (24.6 short tons), which required a corresponding modification of track width from 380 to 400 mm (14.96 to 15.75 in) to reduce ground pressure. The wider tracks also facilitated the fitting of track shoe "ice sprags", and the rear idler wheel and front sprocket were modified.[28] The

designation Ausf. F was changed in the meantime to Ausf. F1, after the distinct new model, the Ausf. F2, appeared. A total of 471 Ausf. F (later temporarily called F1) tanks were produced from April 1941 to March 1942.[3] Ausf. F2 to Ausf. J On 26 May 1941, mere weeks before Operation Barbarossa, during a conference with Hitler, it was decided to improve the Panzer IV's main armament. Krupp was awarded the contract to integrate again the 50 mm (1.97 in) Pak 38 L/60 gun into the turret. The first prototype was to be delivered by 15 November 1941.[29] Within months, the shock of encountering the Soviet T-34 medium and KV-1 heavy tanks necessitated a new, much more powerful tank gun.[30] In November 1941, the decision to up-gun the Panzer IV to the 50-millimetre (1.97 in) gun was dropped, and instead Krupp was contracted in a joint development to modify Rheinmetall's pending 75 mm (2.95 in) anti-tank gun design, later known as 7.5 cm Pak 40 L/46. Because the recoil length was too great for the tank's turret, the recoil mechanism and chamber were shortened. This resulted in the 75-millimetre (2.95 in) KwK 40 L/43.[31] When the new KwK 40 was loaded with the Pzgr. 39 armor-piercing shell, the new gun fired the AP shell at some 750 m/s (2,460 ft/s), a substantial 74% increase over the howitzer-like KwK 37 L/24 gun's 430 m/s (1,410 ft/s) muzzle velocity.[28] Initially, the KwK 40 gun was mounted with a single-chamber, ball-shaped muzzle brake, which provided just under 50% of the recoil system's braking ability.[32] Firing the Panzergranate 39, the KwK 40 L/43 could penetrate 77 mm (3.03 in) of steel armor at a range of 1,830 m (6,000 ft).[33] The longer 7.5 cm guns were a mixed blessing. In spite of the designers' efforts to conserve weight, the new weapon made the vehicle nose-heavy to such an extent that the forward suspension springs were under constant compression. This resulted in the tank tending to sway even when no steering was being applied, an effect compounded by the introduction of the Ausführung H in March 1943.[34] The 1942 Panzer IV Ausf. F2 was an upgrade of the Ausf. F, fitted with the KwK 40 L/43 anti-tank gun to counter Soviet T-34 medium and KV heavy tanks. The Ausf. F tanks that received the new, longer, KwK 40 L/43 gun were temporarily named Ausf. F2 (with the designation Sd.Kfz. 161/1). The tank increased in weight to 23.6 tonnes (26.0 short tons). Differences between the Ausf. F1 and the Ausf. F2 were mainly associated with the change in armament, including an altered gun mantlet, internal travel lock for the main weapon, new gun cradle, new Turmzielfernrohr 5f optic for the L/43 weapon, modified ammunition stowage, and discontinuing of the Nebelkerzenabwurfvorrichtung in favor of turret mounted Nebelwurfgerät.[35] Three months after beginning production, the Panzer IV Ausf. F2 was renamed Ausf. G.[36] During its production run from March 1942 to June 1943, the Panzer IV Ausf. G went through further modifications, including another armor upgrade which consisted of a 30-millimetre (1.18 in) face-hardened appliqué steel plate welded (later bolted) to the glacis—in total, frontal armor was now 80 mm (3.15 in) thick.[37] This decision to increase frontal armor was favorably received according to troop reports on 8 November 1942, despite technical problems of the driving system due to added weight. At this point, it was decided that 50% of Panzer IV production would be fitted with 30 mm (1.18 in) thick additional armor plates. On 5 January 1943, Hitler decided that all Panzer IV should have 80 mm (3.15 in) frontal armor.[38] To simplify production, the vision ports on either side of the turret and the loader's forward vision port in the turret front were removed, while a rack for two spare road wheels was installed on the track guard on the left side of the hull. Complementing this, brackets for seven spare track links were added to the glacis plate. For operation in high temperatures, the engine's ventilation was improved by creating slits over the engine deck to the rear of the chassis, and cold

weather performance was boosted by adding a device to heat the engine's coolant, as well as a starter fluid injector. A new light replaced the original headlight and the signal port on the turret was removed.[39] On 19 March 1943, the first Panzer IV with Schürzen skirts on its sides and turret was exhibited.[40] The double hatch for the commander's cupola was replaced by a single round hatch from very late model Ausf. G. and the cupola was up-armored from 50 mm (1.97 in) to 95 mm (3.74 in). In April 1943, the KwK 40 L/43 was replaced by the longer 75-millimetre (2.95 in) KwK 40 L/48 gun, with a redesigned multi-baffle muzzle brake with improved recoil efficiency.[41] The longer L/48 resulted in the introduction of the Turmzielfernrohr 5f/1 optic.[42] A Panzer IV Ausf H at the Musée des Blindés in Saumur, France, with its distinctive Zimmerit anti-magnetic mine coating, turret skirts, and wire-mesh side-skirts. The next version, the Ausf. H, began production in June 1943[3] and received the designation Sd. Kfz. 161/2. The integrity of the glacis armor was improved by manufacturing it as a single 80-millimetre (3.15 in) plate. A reinforced final drive with higher gear ratios was introduced.[43] To prevent adhesion of magnetic anti-tank mines, which the Germans feared would be used in large numbers by the Allies, Zimmerit paste was added to all the vertical surfaces of the tank's armor.[44] The turret roof was reinforced from 10-millimetre (0.39 in) to 16-millimetre (0.63 in) and 25-millimetre (0.98 in) segments.[43] The vehicle's side and turret were further protected by the addition of 5-millimetre (0.20 in) hull skirts and 8-millimetre (0.31 in) turret skirts.[4][45] This resulted in the elimination of the vision ports located on the hull side,[43] as the skirts obstructed their view. During the Ausf. H's production run, its rubber-tired return rollers were replaced with cast steel, a lighter cast front sprocket and rear idler wheel gradually replaced the previous components,[43] the hull was fitted with triangular supports for the easily damaged side skirts, the Nebelwurfgeraet was discontinued, and a mount in the turret roof, designed for the Nahverteidigungswaffe, was plugged by a circular armored plate due to initial production shortages of this weapon.[46][47] These modifications meant that the tank's weight increased to 25 tonnes (27.56 short tons). In spite of a new six-speed SSG 77 transmission adopted from the Panzer III, top speed dropped to as low as 16 km/h (10 mph) on cross country terrain. An experimental version of the Ausf H was fitted with a hydrostatic transmission but was not put into production.[34] The Ausf. J was the final production model, and was greatly simplified compared to earlier variants to speed construction. This shows an exported Finnish model. Despite addressing the mobility problems introduced by the previous model, the final production version of the Panzer IV—the Ausf. J—was considered a retrograde from the Ausf. H. Born of necessity, to replace heavy losses, it was greatly simplified to speed production.[48] The electric generator that powered the tank's turret traverse was removed, so the turret had to be rotated manually. The turret traversing mechanism was modified and fitted with a second gear which made hand-operation easier when the vehicle was on sloping terrain.[49] On reasonably level ground, hand operation at 4 seconds to traverse to 12.5° and 29.5 seconds to traverse to 120° was achieved.[49] The resulting space was later used for the installation of an auxiliary 200-litre (53 US gal) fuel tank; road range was thereby increased to 320 km (200 mi),[50] The remaining pistol and vision ports on the turret side hatches were removed, and the engine's radiator housing was simplified by changing the slanted sides to straight sides.[47] Three sockets with screw threads for mounting a 2-ton jib boom crane were welded on the turret roof while the hull roof was thickened from 11-millimetre (0.43 in) to 16-millimetre (0.63 in).[51] In addition, the cylindrical muffler was

replaced by two flame-suppressing mufflers. In June 1944 Wa Prüf 6 had decided that because bomb damage at Panzerfirma Krupp in Essen had seriously jeopardized tank production, all plates which should have been face-hardened for the Panzer IV were instead made with rolled homogeneous armour plate.[51] By late 1944, Zimmerit was no longer being applied to German armored vehicles, and the Panzer IV's side-skirts had been replaced by wire mesh, while the gunner's forward vision port in the turret front was eliminated[52] and the number of return rollers was reduced from four to three to further speed-up production.[53] In a bid to augment the Panzer IV's firepower, an attempt was made to mate a Schmalturm turret — carrying the longer 75 mm (2.95 in) L/70 tank gun from the developing Panther Ausf. F tank design, and partly developed by Rheinmetall from early 1944 onwards — to a Panzer IV hull. This failed and confirmed that the chassis had reached the limit of its adaptability in both weight and available volume.[48] Production Panzer IV production by year[3] Date Number of vehicles Variant (Ausf.) 1937–1939 262 A – D 1940 290 (-24) D, E 1941 480 (+17) E, F 1942 994 F, G 1943 2,983 G, H 1944 3,125 H, J 1945 ~435 J Total ~8,569 all The Panzer IV was originally intended to be used only on a limited scale, so initially Krupp was its sole manufacturer. Prior to the Polish campaign, only 217 Panzer IVs had been produced: 35 Ausf. A; 42 Ausf. B; and 140 Ausf. C; in 1941, production was extended to Vogtländische Maschinenfabrik ("VOMAG") (located in the city of Plauen) and the Nibelungenwerk in the Austrian city of St. Valentin.[3] In 1941, an average of 39 tanks per month were built; this rose to 83 in 1942, 252 in 1943, and 300 in 1944. However, in December 1943, Krupp's factory was diverted to manufacture the Sturmgeschütz IV and, in the spring of 1944, the Vomag factory began production of the Jagdpanzer IV, leaving the Nibelungenwerk as the only plant still assembling the Panzer IV.[54] With the slow collapse of German industry under pressure from Allied air and ground offensives—in October 1944 the Nibelungenwerk factory was severely damaged during a bombing raid—by March and April 1945, production had fallen to pre-1942 levels, with only around 55 tanks per month coming off the assembly lines.[55] Panzer IV: comparison of key production features[56] Version Main gun Superstructure armour mm (inch) Hull armour mm (inch) Turret armour mm (inch) Weight tonnes (long tons; short tons) Engine Notes F S R F S R F S R Ausf. A VK622 7.5 cm KwK L/24 15 (0.59) 18.4 (18.1; 20.3) Maybach HL 108TR 250 PS (246.6 hp; 183.9 kW) SGR 75 transmission Ausf. B 30 (1.2) 15 (0.59) 15 (0.59) 30 (1.2) 15 (0.59) 15 (0.59) 30 (1.2) 15 (0.59) 15 (0.59) 18.8 (18.5; 20.7) SSG 75 transmission Ausf. C 30 (1.2) 15 (0.59) 15 (0.59) 30 (1.2) 15 (0.59) 15 (0.59) 30 (1.2) 15 (0.59) 15 (0.59) 19.0 (18.7; 20.9) Maybach HL 120 TRM 300 PS (300 hp; 220 kW) Ausf. D 30 + 30 † 20 (0.79) + 20 † 20 (0.79) 30 (1.2) 20 (0.79) 20 (0.79) 30 (1.2) 20 (0.79) 20 (0.79) 20.0 (19.7; 22.0) Ausf. E 30 + 30 † 20 + 20 † 20 30 + 30 † 20 + 20 † 20 30 20 20 21.0 (20.7; 23.1) Ausf. F1 50 (2.0) 30 (1.2) 20 (0.79) 50 (2.0) 30 (1.2) 20 (0.79) 50 (2.0) 30 (1.2) 30 (1.2) 22.3 (21.9; 24.6) track width increased from 380 to 400 mm (15 to 16 in) Ausf. F2 7.5 cm KwK 40 L/43 50 30 20 50 30 20 50 30 30 23.0 (22.6; 25.4) single-chamber, globe, muzzle brake Ausf. G 50 + 30 † 30 20 50 + 30 † 30 20 50 30 + 8 (0.31)‡ 30 + 8 ‡ 23.5 (23.1; 25.9) multi-baffle muzzle brake Ausf. H 7.5 cm KwK 40 L/48 80 (3.1) 30 20 80 30 20 50 30 + 8 ‡ 30 + 8 ‡ 25.0 (24.6; 27.6) Zimmerit paste added to vertical surfaces SSG 77 transmission Ausf. J 80 30 20 80 30 20 50 30 + 8 ‡ 30 + 8 ‡ 25.0 (24.6; 27.6) electric motor for turret traverse removed, Rolled homogeneous armour, no Zimmerit † – appliqué armor plate, bolted or welded on ‡ – Schürzen skirts Export The Panzer IV was one of the most widely exported German tanks of the Second World War.[57] In 1942, Germany delivered 11 tanks to Romania and 32 to Hungary,

many of which were lost on the Eastern Front between the final months of 1942 and the beginning of 1943 during the battles around Stalingrad, at which the Hungarian and Romanian troops there were almost annihilated by the attacking Soviet forces.[58] Romania received approximately 120 Panzer IV tanks of different models throughout the entire war.[59] To arm Bulgaria, Germany supplied 46[60] or 91[61] Panzer IVs, and offered Italy 12 tanks to form the nucleus of a new Italian Army armored division. These were used to train Italian tank crews while the-then Italian leader Benito Mussolini was deposed shortly after the Allied conquest of Sicily but were then retaken by Germany during its occupation of Italy in mid-1943.[60] The Falangist Spanish government petitioned for 100 Panzer IVs in March 1943 but only 20 were ever delivered by December that same year.[62] Finland bought 30 but only received 15 in 1944 and in the same year a second batch of 62[60] or 72[61] was sent to Hungary (although 20 of these were subsequently diverted to replace German military losses).[61] The Croatian Ustashe Militia received 10 Ausf. F1 and 5 Ausf. G in the autumn of 1944.[63] In total, 297 Panzer IVs of all models were delivered to Germany's allies.[64] Combat history A Panzer IV Ausf. E with hits on the turret and the edge of the gun barrel. The Panzer IV was the only German tank to remain in both production and combat throughout World War II,[65][66] and measured over the entire war it comprised 30% of the Wehrmacht's total tank strength.[67] Although in service by early 1939, in time for the occupation of Czechoslovakia,[68] at the start of the war the majority of German armor was made up of obsolete Panzer Is and Panzer IIs.[69] The Panzer I in particular had already proved inferior to Soviet tanks, such as the T-26, during the Spanish Civil War.[70] Poland, Western Front and North Africa (1939–1942) When Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, its armored corps was composed of 1,445 Panzer Is, 1,223 Panzer IIs, 98 Panzer IIIs and 211 Panzer IVs; the more modern vehicles amounted to less than 10% of Germany's armored strength.[71] The 1st Panzer Division had a roughly equal balance of types, with 17 Panzer Is, 18 Panzer IIs, 28 Panzer IIIs, and 14 Panzer IVs per battalion. The remaining panzer divisions were heavy with obsolete models, equipped as they were with 34 Panzer Is, 33 Panzer IIs, 5 Panzer IIIs, and 6 Panzer IVs per battalion.[72] Although the Polish Army possessed less than 200 tanks capable of penetrating the German light tanks, Polish anti-tank guns proved more of a threat, reinforcing German faith in the value of the close-support Panzer IV.[73] A British Crusader tank passing a burning German Panzer IV during Operation Crusader, late 1941. Despite increased production of the medium Panzer IIIs and IVs prior to the German invasion of France on 10 May 1940, the majority of German tanks were still light types. According to Heinz Guderian, the Wehrmacht invaded France with 523 Panzer Is, 955 Panzer IIs, 349 Panzer IIIs, 278 Panzer IVs, 106 Panzer 35(t)s and 228 Panzer 38(t)s.[74] Through the use of tactical radios[75] and superior tactics, the Germans were able to outmaneuver and defeat French and British armor.[76] However, Panzer IVs armed with the KwK 37 L/24 75-millimetre (2.95 in) tank gun found it difficult to engage French tanks such as the Somua S35 and Char B1.[77] The Somua S35 had a maximum armor thickness of 55 mm (2.2 in),[78] while the KwK 37 L/24 could only penetrate 43 mm (1.7 in) at a range of 700 m (2,300 ft).[17] The British Matilda II was also heavily armored, with at least 70 mm (2.76 in) of steel on the front and turret and a minimum of 65 mm on the sides,[79] but were few in number. Although the Panzer IV was deployed to North Africa with the German Afrika Korps, until the longer gun variant began production, the tank was outperformed by the Panzer III with respect to armor penetration.[80] Both the Panzer III and IV had difficulty in penetrating the British Matilda II's thick armor, while

the Matilda's 40-mm QF 2 pounder gun could knock out either German tank; the Matilda II's major disadvantage was its low speed.[81] By August 1942, Rommel had only received 27 Panzer IV Ausf. F2s, armed with the L/43 gun, which he deployed to spearhead his armored offensives.[81] The longer gun could penetrate all American and British tanks in theater at ranges of up to 1,500 m (4,900 ft), by that time the most heavily armored of which was the M3 Grant.[82] Although more of these tanks arrived in North Africa between August and October 1942, their numbers were insignificant compared to the amount of matériel shipped to British forces.[83] The Panzer IV also took part in the invasion of Yugoslavia and the invasion of Greece in early 1941.[84] Eastern Front (1941–1945) A PzKpfw IV Ausf. H of the 12th Panzer Division carrying Schürzen skirting operating on the Eastern Front in the USSR, 1944. With the launching of Operation Barbarossa on 22 June 1941, the unanticipated appearance of the KV-1 and T-34 tanks prompted an upgrade of the Panzer IV's 75 mm (2.95 in) gun to a longer, high-velocity 75 mm gun suitable for anti-tank use. This meant that it could now penetrate the T-34 at ranges of up to 1,200 m (3,900 ft) at any angle.[85] The 75 mm KwK 40 L/43 gun on the Panzer IV could penetrate a T-34 at a variety of impact angles beyond 1,000 m (3,300 ft) range and up to 1,600 m (5,200 ft).[86] Shipment of the first model to mount the new gun, the Ausf. F2, began in spring 1942, and by the summer offensive there were around 135 Panzer IVs with the L/43 tank gun available. At the time, these were the only German tanks that could defeat T-34 or KV-1 with sheer firepower.[87] They played a crucial role in the events that unfolded between June 1942 and March 1943,[88] and the Panzer IV became the mainstay of the German panzer divisions.[89] Although in service by late September 1942, the Tiger I was not yet numerous enough to make an impact and suffered from serious teething problems, while the Panther was not delivered to German units in the Soviet Union until May 1943.[90] The extent of German reliance on the Panzer IV during this period is reflected by their losses; 502 were destroyed on the Eastern Front in 1942.[91] The Panzer IV continued to play an important role during operations in 1943, including at the Battle of Kursk. Newer types, such as the Panther, were still experiencing crippling reliability problems that restricted their combat efficiency,[92] so much of the effort fell to the 841 Panzer IVs that took part in the battle.[93] Throughout 1943, the German army lost 2,352 Panzer IVs on the Eastern Front;[94] some divisions were reduced to 12–18 tanks by the end of the year.[89] In 1944, a further 2,643 Panzer IVs were destroyed, and such losses were becoming increasingly difficult to replace.[95] Nevertheless, due to a shortage of replacement Panther tanks, the Panzer IV continued to form the core of Germany's armored divisions, including elite units such as the II SS Panzer Corps, through 1944.[96] In January 1945, 287 Panzer IVs were lost on the Eastern Front. It is estimated that combat against Soviet forces accounted for 6,153 Panzer IVs, or about 75% of all Panzer IV losses during the war.[97] Western Front (1944–45) A Panzer IV Ausf. G of the 1st SS Panzer Division "Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler" near the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, 1942. Panzer IVs comprised around half of the available German tank strength on the Western Front prior to the Allied invasion of Normandy on 6 June 1944.[98] Most of the 11 panzer divisions that saw action in Normandy initially contained an armored regiment of one battalion of Panzer IVs and another of Panthers, for a total of around 160 tanks, although Waffen-SS panzer divisions were generally larger and better equipped than their Heer counterparts.[99][100] Regular upgrades to the Panzer IV had helped to maintain its reputation as a formidable opponent.[98] The bocage countryside in Normandy favored defense, and German tanks and anti-tank guns inflicted very heavy

casualties on Allied armor during the Normandy campaign, despite the overwhelming Allied air superiority. German counter-attacks were blunted in the face of Allied artillery, infantry-held anti-tank weapons, tank destroyers and anti-tank guns, as well as the ubiquitous fighter-bomber aircraft.[101] The side skirt armor could predetonate shaped charge anti-tank weapons such as the British PIAT, but could be pulled away by rugged terrain. German tankers in all theaters were "frustrated by the way these skirts were easily torn off when going through dense brush".[98] Pz.Kpfw-IV in Belgrade Military Museum, Serbia. The Allies had also been improving their tanks; the widely used American-designed M4 Sherman medium tank, while mechanically reliable, repairable, and available in large numbers, suffered from an inadequate gun in terms of armor-piercing.[102] Against earlier-model Panzer IVs, it could hold its own, but with its 75 mm M3 gun, struggled against the late-model Panzer IV.[103] The late-model Panzer IV's 80 mm (3.15 in) frontal hull armor could easily withstand hits from the 75 mm (2.95 in) weapon on the Sherman at normal combat ranges,[104] though the turret remained vulnerable. The British up-gunned the Sherman with their highly effective 76 mm QF 17-pounder anti-tank gun, resulting in the Firefly;[105] although this was the only Allied tank capable of dealing with all current German tanks at normal combat ranges, few (342) were available in time for the Normandy invasion.[102] One Sherman in every British troop of four was a Firefly. By the end of the Normandy campaign, a further 550 Fireflies were built.[106] which was enough to make good any losses.[107] A second British tank equipped with the 17-pdr gun, the Cruiser Mk VIII Challenger, could not participate in the initial landings having to wait for port facilities to be ready to land. It was not until July 1944 that American Shermans fitted with the 76 mm gun M1 gun achieved a parity in firepower with the Panzer IV.[108][109] By 29 August 1944, as the last surviving German troops of Fifth Panzer Army and Seventh Army began retreating towards Germany, the twin cataclysms of the Falaise Pocket and the Seine crossing cost the Wehrmacht dearly. Of the 2,300 tanks and assault guns it had committed to Normandy (including around 750 Panzer IVs[110]), over 2,200 had been lost.[111] Field Marshal Walter Model reported to Hitler that his panzer divisions had remaining, on average, five or six tanks each.[111] During the winter of 1944–45, the Panzer IV was one of the most numerous tanks in the Ardennes offensive, where further heavy losses—as often due to fuel shortages as to enemy action—impaired major German armored operations in the West thereafter.[112] The Panzer IVs that took part were survivors of the battles in France between June and September 1944,[dubious – discuss] with around 260 additional Panzer IV Ausf. Js issued as reinforcements.[110] Other users A captured German Pz.Kpfw. IV Ausf. G used for anti-tank weapons testing by the British Eighth Army in Italy in 1943. Finland bought 15 new Panzer IV Ausf. Js in 1944 for 5,000,000 Finnish markkas each.[113] The remainder of an order for 40 tanks and some StuG IIIs were not delivered and neither were necessary German tank instructors provided. The tanks arrived too late to see action against the Soviet Union but instead ended up being used against Nazi Germany during their withdrawal through Lapland. After the war, they served as training tanks and one portrayed a Soviet KV-1 tank in the movie The Unknown Soldier in 1955.[citation needed] The additional weight, going from the 18.4 tons (Ausf. A) to about 25 tons (Ausf. J), of these modifications strained the relatively light chassis. The overloaded and primitive leaf-spring suspension gave its crew a shaky ride, earning the Panzer IV the nickname "Ravistin" ("Shaker") in Finnish service. This not only affected general crew comfort, but also hampered the accurate aiming of the main gun. What exactly caused this vibration that gave the PzKw IV Ausf. J

such a bad name among Finnish tank crews remains somewhat unclear, but the poor suspension seems to be the most likely suspect.[114] After 1945, Bulgaria incorporated its surviving Panzer IVs into defensive bunkers as gunpoints on its border with Turkey, along with Soviet T-34 turrets. This defensive line, known as the "Krali Marko Line", remained in use until the fall of communism in 1989.[citation needed] Twenty Panzer IV Ausf. Hs and ten StuG III Ausf. Gs were supplied to Spain in December 1943, a small fraction of what Spain had originally asked for. The Panzer IV represented the best tank in Spanish service between 1944 and 1954, and was deployed along with T-26s and Panzer Is. Spain sold 17 Panzer IVs to Syria in 1967, with the remaining three left conserved. These can be found in Madrid, Burgos and Santovenia de Pisuerga (Valladolid). Most of the tanks Romania had received were lost during combat between 1944 and 1945. These tanks, designated T4 in the army's inventory, were used by the Army's 2nd Armored Regiment. On 9 May 1945, only two Panzer IVs were left. Romania received another 50 captured Panzer IV tanks from the Red Army after the end of the war. These tanks were of many different models and were in very bad shape[59]—many of them were missing parts and the side-skirts. These German T4 tanks remained in service until 1950, when the Army decided to use only Soviet equipment. By 1954, all German tanks in Romanian military service had been scrapped. An ex-Syrian Panzer IV displayed at the AAF Tank Museum. While their numbers remain uncertain, Syria received around 60 Panzers that were refurbished in France between 1950 and 1952, followed by 50 others purchased from Czechoslovakia in 1954, per the Czechoslovakia-Syria arms deal.[115] A Soviet 12.7mm DShK machine gun on an anti-aircraft mount was retrofitted on the cupola. These ex-German tanks were used to shell Israeli settlements below the Golan Heights, together with Soviet-supplied T-34s, and were fired upon in 1965 during the Water War by Israeli Super Sherman and Centurion tanks.[112] Syria received 17 Panzer IVs from Spain, with these seeing combat during the Six-Day War in 1967.[116] Several of Syria's Panzer IVs were captured by the Israeli Army and donated to the Yad La-Shiryon museum. The AAF Tank Museum in Danville, Virginia later traded a US M5 Stuart light tank to the Latrun museum for one of the Czechoslovak-origin Panzer IVs, which is now an exhibit there.[117] In addition, Turkey was a buyer, with 35 Panzer IVs received until 4 May 1944 in exchange for some chromium ore. Delivery began with the Ausf. G and probably went on with Ausf. H versions.[118] Other sources state only 15 to 22 tanks were delivered in 1943, all of the Ausf G version.[119] Captured Panzer IVs in service The Soviet Army captured significant numbers of German armored vehicles, including Panzer IVs (its Russian designation was "T-4"). Some of them were pressed into temporary service and some others were used for driver or anti-tank training. Sometimes, captured tanks were used in different temporary units or as single tanks. While captured Tiger I/IIs and Panthers were only permitted to be used until they irrecoverably broke down, the simplicity of the Panzer IV and the large number of captured parts allowed for long-term repair and continued use. At least one captured Panzer IV Ausf. H was used by the Warsaw Tank Brigade of the Polish 2nd Corps in Italy during 1944. The 1st GMR (Groupement Mobile de Reconnaissance) of the FFI (French Forces of the Interior), later called 'Escadron Autonome de Chars Besnier', was equipped in December 1944 with at least one Panzer IV. Variants A Jagdpanzer IV tank destroyer, based on the Panzer IV chassis, mounting the 75 mm Pak L/48 anti-tank gun. A Sturmpanzer IV infantry-support gun The Wirbelwind self-propelled anti-aircraft gun. In keeping with the wartime German design expediencies of mounting an existing anti-tank gun on a convenient chassis to give mobility, several tank destroyers and infantry support guns were

built around the Panzer IV hull. Both the Jagdpanzer IV, initially armed with the 75-millimetre (2.95 in) L/48 tank gun,[120] and the Krupp-manufactured Sturmgeschütz IV, which was the casemate of the Sturmgeschütz III mounted on the body of the Panzer IV,[121] proved highly effective in defense. Cheaper and faster to construct than tanks, but with the disadvantage of a very limited gun traverse, around 1,980 Jagdpanzer IVs[122] and 1,140 Sturmgeschütz IVs[123] were produced. Another tank destroyer, the Panzer IV/70, used the same basic 75-millimeter L/70 gun that was mounted on the Panther.[124][125] Another variant of the Panzer IV was the Panzerbefehlswagen IV (Pz. Bef. Wg. IV) command tank. This conversion entailed the installation of additional radio sets with associated mounting racks, transformers, junction boxes, wiring, antennas and an auxiliary electrical generator. To make room for the new equipment, ammunition stowage was reduced from 87 to 72 rounds. The vehicle could coordinate with nearby armor, infantry or even aircraft. Seventeen Panzerbefehlswagen were built on Ausf. J chassis in August and September 1944,[3] while another 88 were based on refurbished chassis.[126] The Panzerbeobachtungswagen IV (Pz. Beob. Wg. IV) was an artillery observation vehicle built on the Panzer IV chassis. This, too, received new radio equipment and an electrical generator, installed in the left rear corner of the fighting compartment. Panzerbeobachtungswagens worked in cooperation with Wespe and Hummel self-propelled artillery batteries.[127] Also based on the Panzer IV chassis was the Sturmpanzer IV (called "Brummbär" by Allied intelligence) 150-millimetre (5.91 in) infantry-support self-propelled gun. These vehicles were primarily issued to four Sturmpanzer units (Numbers 216, 217, 218 and 219) and used during the battle of Kursk and in Italy in 1943. Two separate versions of the Sturmpanzer IV existed, one without a machine gun in the mantlet and one with a machine gun mounted on the mantlet of the casemate.[128] Furthermore, a 105-millimetre (4.13 in) artillery gun was mounted in an experimental demountable turret on a Panzer IV chassis. This variant was called the Heuschrecke ("grasshopper").[129] Another 105 mm artillery/anti-tank prototype was the 10.5 cm K (gp.Sfl.) nicknamed Dicker Max. Four different self-propelled anti-aircraft vehicles were built on the Panzer IV hull. The Flakpanzer IV "Möbelwagen" ("moving van") was armed with a 37-millimetre (1.46 in) anti-aircraft cannon; 240 were built between 1944 and 1945. In late 1944 a new Flakpanzer, the Wirbelwind ("whirlwind"), was designed, with enough armor to protect the gun's crew in a rotating turret, armed with the quadruple 20 mmFlakvierling anti-aircraft cannon system; at least 100 were manufactured. Sixty-five (out of an order for 100) similar vehicles with a single 37 mm anti-aircraft cannon were built named Ostwind ("East wind"). This vehicle was designed to replace the Wirbelwind. The final model was the Flakpanzer IV Kugelblitz, of which only five pilot vehicles were built. This vehicle featured an enclosed turret armed with twin 30-millimetre (1.18 in) Rheinmetall-Borsig MK 103 aircraft cannon.[130] Although not a direct modification of the Panzer IV, some of its components, in conjunction with parts from the Panzer III, were utilized to make one of the most widely used self-propelled artillery chassis of the war—the Geschützwagen III/IV. This chassis was the basis of the Hummel, of which 666 were built, and also the 88-millimetre (3.46 in) gun-armed Nashorn tank destroyer, with 473 manufactured.[131] To resupply self-propelled howitzers in the field, 150 ammunition carriers were manufactured on the Geschützwagen III/IV chassis.[68] Another variant was the Bergepanzer IV armored recovery vehicle. Some were believed to have been converted locally,[132] 21 were converted from hulls returned for repair between October 1944 and January 1945. The conversion involved removing the turret and adding a wooden plank cover with an access hatch over the turret

ring and the addition of a 2-ton jib crane and rigid towing bars.[133] Panzer IV mit hydrostatischem antrieb Another rare variant was the Panzer IV mit hydrostatischem antrieb. In 1944, Zahnradfabrik (ZF) Augsburg plant produced a prototype with an unusual drive concept. A Panzer IV Ausf. H tank received a fluid drive instead of the normal gearbox. Two oil pumps were installed behind the engine, which in turn drove two oil engines. An axial engine drive transmitted the power to the rear drive wheels via a reduction gear. Instead of the two steering levers, the driver had a crescent-shaped steering wheel with the steering movements of which two steering cylinders were operated, which in turn regulated the volume of the oil pumps and thus regulated the adjacent force on the two drive wheels. The only prototype built was not used and was shipped to America after the war to be subjected to driving tests. These finally had to be discontinued due to a lack of spare parts. The only surviving vehicle is now in United States Army Ordnance Training and Heritage Center in Maryland.[134] Production models Production models of Panzer IV[3] Name Production details Ausf.A, 1/BW (Sd.Kfz.161) 35 produced by Krupp-Gruson, between November 1937 and June 1938. Ausf.B, 2/BW 42 produced by Krupp-Gruson, from May to October 1938. Ausf.C, 3/BW 140 produced by Krupp-Gruson, from October 1938 to August 1939. Ausf.D, 4/BW + 5/BW 200 + 48 produced by Krupp-Gruson, from October 1939 to October 1940. Ausf.E, 6/BW 206 produced by Krupp-Gruson, from October 1940 to April 1941. Ausf.F, 7/BW 471 produced by Krupp-Gruson, Vomag and Nibelungenwerke from April 1941 to March 1942. Ausf.F2, 7/BW Umbau (Sd.Kfz.161/1) Temporary designation for Ausf F chassis built with long 7.5cm KwK40 L/43 main gun, later renamed into Auf. G and 8/BW. Ausf.G, 8/BW 1,927 produced by Krupp-Gruson, Vomag and Nibelungenwerke from March 1942 to June 1943. Ausf.H, 9/BW (Sd.Kfz.161/2) ~2,324 produced by Krupp-Gruson, Vomag and Nibelungenwerke from June 1943 to February 1944. Ausf.J, 10/BW ~3,160 produced by Nibelungenwerke and Vomag from February 1944 to April 1945. Variants based on chassis Derivatives of Panzer IV Name Production details Tauchpanzer IV 42 converted from July 1940 as submersible medium support tanks Panzerbefehlswagen Command tank with additional radio equipment, 17 built on Ausf. J and further 88 on rebuilt chassis Panzerbeobachtungswagen IV Artillery spotter tank with special radio equipment, 133 converted from Ausf. J Sturmpanzer IV Heavy Assault gun armed with 150 mm Infantry gun Sturmgeschütz IV Assault gun, similar to StuG III, armed with 7.5 cm gun Jagdpanzer IV and Panzer IV/70 Tank destroyer armed with 7.5 cm gun Nashorn Heavy Panzerjäger armed with 8.8 cm Anti-tank gun Hummel Self-propelled artillery armed with 150 mm Howitzer Flakpanzer IV Multiple variants of Panzer IV chassis armed with various Flak guns Brückenleger IV b+c 20+4 bridge layer tanks built by Krupp and Magirus, on Ausf.C and Ausf.D chassis, from February to May 1940 Brückenleger IV s (Sturmstegpanzer) 4 assault bridge carriers converted from Ausf.C chassis in 1940 Bergepanzer IV 21 armoured recovery vehicles converted from Pz IV chassis from October to December 1944 Panzer IV mit hydrostatischem antrieb 1 Panzer IV Ausf. H with a hydraulic drive by Zahnradfabrik in 1944

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[zenatc]

Know the uses of Torsion Springs and Compression Springs

Torsion springs are configured to store and discharge angular energy. This is because they come armed with legs of equal length leaning at unstable unloaded angles. They are also capable of hold a mechanism statically in place by turning the legs aside about the body centerline axis. They offer great resistance to a rotationally applied force or twist. These springs will decrease in body diameter and increase a little in body length when deflected in the chosen direction of the fabricated wind.

Torsion springs can also work effectively in a clockwise or anti-clockwise rotation, according to the application.  Thus, they have the ability to determine the direction of the wind. Common types of these springs are the ones that are used in a garage door or an outfit. The direction of the produced wind can be vital for torsion spring applications, as well, owing to the leg attachment/ bearing location having to be on the right or left side upon assembly.

Some of the most common applications that make use of torsion springs include:

·         Doors and Hinges

·         Clipboards

·         Retractable Seating

·         Ceiling Light Fittings

·         Medical Equipment

Usually, a torsion spring is supported by a rod, known as a mandrel, which is synchronized with the theoretical hinge line of the product. These springs are made of different materials and they are available in different dimensions, as well. They are also available in an assortment of finishes according to the demands of consumers.

Torsion springs vary greatly in their tolerance values that count on the ratio of the diameter of their body to the diameter of the wire.  The highest quality torsion spring will usually have a tolerance value of about +/- 5% in diameter and +/- 10% in torque.

Currently, compression springs are considered the most widespread and efficient springs on the market. They are used in products and applications that span innumerable trades and industries. This is for the reason that they are capable of storing energy efficiently, besides allowing users to form them in multiple shapes. These are the mechanical type of springs and they are highly customizable.

As compression springs are greatly versatile, they are used in a huge range of applications, including:

·         Electronics

·         Medical devices

·         Precision tools and instruments

·         Mining and drilling equipment

·         Mattresses

·         Industrial equipment

·         Notebooks or pens

These applications make the spring the most sought-after product to be used in the daily life of people all over the world.

Besides using domestically, compression springs are largely used by leading original equipment manufacturers, as well. They play a vital role in manufacturing many products for a mixture of industries.

Some of the industries that use these springs include:

·         Transportation

·         Aeronautical

·         Manufacturing

·         Construction

·         Agriculture

·         Materials handling

·         Petrochemical

Choosing the right end type compression spring is a challenging task, so it is better to assess end types based on the precise factors involved. There are four major categories of compression spring end types, together with other customization options, from which you can decide if you have a specific design. These end type options include:

·         Closed and Squared Spring End

·         Closed and Ground Spring End

·         Double Closed Spring End

·         Compression Spring, Open End Style

Each end type is designed to address a certain sort of compression. The way these springs work is established by the relationship between their design and the forces that will be applied to them when they set in a vertical position.

[kalyanisprings]

Extension Springs Supplier in Delhi | Extension Springs | Springs

Extension springs are springs which attach to the ends of other bits. They save power and apply a pulling force. What's more, extension springs really loosen up and house energy, to make a resistance to a different pulling energy? It is the first tension that finally decides how closely together the expansion spring is wound. In India, we've got our recognition since the maximum metal Kalyani springs maker. We offer manmade high excellent pressure springs. The springs are made from premium excellent steel, making the product highly trustworthy and powerful. Its capability is far better to pull a load.

1.       Square wire around 20 Millimeter cable diameter

2.       Stainless Steel 0.15 to 60 Millimeter cable diameter

3.       We offer to customize substance According to customer's requirement

Extension springs fluctuate in conclusion contours for garage Doors, automotive businesses. Drawbar spring can also be expansion spring. You will find an assortment of extension springs are all observed. The springs are closely wounded with no load. The springs hold the pins, eyes and other port design in the end to link the load. The expansion springs are of various kinds depending upon their finish design. The drawbar spring can also be the 1 kind of extension springs that are also called loops based upon its design. The load may employ in the one ends of stainless loops that pass via the springs middle and therefore are hooked around another finish that is the way that it simplifies the spring upon loading. The drawbar springs are all great for its possible overload scenarios and offer a definite stop which will continue to take a static load after attaining the maximum long length. The drawbar expansion spring is principally used when encouraging a porch swing.

Knowing the Fundamentals

A tension spring Might Be the Specific opposite of the generally A very simple type of the expansion spring could be observed at the workings of a rubber ring, as this efficiently works on the exact same principle of employing a rotational power. Tension springs can also be utilized to keep form and structural integrity inside substances. The load on the spring is produced by stretching instead of compression and thus extension springs frequently have small loops or hooks at either end, which can be utilized to attach the spring right into place.

1.       boiled in attachments

2.       Extended hooks

3.       Screw in connectors

4.       Negative loops

5.       Half hooks

6.       German loops

7.       Negative hooks

8.       English loops

But, Together with the many variants of expansion spring which exist, they All function in the exact same basic method of capturing and redirecting an employed force.

[steelspringinindia]

Kalyani Springs -Spring Manufacturing Company in India

#KalyaniSprings not only mainly focuses to be the best wire form manufacturers in Delhi but globally as well. We are committed to working for the customers’ need for extreme excellence so that our #valuable customers can enjoy the best services they ever had. We #continuously look forward to the long-lasting relationships with our clients by providing them extreme #satisfaction. Kalyani Springs are specified by expert engineers not only for their space-saving abilities but for their innovative designs using Wave Spring Technology as well. Kalyani #Springs very well understand the needs of our customers’ needs and hence tries to offer assistance from design conception through project completion. We #expertise in spring #designing and #mechanical #engineering and hence supposed to be the best manufacturers of springs and wire forms globally. We took a leading edge in creating market-specific solutions as per #customers’ requirements with the in-depth #knowledge of the #worldwide #marketplace. We mainly focus and pay attention to every single detail so that to provide our 3customers the best solution that matches the local, regional and geographic requirements as well.

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[somar78]

The Volkswagen SP2 + The New (Almost) Production-Ready SP Concept Car

The Volkswagen SP2 is a car much loved in Brazil, but little known outside the South American country. The car is a small sport coupe that was designed and made in Brazil for the local market, using largely local VW components.

The styling of the car would have a strong influence on the VW/Porsche developed Porsche 924, and in recent years a team of automotive engineers have designed an all new SP. This turnkey design is currently waiting for a small volume automaker to put it into production, giving the SP an all new life in the 21st century.

Brazil: A Nation that Banned Imported Cars

Brazil was a nation that almost entirely banned the importation of motor vehicles during the 1960’s and 1970’s thus forcing car manufacturers to either set up vehicle production in Brazil or not have access to that market.

Volkswagen were one of the companies that set up manufacturing in the country and they finished up having a two thirds share of the Brazilian market: something that they were no doubt quite happy about, and something the Brazilians employed by Volkswagen do Brazil were quite happy about too.

The other dimension to this is that most car buyers are not the slightest bit interested in purchasing a sports car. Most people want comfortable, reliable and affordable transportation. Hence Volkswagens became the most popular cars in Brazil.

Brazilian Sports Cars

With the import ban in place it was a foregone conclusion that small scale specialist sports car builders would spring up. During the 1960’s a Brazilian company named Puma began making limited production sports cars using chassis of their own design with fiberglass bodywork and fitted with engines and mechanical components from DKW, Volkswagen, or General Motors.

Another sports car was the Willy’s Interlagos, which was a Renault Alpine A108 built locally. So there were sports cars being made in Brazil and they were in some ways quite like the British small volume specialist makers such as Lotus or TVR. They were cars that were fun, and affordable.

It was to be a conversation between one of the directors of Brazilian sports car maker Puma and the head of Volkswagen in Brasil that would precipitate the creation of the Volkswagen SP. The Puma director suggested that because Volkswagen Brazil did not have a stylish sports car that the pride of place on the Volkswagen stand at the 1969 Brazilian motor show should be a Puma (built on Volkswagen parts of course).

The head of Volkswagen Brazil, Rudolph Leiding, was probably not amused although I suspect he smiled politely even as he quietly began formulating a plan

Volkswagen’s Project X: A Car for the Ladies as well as for the Gentlemen

The stylish coupé that Volkswagen Brazil were making was the Karmann Ghia but this was due to be phased out and the head of Volkswagen Brazil, Rudolph Leiding, could see that there was a need for a suitable replacement in the form of a stylish sporting coupé.

Rudolph Leiding wisely had some discussions with his wife Helga in order to gauge what sort of stylish coupé would appeal to Brazilian women: women tend to look for different things in a car by comparison with men and Rudolph Leiding wanted the new car to appeal to both men and women.

Leiding made initial sketches of the car he envisioned and a Mr. Schiemann was appointed to head up “Project X��� as the new initiative was called. Volkswagen Brazil’s in-house designer Marcio Piancastelli was briefed on the project and Leiding’s sketches handed over to him. The plan was to build the new sports coupé on the platform of the locally produced Volkswagen Type 3 “Variant” which featured typical Volkswagen torsion bar suspension and four cylinder horizontally opposed air-cooled engine.

For Marcio Piancastelli there was quite a bit of design inspiration available in the late 1960’s as he got to work. Jaguar’s E-Type had been called “The most beautiful car in the world” by none other than Enzo Ferrari and Japanese company Toyota had made everyone sit up and take notice when they unveiled their 2000GT.

Chevrolet’s C2 Corvette was also a real head turner. Piancastelli had done an internship with Ghia and was very capable of bringing Italian style to Project X despite the fact that it was to be based on the Volkswagen Type 3 platform. Could Piancastelli design something that looked like it should be a Porsche? He was about to prove that he could and in 1971 the concept car made its debut just as Rudolph Leiding was leaving Brazil with his wife Helga to take up his new position in charge of Volkswagen globally.

The Volkswagen Type 3 was actually a good foundation for a sporting coupé: it was much more sophisticated than the original Volkswagen Type 1 “Beetle” and this was especially true by 1968. By 1966 the Type 3 was made with a 1.6 liter (1,584 cc) version of the “pancake” (aka “suitcase”) four cylinder air-cooled engine. This engine had the cooling fan located at the end of the crankshaft to lower its height and was mounted on a separate sub-frame which also contained the rear suspension.

This unit was then mounted to the body using rubber mountings, a design that was highly effective in isolating vibration and road noise. In 1968 this engine was the first in a volume production car to be fitted with the Bosch D-Jetronic fuel injection system. Not only that but also in 1968 a three speed automatic version was made available.

The front suspension of the Type 3 was improved over the Type 1 also. The Type 1’s transverse leaf spring torsion bars were done away with and the Type 3 became the first fitted with transverse round torsion bars. For the front suspension the round torsion bar was located in the lower torsion bar tube while the upper one had the anti-roll bar attached to the upper trailing links on each side.

1968 saw another major advance with the old style swing axles replaced by a double jointed CV joint which kept the rear wheel camber consistent and eliminated the infamous handling vice of the Type 1 caused by the swing axles. The Type 3’s brakes were also upgraded to discs at the front and drums at the rear.

So the Type 3 platform that Marcio Piancastelli had to work with had a great deal of potential: with the right engine under the car it could almost have become a Brazilian Porsche (of sorts).

The Volkswagen SP Enters Production

The Volkswagen SP that Rudolph Leiding had sketched the concept for and Marcio Piancastelli had created entered production in 1973 and it proved to be a real head-turner. It had looks that seemed to combine a touch of Porsche with an Italian feel. The lines of the car were sleek, well proportioned, and flowing.

The interior was no disappointment either, unless you were over 6 feet tall that is in which case it would start becoming a tad snug. The dashboard was a purposeful design with a large tachometer and speedometer directly in front of the driver and four smaller gauges in the center; water temperature, oil pressure, fuel and clock. The interior was a quite brilliant blending of comfort with GT car instrumentation and controls.

The SP had a lot more going for it than its looks however. Piancastelli had design engineered it to be a car with impressive safety credentials. The steering column was collapsible, the brake hydraulics dual circuit, but the most interesting feature was the “collision belt”. The “collision belt” was comprised of “collision proof” structures that circled the perimeter of the car.

It included the bumpers which were spring loaded by being mounted on spring steel claws which would absorb impact, especially the 5 mph impact specified by US regulators, and side structures to protect against side collisions. The front, rear and side collision belt was covered in gloss painted rubber. It is very clear in the attention to engineering crash protection that Volkswagen do Brasil were intending to market the SP in the US and other world markets.

The SP was made in two models; the SP1 was the entry level model and the SP2 was the more up-market model. The SP1 featured quad headlights while on the more powerful SP2 the quad headlights were quartz iodine. The car was designed to provide excellent visibility and was fitted with front quarter vents to assist with ventilation along with opening rear quarter windows also.

Although the Volkswagen Type 3 in other markets was fitted with the Bosch D-Jetronic fuel injection system this was not the case for Brazil. In Brazil the quality of the fuel was quite low and so the compression ratio of the engines used and their state of tune had to be kept low. Two engines were used; the Volkswagen SP1 was fitted with the same 1.6 liter engine as the Type 3 but with twin Solex carburetors and producing 65 bhp (DIN).

The Volkswagen SP2 was fitted with a larger 1.8 liter engine also with twin Solex carburetors and producing 75 bhp (DIN). Performance of the more powerful SP2 was for a standing to 60 mph time around 16 seconds and a top speed of 100 mph. The SP1 was significantly slower and perhaps it could be said that it didn’t so much accelerate as “gain momentum”.

The SP1 was dropped from production by the time 88 cars had been made, leaving the SP2 as the sole model.

The Volkswagen SP had a lot more luggage carrying space than is common in the majority of sports cars or GT coupés. Because of Volkswagen engine there was a good amount of boot space above the engine, much the same amount as one would find in a Jaguar E-Type for example.

But that was not all, in typical Volkswagen style there was also a good luggage area in the front of the car. The spare wheel was stored at the very front leaving a decent luggage area behind the front axle line. So as a practical coupé the SP was intelligently laid out.

The “SP” name had originally been intended to stand for “San Paolo”, where the car was designed and made. However Brazilians have a sense of humor and pretty soon the “SP” was said to stand for “Sem Potência” which translates as “without power”, or in English we might make that “Slow Poke”.

That being said those who owned the SP2 seem to have a great affection for them despite the lack of road burning horsepower. As a comfortable coupé for touring the power was seemingly enough and the car was enjoyable to own and to drive. The SP2 was kept in production for three years with the last cars rolling off the production line in 1976 after a fairly respectable 10,205 had been made.

Given that the SP2 was made on the Volkswagen Type 3 platform it would not have been rocket science to dramatically improve the car’s performance by fitting a larger and more powerful engine: Volkswagen certainly had a range of suitable engines that could have been chosen and which would have been easy to fit.

But by that stage of Volkswagen’s history it was moving away from the 1930’s vintage rear-mounted air-cooled four cylinder boxer engines and migrating to water-cooled front-mounted engines and front wheel drive. Rudolph Leiding had been instrumental in pushing for that change and it was he who directed Volkswagen away from a Porsche designed prototype for the new Volkswagen Golf that had a mid-mounted engine.

That was the EA266 which featured a mid-mounted in-line four cylinder liquid cooled 105hp engine laid horizontally and placed under the rear passenger seat.

Volkswagen do Brasil did consider a suitable solution to the “Slow Poke” problem which would have been called the SP3 and which would be fitted with a 1.8 liter water-cooled four cylinder engine as used in the Brazilian Volkswagen Passat TS.

That engine had a compression ratio of 8.5:1 and was fitted with twin carburetors which enabled it to produce 99 hp @ 6,000 rpm. A prototype was made by an independent Brazilian company called Dacon who offered conversion kits for SP1 and SP2 cars. Unfortunately the cost of the kits seems to have been too high and not many were sold.

A Porsche “Volkswagen SP”: The Porsche 924

The Volkswagen SP had garnered quite a bit of attention in Brazil and in Volkswagen/Porsche circles. Although the Volkswagen SP only remained in production in Brazil for three years the idea got Volkswagen in Germany thinking, helped along by Rudolph Leiding in his role at the head of Volkswagen internationally.

The idea for a Volkswagen sports car/coupé, that Leiding had instigated and developed in Brazil was embraced by Volkswagen in Germany and work began in cooperation with Porsche to create a suitable model, whose design was very much inspired by the Volkswagen SP.

The project was designated EA425 and it re-located the engine to the front of the car with a transaxle at the rear: this gave the car a 48/52 front to rear weight distribution.

With a successful and very affordable design largely complete the EA425 was ready to rock and roll off the assembly lines but the oil crisis of 1973 persuaded Volkswagen to stop work on the project and sell it back to Porsche while Volkswagen moved ahead with their Scirocco model. Porsche completed the car as a replacement for the Porsche 914 and introduced it as the Porsche 924 in 1976.

The VW SP2 is Re-Created For The 21st Century

The Volkswagen SP may have been nicknamed the “Sem Potência” but it carved a place for itself in many Brazilian hearts as their home grown sports coupé that was almost a Porsche, and which in reality had been transformed into the basis for the Porsche 924.

So it should come as no surprise that in this twenty-first century that a group of Mechanical Automotive Engineering students at the FEI College (Educational Foundation of Ignatius) in Brazil decided to base their course major project on it. Final year students in this course were required to design a vehicle and its major components as a major assignment.

Around the table a group comprising Rafael Tardelli, Sebastián Honbono, Flavio Koiti, Eduardo Samartino and Fernando Piaya, looked at various options and considered that there had been a move to recreate “retro” style cars, such as the Ford Mustang, Chevrolet Camaro, Morris Mini and Fiat 500 “Bambino”.

So as the discussions progressed the group decided that they could create a new version of Brazil’s Volkswagen SP that had almost become a Brazilian Porsche.

The student’s professor of vehicular dynamics and suspension, Mr. Ricardo Bock, was also teaching the Car Design Course, at the FAAP College (Armando Alvares Penteado Foundation) and finding that the retro Volkswagen SP2 project to be a very interesting one brought students from the two colleges together.

Professor Bock’s idea was to have the engineering and design students work together to actually create a design that could be built. The meeting brought together not only students but professors who had been working in the Brazilian car industry during the 1960’s and including Brazilian designer Ari Rocha, who worked at Studio Fissore and at DKW. It was he who subsequently introduced the students to the designer of the Volkswagen SP2, Márcio Piancastelli, and also to José Vicente Novita Martins (Jota) who had designed a number of Volkswagen cars.

Armed with background drawings, photographs and time spent with original designers from the 1960’s and 1970’s, the students went to work to create the design for a new version of the Volkswagen SP2, and they designed it so it could be built and driven. They used a tubular space frame chassis as is common for small scale sports car producers. The 1020 steel tubing was to have an external diameter of 50.8mm with a wall thickness of 2.5mm.

Suspension was to be by unequal length wishbones, “A” arms at the front and “H” style at the rear. Brakes would be discs all around.

The choice of engine remained with a standard Volkswagen/Audi engine, and the students chose the 1,984 cc, turbocharged, TFSI (Turbo Fuel Stratified Injection) engine which produced 195 kW (262hp) @ 6400 rpm and torque of 350 Nm (358lb/ft) at 3500 rpm.

The design team decided that the engine was to be mounted in the center (i.e. mid-mounted) and so it would most likely be mated to a transaxle as used for a front wheel drive car, but with the unit in the mid-engine position driving the rear wheels, in a similar set-up to the Lamborghini Muira. The SP Concept design is 4,143.43 mm long, 1,810.00 mm wide, and 1,191.00 mm high.

Given that this new SP would have more than triple the engine power of the original SP2 there is no way that this car could be called “Sem Potência”, in fact “Super Performance” might be more apropos.

With a mid-mounted transverse four cylinder engine the SP Concept could potentially have decent luggage carrying capacity in the front and perhaps a small additional space in the rear: making it a very practical touring car. Weight distribution should also be close to an idea 50/50, especially with a spare wheel stored in the front, and potentially the battery fitted in the front also. From the concept pictures it would seem the radiator was planned to be front mounted

In computer simulated wind tunnel testing the SP Concept achieved a respectable drag coefficient of 0.34. Overall the design looks to provide great stability, including high speed highway stability, and with its fully independent suspension should also provide excellence in handling.

The students had a student named Rafael Reston create the 3D modeling of their car and created a 1:5 scale model which they presented at a college event in 2003. Their design was much admired, being awarded the “Best Car” of the event. This SP Concept was a fitting tribute to those who designed the original Volkswagen SP2, and also to the Brazilian automobile industry that had achieved some remarkable things in the period when importation of cars was almost totally banned.

Despite being labelled “Sem Potência” the Volkswagen SP2 was not only a successful touring coupé but it was also the car that gave us the Volkswagen EA425 concept and then from that the Porsche 924, which was a car that realized the potential in the Volkswagen SP design.

The college student’s SP Concept car demonstrates that the original vision is not dead, and perhaps there will be a small scale car manufacturer who takes a serious look at it with a view to making a new sports coupé.

Much of the hard design work is already done by a team of professional engineers, and the final car is a genuinely beautiful coupe that’s already winning the hearts and minds of those who see it.

If you’d like to get in touch with the design team with a view to building the car you can contact us here and we’ll put you in touch with them.

Photo Credits: Volkswagen, SP Concept Group

The post The Volkswagen SP2 + The New (Almost) Production-Ready SP Concept Car appeared first on Silodrome.

source https://silodrome.com/volkswagen-sp2/

[huntrolli]

Vice grip pliers

#Vice grip pliers free#

Shop from locking pliers to wrenches, crimpers, cutters and more. IRWIN VISE-GRIP has been the go-to tool of professionals since 1924. 1,178,056 views 39K Dislike Share Save Project Farm 2.52M subscribers BRANDS. IRWIN VISE-GRIP Original locking tools, with a classic trigger release, are designed to provide maximum locking force. I don't understand what I'am doing wrong, but the error seems to be in the last 6 equations if anyone is willing to help me I would mighty appreciate it! Any suggestion is welcomed. Best Locking Pliers (VISE GRIPS) Irwin vs Knipex, Milwaukee, Craftsman, Stanley, Malco, Pittsburgh. The equations turned out fine and balanced, but the results seem a bit too high, and further more, the spring should be in compression and not in tension as demonstrated by the final result of e and f. ∑1MB = by + P1*LBDx - c*sin(α) = 0 # LBDx= lenght from B to D on the x axis As part of MSC Industrial Supplys Hand Tools offering, this item can be found using MSC part number 03700481. I ran these equations on MAPLE and this is what I got: The Irwin Vise-Grip Replacement Plier Spring Replacement Spring for 5WR, 6LN, 6BN, 6R & 6SP Locking Pliers can be found within the Plier Accessories category. It's modelled on solid works, so i measured everything there(i double checked the measurements). So I broke it up into the following pieces: I just want to make sure the diagram is correct. Very basic stuff, the worker does not apply torsion yet. With a new drain plug ready to go, use your vice grip pliers to get around the oil drain plug.

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I ran into a few problems when solving the statics equations of the free body Diagram of these pliers:Ī worker uses these pliers and applies 200 N on it to crush a hex nut. I don't understand why my thread was deleted so I' posting it again. Simple push of innovative press-n-slide button adjusts lower jaw 2X faster than traditional groove joint pliers Multi-Groove Ratcheting System has twice.

[best-articlesblog]

How Do Suspension Systems Work?

How Do Suspension Systems Work?

A suspension system is a critical part of a car's overall handling and safety. It keeps the tires in contact with the road, maintains steering stability, and reduces body roll and lean. These systems are designed to accommodate the weight of the entire vehicle and can withstand substantial stress and force.

The wheels and tires are two important parts of the suspension system. Without them, your car would be unstable and could skew when you apply the brakes. The suspension system helps reduce these effects by absorbing the shocks and dissipating them. When your tires begin to wear down, you can usually see if your suspension system is having problems.

In order to maintain the safety of your car, your suspension system must be strong enough to absorb road bumps. Although the wear and tear on your vehicle may not be noticeable, deep potholes can easily destroy a suspension system and put undue strain on a particular corner of the vehicle.

There are two basic types of suspension systems: passive and active. Passive suspensions are the most common. Active suspensions, on the other hand, control the wheel movement by using an onboard computer system. Active suspensions raise the chassis independently at each wheel, while adaptive/semi-active suspensions vary the firmness of shock absorbers.

Shock absorbers absorb the shock of bumps and prevent the tires from leaving the road. These absorbers are found near the springs on each corner of the vehicle, and contain a piston that moves inside a tube. The hydraulic fluid that pushes the piston through small holes is forced through valves to control the resistance.

The suspension system is a complex system that relies on compression and elongation to compensate for the road surface. This allows the car to maintain a desired level of ground clearance. Moreover, the suspension system provides a comfortable ride for the driver and passengers. Adaptive suspensions work to improve ride handling, while mechanical suspensions are better for load-bearing. However, air suspensions are more expensive to install than mechanical suspensions.

The most common type of suspension is spring-based, which uses compression springs to absorb the force of bumps. Torsion springs, on the other hand, use a twisting mechanism to absorb the force of bumps and shocks. This type of spring connects the control arm with the vehicle's frame. Its free end can move, twist, and compress. When the wheels hit a bump, the springs snap back into place, absorbing the shock and preventing it from damaging the vehicle.

Another type of suspension is known as double-wishbone, which has two control arms in the shape of an A. Like wishbone suspension, double-wishbone suspensions use a coil spring to absorb the shock of road bumps.

[high-qualityarticles]

How Do Suspension Systems Work?

How Do Suspension Systems Work?

A suspension system is a critical part of a car's overall handling and safety. It keeps the tires in contact with the road, maintains steering stability, and reduces body roll and lean. These systems are designed to accommodate the weight of the entire vehicle and can withstand substantial stress and force.

The wheels and tires are two important parts of the suspension system. Without them, your car would be unstable and could skew when you apply the brakes. The suspension system helps reduce these effects by absorbing the shocks and dissipating them. When your tires begin to wear down, you can usually see if your suspension system is having problems.

In order to maintain the safety of your car, your suspension system must be strong enough to absorb road bumps. Although the wear and tear on your vehicle may not be noticeable, deep potholes can easily destroy a suspension system and put undue strain on a particular corner of the vehicle.

There are two basic types of suspension systems: passive and active. Passive suspensions are the most common. Active suspensions, on the other hand, control the wheel movement by using an onboard computer system. Active suspensions raise the chassis independently at each wheel, while adaptive/semi-active suspensions vary the firmness of shock absorbers.

Shock absorbers absorb the shock of bumps and prevent the tires from leaving the road. These absorbers are found near the springs on each corner of the vehicle, and contain a piston that moves inside a tube. The hydraulic fluid that pushes the piston through small holes is forced through valves to control the resistance.

The suspension system is a complex system that relies on compression and elongation to compensate for the road surface. This allows the car to maintain a desired level of ground clearance. Moreover, the suspension system provides a comfortable ride for the driver and passengers. Adaptive suspensions work to improve ride handling, while mechanical suspensions are better for load-bearing. However, air suspensions are more expensive to install than mechanical suspensions.

The most common type of suspension is spring-based, which uses compression springs to absorb the force of bumps. Torsion springs, on the other hand, use a twisting mechanism to absorb the force of bumps and shocks. This type of spring connects the control arm with the vehicle's frame. Its free end can move, twist, and compress. When the wheels hit a bump, the springs snap back into place, absorbing the shock and preventing it from damaging the vehicle.

Another type of suspension is known as double-wishbone, which has two control arms in the shape of an A. Like wishbone suspension, double-wishbone suspensions use a coil spring to absorb the shock of road bumps.

[supremegaragedoor]

Garage Door Repair in Dallas | Supreme Garage Door Repair | TX

Supreme Garage Door Repair ADDRESS: 7765 El Pensador DrDallas, TX 75248United States PHONE NUMBER: 214 915 0384 WEBSITE: https://www.supremegaragedoortx.com/dallas-garage-door-repair/ #surpemegaragedoor #garagedooropenerrepair #garagedoorrepairs #garagedoorinstallation #garagedooropener #garagedoorcompany #garagedoorsprings #garagedoorservice #garagedoor #garagedoors #dallas #TX In the Dallas garage door repair business, Supreme Garage Door is known for putting in new doors. If you live in Dallas and are tired of the same old garage door design, we can install modern plank doors or ridge doors that look like they came from a farmhouse. People in Dallas, TX who want full-view or one-way glass doors can also get good service from Supreme Garage Door in Texas. We do door repair in Dallas, TX, including spring cleaning, motor service, and replacement. Our professional, well-trained team has put in many of the doors in Dallas, TX. They are always ready to do any Dallas door repair. Dallas homeowners don't just want a good-looking garage door. They also want their door to have modern features added to it. In addition to traditional glass and wood doors, Dallas door owners often ask for metal exteriors that give the doors an industrial look. Doors with vertical windows on one side are becoming more and more popular in big homes. Most people who need Dallas garage door repair choose black panel doors with a shiny finish because the dark colour goes well with the ash or grey paint that most Texas homes have. Most Dallas, TX garage door owners choose a modern look. Many Dallas garage door owners work in the garage. So, when they need Dallas door repair, they often ask for a one-way glass door to be put in. It goes well with the big gardens, and the house's rough exterior looks good and gives me enough privacy to work in the garage without being bothered. Door owners in Dallas, TX often choose glass doors over steel doors because they let in a garage of light and make it easier to work in the garage. We do all kinds of repairs and do them well in a short amount of time. It's not easy to change the old doors to fit the new architectural styles. But our team is good at trying out different shades, textures, and colours. We make doors that look good and are very useful. They also add value to your home. With our help, Dallas garage door repair can be done for a good price without sacrificing quality. This is why we are one of the best garage door repair companies in Dallas, TX. Among Our Services: Garage Door Repair Repair Rollers and Tracks Cable Repair Opener Installation Garage Door Install Insulated Installation Springs Replacement Opener Replacement Replace Door panels General Maintenance Opener Repair and Replacement Cable, Roller, and Hinge Replacement Torsion Springs Replacement Sensor Alignment and Replacement Garage Drum Replacement Garage Weather Stripping Track Repair and Alignment Steel Installation Double Insulated Garage Door Installation Tune-up and Inspection We are available for: Garage Door Repair Garage Door Repair Near Me Garage Door Repair dallas Garage Door Repair in Dalls, TX Garage Door Repair Arlington Garage Door Repair Tulsa Garage Door Repair Houston Garage Door Services Garage Door Garage Door Provider Best Garage Door Repair Garage Door opener Garage Door Installation Garage Door Spring Replacement source https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_HObeBYTQ-A

[poims]

Cnc Servo Motor Automatic Wire Bending Machine New Design Spring Wire Bending Machines

PRODUCT PARAMETERS 1. Equipped with the computer-controlled system imported from Taiwan and servo motor imported from Japan . 2. It has four axes, three of them are interconnected and the rest of them are an assistant axis. It can have eight work positions working continuously 3.  A precious inspection tracer device is installed; it will stop working automatically when the unqualified product is found 4. The parameters such as major diameter and angle can be modified at any time according to the working status displayed on the fluorescence screen . 5. It is suitable for producing double torsion spring, straight spring, pagoda-shaped compression spring, rectangle spring, swirl spring and other different spring and special-shaped spring etc .

[kalyanisprings]

Clutch Plate Springs | Manufactures of Springs and Wireforms

Because of its shape this is described as a diaphragm spring, but in general engineering, it is perhaps better known as a Belleville spring, so named after the French civil engineer Julian Belleville who obtained a British patent for this form of spring as long ago as 1866. Basically, this spring comprises an annular disc initially dished to a conical shape. A compressive load applied to the disc tends to flatten it out, and a spring action is provided as the disc tries to regain its shape. Unlike a coil spring, the compressive load first increases with deflection of the disc and then, as the disc becomes more nearly flat, the load actually decreases with increased deflection, a characteristic unique to this type of spring.

In practice, it means that the load may be held constant over a considerable range of deflections. This is a particularly useful attribute as far as the motor vehicle clutch is concerned since it can be arranged for the clamping force on the Centre plate to be little affected as the liners wear thinner. The fact that this type of spring also possesses a high load carrying capacity for the space required makes it additionally attractive for application to motor vehicle clutches, which consequently can be of correspondingly shallower form.

The diaphragm spring is incorporated in the clutch in a manner which allows it to flex between a pair of fulcrum rings located on the inside face of the clutch cover. To supply the necessary clamping load on the center plate, the outer edge of the diaphragm spring bears against the rim of the pressure plate. The outer edge of the diaphragm spring is also embraced by retraction clips secured to the pressure plate so that the latter can be withdrawn from the center plate when the clutch is disengaged.

Parts in the clutch:-

The clutch assembly consists of many small parts but the following are the major parts

1. Flywheel – The flywheel, mounted on the crankshaft, keeps on running as long as the engine keeps running. The flywheel is equipped with friction surface OR a friction disc is bolted to the outer side of the flywheel.

2. Friction discs – Single OR multiple (as per requirement) discs lined with friction material having a high coefficient of friction are mounted on the drive shaft.

3. Pressure plate – Another friction disc is fast to the pressure plate. The pressure plate is mounted on the splined hub.

4. Spring levers – The spring used are diaphragm springs that move friction disc back & forth. The spring is backward with the assistance of levers.

 How the clutch works

It transmits engine power to the gear case and permits the transmission to be interrupted whereas a gear is chosen to maneuver far from a stationary position, or once gears are modified whereas the automobile is moving.

Hydraulic clutch system

1.       Most cars use a clutch operated either by fluid (hydraulic) or, additional ordinarily, by a cable.

2.       When an automobile is moving below power, the clutch is engaged. A pressure plate fast to the regulator exerts constant force, by suggests that of a diaphragm spring, on the driven plate.

3.       Earlier cars have a series of coil springs at the rear of the pressure plate, rather than a diaphragm spring.

4.       The driven (or friction) plate runs on a splined input shaft, through that the ability is transmitted to the gear case. The plate has friction linings, the same as brake linings, on each its faces. this permits the drive to be haunted swimmingly once the clutch is engaged.

5.       When the clutch is disengaged (pedal depressed), associate degree arm pushes a unharness bearing against the centre of the diaphragm spring that releases the clamping pressure.

6.       The outer a part of the pressure plate, that features a giant friction surface, then not clamps the driven plate to the regulator, therefore the transmission of power is interrupted and gears will be modified.

7.       When the treadle is discharged, the bearing is withdrawn and also the diaphragm-spring load once more clamps the driven plate to the regulator to resume the transmission of power.

8.       Some cars have a hydraulically operated clutch. Pressure on the treadle within the automobile activates a piston in a very piston chamber that transmits the pressure through a fluid-filled pipe to a slave cylinder mounted on the clutch housing.

9.       The slave-cylinder piston is connected to the clutch unharness arm.

For more information regarding spring custom manufactured parts, please call us at 9990044777 or e-mail us at kalyanisprings@gmail.com or visit www.kalyanisprings.com.