#despite the events in the text taking place several centuries earlier.

[electroniccollectiondonut]

I have not been in this fandom long enough to reasonably judge others' takes however. "EPIC fans are so silly to characterize odysseus as feeling guilty for his actions don't you know he's a war criminal" is definitely a wild one. like first of all to each their own so settle down and let people enjoy things ok. and secondly making choices with a bad outcome, even knowingly and deliberately, does not exclude the possibility of feeling bad about it later. in fact it makes for a much more in depth character because then you get to explore what he does or doesn't feel guilt over, and why, and if that guilt ever edges into regret or not.

[yamayuandadu]

A hidden world that never was: witch cults, matriarchal prehistory and contemporary conspiracy theories

As regular readers of this blog might already know, a particular woe of my online activity over the course of the past year were constant reminders that discussion of history, mythology and religion online is often dominated by dubious, outdated or outright fraudulent claims. Worst of all, this is generally not the result of misguided theories which seemed sound when they were first formulated – there were plenty of these in the history of modern historiography after all, as eventually many research methods are replaced by even better ones (even these of 19th archaeologists whose ideals are not completely baffling to us often relied on excavation methods which would rightfully shock everyone if employed today), and more and more blanks in our understanding of the past are filled. For example, it used to be unclear to researchers if classical Maya predate the Olmec due to insufficient material, while the importance of the Hittite civilization in the ancient Middle East was severely underestimated due to scarcity of discoveries prior to the last 100 years or so. Even properly identifying all the trading partners of well known ancient civilizations with a large corpus of primary sources, such as Sumer or Egypt, can be described as a long, arduous and arguably still ongoing process, with many mistaken assumptions made in the past. The claims which I will attempt to describe here - the so-called witch cult hypothesis, as well as its close relatives, the claims about universal matriarchal religion (the “myth of matriarchal prehistory,” as Cynthia Eller called it) and the foundations of certain new religious movements – cannot be simply described as examples of these, though. As I will demonstrate, they're simply pseudohistory, firmly entrenched in a modern phenomenon which can be referred to as “conspirituality.”

Our journey through the world of historical misinformation begins in the 18th century. The age of enlightenment largely put an end to a fixture of earlier european history, the witch hunts, and historians started to present them as an abuse of power by the church and senseless, baseless violence, while the people who perished in them started to be rightfully seen as innocent victims claimed by what was essentially a historical equivalent of phenomena such as satanic panic, NWO/reptilian conspiracy theories or the sadly very politically relevant at the moment Qanon movement. Modern researchers, especially Norman Cohn, pointed out that there was also a strong antisemitic component to many witch trials, and even the terms used appear to often intentionally demonize or mock Judaism, and reports of the purported witches' activities often mirror the medieval blood libel, rather than any known descriptions of religions of antiquity. Cohn also notes that adapting the idea that witch hunts were linked to blood libel and similar accusations does make for a coherent chronology, while the various “witch cult” and “pagan survival” theories have a glaring issue – they seldom answer any questions about events taking place during the entire time period between the adoption of christianity and times in which witch hunts occurred, different for individual countries. 19th century sadly changed the approach to the history of witch hunts – as the new philosophical movements born in that era aimed to often undermine or subvert the age of reason and its accomplishments (flawed as they were, obviously), the consensus on the past witch hunts likewise started to be challenged. A number of figures regarded as very conservative back then, let alone by modern standards, like Karl Ernst Jarcke, a fanatical monarchist, started advancing the idea that witch hunts were a war waged by the church and its righteous supporters on a nefarious cult, similar to the secret societies common in conspiracy theories advanced by his peers. As the 19th century was also the time when nationalism in the modern sense was born, the theories of Jarcke and his followers had a notably xenophobic flair to them – the “witch cult” was introduced to Germany by slaves and other undesirables, who based it on the religion of ancient Greece, and especially Hecate worship (read: on medieval christian criticisms of it – I debunked some claims present here as well in my Hecate article from last year; also note the idea of Hecate being the goddess of a “pan-european witchcraft cult” remains popular with modern neopagans and wiccans, despite its nefarious origin and inaccuracy) and aimed to overthrow rightful authority of the monarchs and the Catholic church (this was also meant to serve as a rather blunt attack on their liberal contemporaries, presented as godless and anarchic). Similar claims were also advanced in England by Karl Pearson, a mathematician and eugenicist who for some reason decided to dabble in pseudohistory. His notable claim was that Joan of Arc was a priestess of a hidden, malevolent “matriarchal religion” - an accusation so outlandish it would likely even shock her earlier accusers, and one of the few pieces of pseudohistory discussed here I haven't seen adapted by any modern purveyors of it.

While Jarcke  is the earliest figure I opted to bring up here, the one whom I'd actually consider worthy of being referred to a the father of the discussed network of puzzling hoaxes and misconceptions was Charles Godfrey Leland, a late 19th century American author. While seemingly a relatively progressive person for his time in some regards (he was an abolitionist – not a high bar, though), he had no real issue with altering, falsifying and entirely fabricating claims (or even artifacts) and publishing them as result of genuine fieldwork. His “impressive” accomplishments include altering a number of Algonquian tales he published as genuine oral tradition merely compiled and translated by him. His aim was seemingly to provide evidence for an outlandish theory that the beliefs and religious practices of the people forming the historical Wabanaki Confederation were derived from Vikings, an example of the ignoble tradition present in early American scholarship aiming to strip indigenous peoples of their history and accomplishments (its main legacy is the so-called “mound builder myth”). His another particularly harmful contribution was the fabrication known as “Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches,” which he presented as a genuine religious text shared with him by a purported informant in Italy, who was herself a witch. Needless to say neither the work itself nor even the informant appear to be real, and “Aradia” is quite clearly an attempt to sell similar lies as these formed by Jarcke and his ilk to a new audience. Leland wasn't the first to attempt that –  famous French historian Jules Michelet tried to put a progressive spin on witch cult conspiracy theories over 30 years earlier (rather puzzling decision, considering he was the exact kind of person Jarcke reviled and equated with his made up satanic conspiracy – a lifelong secular and republican activist) – but he was the first to present his work as anything other than speculation, and the first whose work gained widespread attention (Michelet's witch-related ventures were treated as an oddity disconnected from the rest of his career). “Aradia” presents a fanciful account of a hidden society of witches venerating the eponymous “Aradia,” a daughter of Diana and Lucifer (sic). Leland claimed that the rituals described in the book probably are a remnant of Etruscan religion, at the time barely researched and still somewhat mysterious today; however the book also claims that Aradia was a medieval figure involved in the struggle between feudal peasants and local landowners – consistency is not its strongest suit. The author also chaotically speculated about his own claims, providing us with such smash hits as equating the biblical Herodias with largely extrabiblical Lilith. There are many well documented instances of religious syncretism in antiquity, some of them even involving historical or semi-historical figures, but none line particularly well with these made by Leland. Rather importantly, none of his claims line up particularly well with the medieval accounts related to purported witchcraft, or any confessions obtained during witch trials. None of them fit with archaeological records, either. They do line rather well with what one could expect from a 19th century hoax prepared by someone with only a vague sense of dedication to uncovering historical truth, though. To a a modern reader claims such as the existence of entire networks of “heathen villages” in Italy are easy to recognize as belonging to the 19th century tradition of “noble savage” literature. Similar ideas were further developed by Margaret Murray from the 1910s onward. Murray made history as the first woman to teach Egyptology professionally in Britain, and was an accomplished archaeologist, but her expertise in one field doesn't exactly balance the fact that ultimately most of her academic work was centered on pursuing increasingly puzzling lies and promoting them to the general public from a position of scholarly authority. Like some of the figures discussed in earlier sections of this article, she claimed that well known accounts of witch hunts were in fact the persecution of a “pan-european religion,” a claim which raises many red flags for anyone even vaguely familiar with history of ancient religions. A particularly heinous aspect of Murray's work was dismissing the fact that many aspects of witch-related texts, including the fact their gatherings were referred to as “sabbaths,” were simply rooted in antisemitism – it's virtually impossible to deny it, considering sometimes even the term “synagogue” was used as well. In her writing there was room for a large scale organized religion unknown to historians, but there was no room for even just attempting to address a very real legacy of religious intolerance. Instead, she created fanciful etymologies for terms blatantly intended to demonize Judaism to disconnect them from their very real legacy of still socially relevant hate. Note this is not something that was only noted in very recent times – Norman Cohn, who was the first author to write extensively about the similarities between religious persecution in ancient Rome, medieval witch hunts, blood libel and totalitarian purges was almost Murray's contemporary! A concept invented by Murray which gained particularly wide recognition among all sorts of fans of dubious claims was the idea of “horned god.” Using disconnected, inconclusive evidence, she claimed that every single horned male figure from every single system of beliefs – Pan, Amon, the Minotaur and other Minoan depictions of bulls, the “master of animals” seals recovered from various Indus Valley Civilization sites, Cerunnos and more – represent a single figure, which was also the central god of her made up witch religion. Naturally, the deities in mention aren't really connected with each other, and fulfilled very different roles in very different societies and time periods. It is possible to make some generalizations about different gods and point out certain archetypes do repeat quite often across mythologies – for example many middle eastern mythologies featured a warlike goddess often with femme fatale characteristics, there are examples of unruly storm gods fighting dragons in a wide variety of cultures, plague-repelling gods serving as afterlife officials are widespread in east Asia, and so on. However, any claims about universal deities worshiped all over the world from the neolithic to present times are nothing but hyperdiffusionism, a long discredited pseudohistorical theory seeking to find a common origin for a given aspect of many cultures. Murray's later followers for some reason ignore some notable aspects of her creed – the firm belief a race of fairies inhabited Britain and shared the faith of the witches, but eventually went extinct, the notion that some English kings died as ritual sacrifices, and the claim Joan of Arc was a witch and adherent of the religion she claimed to “research”. I feel like it's very important to underline that to Murray the existence of fairies and gnomes was more plausible than the existence of religious prejudice still widespread among her contemporaries, which tells you a lot about what sort of person she was. Due to limited interest in relevant topics among more credible historians, Murray's views went unchallenged, and she even managed to secure a spot for them on the pages of Encyclopedia Britannica – her confabulations were only removed in the 1960s, after the damage was done. Murray's baffling works inspired many further writers. Among them, a particularly notable example was Robert Graves – while his main interests and theories differed from Murray's, he was undeniably inspired by her idea of “forbidden” religious remnants and universal deities going back to the stone age. He also embraced the idea of a hidden witch cult existing in England in historical times, though unlike Murray he saw it as matriarchal. Graves was a poet and writer by trade, and for all intents and purposes pretty successful one at that – it's probably his writing style to which the lasting popularity of his works can be attributed. Sadly, their worth as texts about history of religion is dubious at best. The core idea behind Graves' writing was the existence of an universal goddess figure possessing three aspects, which he usually referred to as virgin, mother and crone, though he was not very consistent about it. This figure, in his mind, united the legacy of ancient Greece and Celts and their art (he did not address the much more significant similarities between the culture of ancient Greeks and their eastern neighbors, though – sorry, Carians, Phrygians, Phoenicians etc., you're not cool enough for mr. Graves). He further spread these ideas with his retellings of Greek myth published in the 1950s. A particularly prominent victim of Graves' theories was Hecate, whose modern popular perception was shaped largely by him and later writers who embraced him, and not by historical sources. It's worth noting that Graves' goddess theory was likely in part a way to essentially “mythologize” his encounters with his many lovers, and thus provide a religious justification for having multiple “muses” (some of them teenage) – at least one of them was appalled by this. He notably claimed that contacts with the “triple goddess” were the only source of “true” poetry, and thus she and her many guises were the ultimate muse. It's rather notable that there was pretty clearly no room for female artists in his vision, even though he claimed it to be a celebration of femininity – women were presumably meant to be inspiration, but not authors themselves. Graves' vision of the ideal world was so matriarchal it looped back into being grotesquely misogynistic. While I can think of a few positive things to say about Leland (committed union supporter and abolitionist), Murray (genuinely accomplished archaeologist before she sacrificed her career on the altar of pseudohistory) and even Graves (seemingly entertaining writer – if only he admitted basically all his works are fantasy perhaps he could be remembered as a Tolkien-like figure!), I fail to see a single positive thing about the next person whose legacy I will discuss, Gerald Gardener. His moral conduit was questionable at best, he claimed to possess degrees from universities which did not exist, and his work was nothing but layer upon layer of fiction. Gardener was even more of a disciple of Murray than Graves – indeed, he even knew her personally. He took her theories to the logical extreme, by basically making them into religious dogma – the new religious movement of wicca. While he claimed to merely present what he learned from a “surviving coven” of genuine witches, the inconsistent nature of his writing, his participation in fringe esoteric movements long before his “discovery” and the fact he relied mostly on sources like Murray's books, Leland's “Aradia” and the works of Aleister Crowley are evident, and make it easy to disregard all of his statements as pure fiction. It doesn't exactly help his case that he kept revealing new fragments of purportedly ancient doctrine as he saw fit merely to gain the upper hand in arguments between him and his fellow practitioners of invented religion, claiming them to be law. He adopted Murray's horned god, but elevated his consort to the rank of a full blown divinity, something not found in Murray's writing. His arguably most notable successor was Doreen Valiente. Her main contribution to wicca was forming a new version of the Charge of the Goddess, a prayer or hymn to the “great mother” - a composite wiccan entity similar to Graves' triple goddess (and outright conflated with the latter by some wiccans and other neopagans – as far as I can tell the first to do so was a contemporary of Gardener, Robert Cochrance, who claimed the term is “genuine” rather than an invention of a 20th century writer...). Both Gardener's and Valiente's versions of it and other, newer ones are responsible for spreading false information forcing various disconnected goddesses into the “great mother” or “mother earth” mold. Particularly grating examples include Hecate, who was described by Greeks as a virgin goddess and Inanna, Ishtar and Astarte who were at times associated with sensual love or even fertility (the extent of that has been sometimes overestimated in the past, though – a specific myth depicting a figure as seductive is not quite the same as an association with fertility in religious worship) but were not mother goddesses in any meaning of this term.

A notable episode from Valiente's life was her participation in a neonazi movement, specifically in the organizations National Front and Northern League. The association between nazism and conspirituality of the sort discussed here wasn't new – indeed, at least some nazi officials showed interest in investigating it in hopes of constructing a “truly aryan” religion, so it should come as no surprise that early wiccans likewise often had far right sympathies. Ultimately an argument can be made that the entire field is basically a hyper-conservative fantasy, which I will discuss more later. Sadly, despite her far right sympathies, Valiente remained a celebrated figure in certain circles focused on intentionally obscuring history for the rest of her life, and she can be arguably credited with making wicca into the global phenomenon it is now. It's also worth noting that while some contemporary neopagans sneer at followers of, say, ufo-oriented new age groups, Valiente and her peers embraced that as well, and Atlantis and ley lines feature prominently in her writing. Valiente was also well aware that much of Gardener's writing was completely made up (or plagiarized –  for example from a Rudyard Kipling poem of all things), even his grimoire, “Book of Shadows” - instead of exposing it she aimed to “improve” his works and continue the hoax. As a side note, it should be said that some other pioneers of wicca were likewise people of dubious moral character – while not a neonazi, Alex Sanders stole from and defecated in a library, for example. However, the history of this specific brand of pseudohistory doesn't end here! While in the 1960s and 1970s the theories of Graves and Murray were debunked over and over again by credible, experienced scholars, a brand new type of pseudohistorical ideas arose, influenced in part by works like Graves' “White Goddess” - the so-called “goddess movement.” However, while it definitely has Graves' fingerprints all over it, it would be doing my readers a disservice not to introduce its other component – the philosophy devised by TERFs. Of course, everyone on this site is vaguely familiar with this movement – back when we were teenagers, all of us probably had the protective BYF scripture listing this acronym among groups meant to stay away somewhere on our blogs. However, few people fully comprehend how utterly incomprehensible to a normal person TERF beliefs are. Mary Daly, the original “TERF theologian” of sorts (a catholic theologian btw – in case if you're curious how come that you reasonably often hear about TERFs allying with religious fundies...), had a basically cult-like view of reality and society, akin to some sort of feminist extreme gnosticism – a false world existed, and a real world within had to be revealed. The “false” world, material reality, was referred to her as “necrophiliac” and the way to reveal the true world within required de facto genocide, or at the very least purchasing her book containing made up “rituals” meant to unlock secret potential within. Supposedly, this would restore some nonexistent primordial matriarchy, and give women back the ability to procreate through parthenogenesis (no, really). This is obviously similar to the doctrine of a millenarian cult, which I feel needs to be discussed more, though this is not the time and place for it. Being a TERF (arguably the original one), Daly naturally also had many charming things to say about trans people, for example comparing transition to the deeds of doctor Frankenstein and in a weird act of projection presenting transition as a cultic behavior. As a small digression I feel like it's worth noting that in sharp contrast with Daly, the inventor of sex reassignment surgery and arguably father of modern LGBT activism as a whole, Magnus Hirschfeld, was a kind, rational man, whose meticulously researched writing was centered on bringing up historical examples of LGBT people, as well as positive experiences of his patients achieved thanks to his revolutionary work, to argue for tolerance and equal treatment in society. Sadly he's just a forgotten piece of historical trivia, while the ravings of Daly and her followers and derivatives keep influencing generation upon generation of teenagers.. Anyway, back to the goddess movement – from incomprehensible spiritual ideals like these of Daly, mixed with the writing of Graves and with some wiccan influence, the idea of “primordial matriarchal religion” arose. As history likes to repeat itself, once again a formerly credible and accomplished archaeologist opted to sacrifice prominent position in a genuine field for study to instead pursue mirages – enter 1950s bronze age research superstar Marija Gimbutas. Gimbutas was undisputably a very talented archaeologist, and her findings greatly enhanced our knowledge about neolithic and bronze age Europe. However, her interpretation of own finds leaves much to be desired, and today is often honored more by neopagans and charlatans than by historians and archaeologists. She argued that Europe was once a realm of peaceful, matrilineal and economically just societies worshiping an universal mother goddess, whom she eventually started to describe in terms borrowed from Graves' books, adapting even his idea of three forms. She claimed this idyllic reality ended with the “Kurgan invasion” from the eurasian steppe, which “tainted” Europe with warfare, patriarchy and indo-european languages (based on archaeological finds it is hard to say if people speaking indo-european languages started appearing in Europe and the Middle East gradually or not and there's evidence of warfare long before the bronze age and the arrival of steppe-based nomads in Europe, and burials do not support the notion of an universal matriarchal – or as Gimbutas argued, “egalitarian” - society; it's also called into question if every archaic female statuette is a cult object). Today it is evident that  at least some of her work was a severe case of seeing what she wanted to see in the past, rather than what actually was there. Personally I do not see Gimbutas as a malicious figure, unlike most of the other people I brought up in this article, though it is evident she responded to criticism and newer evidence not by revising her theories, but by turning them into what essentially constituted self-parody (despite claiming she merely believed the neolithic cultures of Europe were lacking hierarchy and thus perfectly equal, she basically embraced Graves' rhetoric, as I noted before), and as such much of her work aged poorly and is mostly lauded by people with questionable ideas today, as I already pointed out. Some of them allege that any criticism leveled at her amounts to a nefarious conspiracy. It's important to mention that while Gimbutas was for the most part simply a misguided scholar who took criticism poorly in her final years (not an uncommon sight), some offshots of the goddess movement have nothing to do with genuine study of the past, but stay more than true to their TERF legacy, especially the so-called “dianic wicca” of Zsuzsanna Budapest, characterised as such even by other wiccans, who usually defend even the most questionable aspects of their movement (such as, well, falsifying history). This is a feature, not a bug. The idea of the “myth of matriarchal prehistory” espoused by the goddess movement was thoroughly debunked in the early 2000s by Cynthia Eller in her book of the same title. She correctly presents the goddess movement as the product of dubious scholarship seeking to produce an all-encompassing philosophy, and notes that the goddess myth is at best an “ennobling lie” - a concept formed by the philosopher Kwame A. Appiah (probably my favorite contemporary writer) – essentially, a founding myth meant to provide some group with dignity or enforcing positive values. Appiah argues in favor of maintaing some ennobling lies on a case by case basis. Eller argues in favor of rejection of this specific ennobling lie, considering pseudohistory a burden to feminism, rendering its ideals easy to dismiss. She also notes many foundations of the goddess movement simply consistute poor research practises – veneration of female figures didn't necessarily translate to equal treatment of living women, while interpreting every ancient work of art as a cult object is an antiquated idea.

Sadly, Eller's publication is obscure (I only stumbled upon it myself because I saw it mentioned in relation to Appiah's ennobling lie concept), while another work influenced by the goddess movement appears to be held in high esteem by users of goodreads, amazon, and many other sites connected in some capacity to literature, and as a result influences online perception of history of religion to a considerable degree – Barbara G. Walker's “The Woman's Encyclopedia of Myths and Secrets.” Walker wrote about knitting before deciding the world needs her bizarre conspiratorial rehashing of basically all the bizarre ideas described in the previous sections of the article – she also added a plenty of weird ideas of her own. A particularly funny example of a misconception popular in the discussed circles and spread further by Walker are attempts to present the myth of Marduk and Tiamat as triumph of patriarchal forces over an earlier mother goddess – Enuma Elish was hardly an old myth by the standards of ancient Mesopotamia, and it was based on earlier tales, in which the equivalents of Tiamat – Yam, Illuyanka etc. - are male, and often act disrespectful towards both male and female authorities. It does tell us a lot about Babylon, of coure– as it morphed from city-state to an empire, Marduk absorbed traits of many gods, including the dragon-slaying ones; but there's no hidden matriarchy to uncover there, and Tiamat is absent from earlier texts and from any which are not derived from the Enuma Elish itself. Funnily enough this bizarre approach to Tiamat was also lauded by a person from a completely different ideological movement, online demagogue and self help guru Jordan Peterson. I actually tried to make it through Walker's book, and while it wasn't the most soul-crushing experience I can think of (out of the authors I mentioned here, Daly easily wins in that category), the bizarre stupidity of some entries almost made me wonder if it's a joke of some sort. Some choice tidbits to my knowledge unique to Walker's writing include describing sufism as “tantric goddess worship,” arguing Amaterasu's name contains a made up universal term for motherhood, claiming Japanese imperial house only became patrilineal in the Kamakura period, and asserting Ahriman was an actively worshiped deity from which the “power” of zoroastrian magi was derived. Walter also appears to have a peculiar obsession with describing mixing menstrual blood with wine and other beverages and consumption of such mixtures (that's her explanation for every mythical drink or potion...) – the frequency with which this motif shows up in her confabulations almost made me think of these deviantart galleries filled with poorly edited screencaps of cartoon characters engaging in some bizarrely specific uncanny activity. There's plenty of footnotes in “Woman's encyclopedia,” which might give it an air of authority, but it's easy to see many of the sources are themselves dubious (Graves, Murray and friends), or don't actually confirm what Walter claims they do. Where does this book's popularity come from, considering the fact it's blatantly wrong and it's not hard to notice if you have even just a passing interest in history of religion? Probably from the way it's advertised – this is sadly a problem with much pseudohistorical data: it's cynically sold to people as “exciting,” “forbidden knowledge,” “declassified secrets” and so on. This is partially why they became such a huge part of the modern world – lies often have great PR. How does all of this tie to the currently politically relevant extremist movements? This might not seem obvious at first, but the link is direct. Pseudohistory by design makes one more susceptible to other similarly shaky ideas, and the movements whose history I described here on top of that often appeal to, or even intentionally reach out to, demographics generally not fond of “conventional” conspiracy theories, associated with militias, nazis or christian fundamentalists – to lgbt teenagers, suburban essential oils enthusiast moms, instagram yoga instructors, tech startup hipsters et cetera. As the news demonstrated for the past few months, these demographics too are susceptible to certain aspects of present day doomsday conspiracy cults, eg. Qanon: the Wayfair conspiracy was spread largely by teenagers on tiktok; many Qanon marches, often with overt anti-vaccine messaging, attracted politically moderate stay at home suburban moms; extremism researcher Marc-André Argentino coined the term “pastel Qanon” to refer to this phenomenon. Generally speaking, many people who embrace Qanon were already believers in conspiracy theories before – nephilim, NESARA/GESARA, blood libel, Rothschild conspiracies, new chronology, ancient aliens and more; the demographics which only started to show up in spaces related to the aforementioned doomsday cults seemingly lack connections to such theories most of the time, barring maybe ancient aliens, but I propose that what makes it easy for Q ideas to reach them is widespread acceptance of various “hidden religion” pseudohistorical ideas in even rather progressive circles – this too is “conspirituality” which ultimately feeds the conspiracy monster. Note that the anti vax movement didn't spread just among extremist evangelicals, but also among adherents of various alternative spiritual paths – simply put, among wiccan hippies and similar demographics; and currently, based on research of conspiracy experts, anti-vaxers are almost synonymous with Q adherents. Many articles were also written about the spread of such conspiracies in various “wellness” or yoga communities, which often also feature elements drawn from authors I discussed in the earlier parts of this article. As a matter of fact, at least two people involved in violent incidents come from “wellness” or “alternative spirituality” circles: the “Q shaman” you most likely saw in photos from the recent assault on the American Capitol, and a less known extremist: Attila Hildmann, a German celebrity vegan chef, wellness guru... and also, as of late, neonazi, anti-vax activist and Qanon influencer. A few months ago, Hildmann, whose first name was arguably prophetic, called for destruction of a variety of artifacts held in Berlin's museums as connected to nefarious forces present in Q mythos – some 70 pieces, ranging from ancient Egyptian art to contemporary paintings were defaced, though thankfully no lasting damage was seemingly done. Worth noting that Hildmann appears to also be a believer in a certain prominent strain of pseudohistory centered on the Canaanite storm god Baal Hadad – I will discuss it in detail in my next longer post, stay tuned. What binds together all sorts of pseudohistory – both the genre of it I debunk here and the more “classic” sort – is the belief in a hidden, usually primordial, world to which the initiated few have access, which grants them superior understanding to that possessed by normies. The truths offered by this world are unchanging and an ancient relic, revealed long ago and preserved, rather than developed  – therefore progress and modernity are an enemy, and so is the scientific method. This is naturally an atithesis of how cultures actually function – as demonstrated by Kwame Anthony Appiah, cultures consist out of change - therefore “conspirituality” is an anti-culture of sorts, actively pushing its adherents towards more and more false beliefs, and ultimately sometimes towards actual doomsday cults. A good example of this, outide of the aforementioned Qanon phenomena, is the fact that many adherents of ideas dicussed in this article gleefully embrace lies sourced from XIXth century extremist protestants, like the notion that Easter is derived from Ishtar, an etymologically incoherent argument advanced by fanatically anti-catholic pamphlet “The two Babylons.” I sadly see no easy solution to this problem. The rise of currently prominent version of conspirituality was in no small part spearheaded by social media algorithms and sensationalist tv shows like Ancient Aliens, and it's hard to offer an alternative to them to people who are simply interested in history and religion, as false ideas are often providing copious amounts of material for free, while genuine research is hidden behind paywalls difficult to afford even for some institutions, let alone individual private citizens. I am merely a hobbyist sharing what I find interesting myself to show that real history is always more fascinating than nefarious conspiracies aiming to replace it, but without coordinated large scale effort it seems impossible to emerge victorious in the battle against them. Naturally, that doesn't mean trying is pointless, and I plan to continue for the foreseeable future. Further reading:

Europe's Inner Demons: An Enquiry Inspired by the Great Witch-Hunt by Norman Cohn

The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory: Why An Invented Past Will Not Give Women a Future by Cynthia Eller

Jason Colavito's blog

Conspiracy theories debunkers and extremist ideologies researchers on twitter: Mike Rothschild, Marc-André Argentino, Amarnath Amarasingam, Travis View, Mark Pitcavage

Coverage of the Berlin museum attacks: BBC, The Guardian, DW, Artnet News

[carnegiemuseumnaturalhistory]

The History of Holiday Ghost Stories

The song Jingle Bells, chestnuts roasting over an open fire, various types of poultry in assorted shrubbery, and horror stories. One of those things doesn’t quite seem to fit with the others, but “scary ghost stories and tales of the glories” have been an integral part of Christmas celebrations for certain cultures for centuries.

But how did something that is now much more associated with the fall and Halloween end up a quintessential (but quickly diminishing) Christmas tradition? Like so many of the things we now celebrate as part of the season, we must look past the symbols used in Christmas celebrations to earlier Pre-Christian times.

Oliver Cromwell may have been hinting about the less-than-Christian origins of some holiday traditions whenever he and the Puritans created an ordinance in 1644—following the outcome of the English Civil War—which abolished the Feast Day of Christmas (as well as Easter and Whitsun, another name for the festival of Pentecost). Shops were to remain open and soldiers would patrol the streets and seize food being prepared for a feast on those days. From 1659 to 1681, the Massachusetts Bay Colony in what would eventually become the United States banned the celebration of Christmas with the penalty being a five shilling fine—approximately three days wages for a skilled tradesman.

Many modern Christmas traditions are a conglomeration of many cultural and spiritual beliefs throughout time; the Yule Log as well as Yule season are often linked to Pre-Christian celebrations of the Solstice in pagan traditions.

The Winter Solstice (also known as hiemal solstice, hibernal solstice, or simply midwinter) is caused by the angle of the Earth’s axis reaching its maximum tilt away from the sun. This event causes the seasons on Earth, with the solstices falling on the points where the axis points directly towards and away from the Sun. In the Southern Hemisphere, this is reversed, with the Winter Solstice falling in June; making surfing at Christmas an appealing thought.

During the Winter Solstice, it was tradition to sit around the fires built to ward off the darkness with the Yule Log and celebrate the rebirth of the sun. Humans haven’t changed much biologically in several thousand years, and a person’s physical reaction to a harmless scare—elevated heart rate, endorphin rushes caused by adrenaline—is still essentially the same. The reaction to hearing a ghost story around the burning Yule fire became a tradition; a feeling of warmth and group bonding at what was the coldest and darkest time of year.

This tradition lasted for several hundred years until Christmas celebrations were halted by the Puritans. Despite many of the traditions making a resurgence during the Restoration (1660-circa 1688), the damage had essentially been done. Along with reducing of the importance of Feast Days during the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution, many Christmas traditions were now seen as old-fashioned.

This abruptly changed in 1843 with the publication of Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol. While there was a small resurgence of Christmas Spirit taking place as a counter to the dehumanizing aspects of the Industrial Revolution, Charles Dickens was able to capture this burgeoning movement in the text. His story helped reinvigorate Christmas traditions, with a focus on the more humanistic aspects of the holiday—global peace and forgiveness, filial love, and goodwill towards humanity through good works. This caught the Victorian imagination and spawned an entire set of Christmas works by Dickens, including The Chimes, The Cricket on the Hearth, The Battle of Life, and The Haunted Man and the Ghost’s Bargain. Most of these works revisit themes about the crushing effects of capitalism and redemption that are first found in A Christmas Carol (though interestingly enough, never quite approached the commercial success of his first work in the genre).

From there, A Christmas Carol (or, as it may be thought of, a holiday ghost story) has become a cultural phenomenon. “Bah Humbug,” the phrase most often representing Ebenezer Scrooge, has entered the popular lexicon; the figure of Father Christmas helped inspire Thomas Nast during his creation of the modern portrayal of Santa Claus; and the story has been retold in film no less than 27 times since 1901—most importantly immortalized as a cultural touchstone in 1992 by the Muppets.

So this Yule season, relax in the glow of the Yule log, friends, and family and perhaps consider something to send a chill down your spine that isn’t necessarily from the weather. It is one of the oldest traditions after all. And as Dickens reminds us, “let us keep Christmas well.”

Andrew Huntley is a Gallery Experience Presenter in CMNH’s Life Long Learning Department. Museum staff, volunteers, and interns are encouraged to blog about their unique experiences and knowledge gained from working at the museum.

[mahkahri]

THIS HEADCANON IS A WORK IN PROGRESS:

disclaimer: this hc is takes a lot of inspiration and canon Makkari events from Earth-616

Despite being told not to interfere in mankind’s development and advancement unless Deviant’s were involved, Makkari has toed the line over the centuries. As the Eternals were required to keep their existence and true purpose on Earth a secret, she has impersonated and posed as multiple identities throughout her time on Earth in order to maintain this secret. She has impersonated Thoth, the god of the moon, sacred texts, mathematics, the sciences, magic, messenger and recorder of the deities, master of knowledge and patron of scribes, Hermes, the messenger of the gods and conductor of the dead as well as the dream god and god of roads, doorways and protector of travelers and his Roman equivalent Mercury, who was also the god of translators and interpreters, wealth, good fortune, commerce, fertility and thievery. By impersonating gods Makkari has been able to conceal several of her activities in the past from both mankind and, presumably, from Ajak and by extension Arishem.

Her involvement in humanities evolution after the destruction of the last Deviant has been minimal, when Makkari has chosen to act or react to events they have been concentrated to individuals or small groups rather than by mass population, which is another way that she’s avoided making huge shifts in mankinds development and advancement.

Her most recent activities took place in the United States and Europe in the 1920′s-1980′s where she involved herself in the affairs of men under the alias Hurricane, a “child of Thor”, working with the French Resistance against Nazi Germany and later with a co-op task force between the French Resistance and the USSR. Following the defeat of Nazi Germany, Makkari returned to the United States where she seemed to develop a chip on her shoulder for the Italian Mob, exposing police corruption and the identities of various Made Men of the Mafia and worked closely with the Black Civil Rights movement.

Makkari had very scarce contact with the other Eternals during this time period as earlier she had also been largely involved in the abolishment of slavery in America.

[shadowsong26fic]

Coming Attractions!

First Monday of the month, which means Coming Attractions Post!

(Especially since I skipped last month, whoops…)

Before we get into it, as I always do in these things, plug for my Discord server--it’s pretty quiet, but basically a slightly more interactive version of this tumblr. Sometimes I talk a little more about origfic or other stuff than I do here, too.

Also, this is not my only hobby! As some of you may know, one of my others is lacework, and I now have a sideblog for that. I have pictures of my completed projects up there, and will probably have more stuff as I start…well…making more stuff.

Anyway. On to the actual writing stuff aka why most of you are here (also a few requests for feedback/Opinions behind the cut).

So, I didn’t get much done over the month until, like…the last few days. In part because work got super bonkers for reasons I’m still Cranky at but that is a vent for my personal blog, lol.

Precipice:

I have threeish scenes left, which I’m probably going to do as one more chapter (unless they end up Super Long, then I might split it into two). That’ll close out Arc Seven, and the first big chunk of this fic. As I’ve said before, I’ll split off into a sequel fic (working title Protectors) at that point, along with doing a sort of…interquel, working title Preludes, that mostly deals with integrating Rebels content. Also probably Maul.

Right now, I’m tentatively planning six installments to Preludes? Mostly because six feels like a nice number to work with, lol. These will be one-shots that aren’t super interconnected, all taking place during the six-year timeskip. These are the ones I’m thinking about doing as of right now (subject to change, and I welcome suggestions!):

one involving Kallus on Coruscant, shortly before he gets reassigned to Lothal;

one involving Hera and whoever her contact is in this AU (since Ahsoka’s doing something different from the Fulcrum stuff);

one where Kanan and Ezra connect with Obi-Wan et al. (probably through Hondo);

one with Luke, probably similar to that one episode where Leia turns up in Rebels canon;

I really do need to figure out what the heck is going on with Maul, don’t I.

…something else????

The only ones I’m 100% sure about including are the one with Kallus and the one where the various Jedi link up because those are necessary and/or plot-relevant, though I’m still working out specifics (especially on the Jedi one). I may also include something with Thrawn, since I’m doing something different with him than canon did. Like I said, I welcome thoughts/suggestions/etc.

Protectors will then pick up six years after the end of Arc Seven, with Arc Eight. And, as a treat, the working titles for Arcs Eight and Nine are Escalation and Watershed. In theory, I’m planning to post Preludes alongside arcs eight and nine, but we’ll see.

…anyway, uh, what I forgot to mention earlier is that my plan is to wrap up arc seven/the first fic in this series this month. Hopefully I will actually pull that off XD. And then we move on to the other stuff.

Other SW Fic Projects:

Big Bang is coming up again! I think signups will be next month? I’m considering three different plotlines as of right now, though that’s assuming I don’t come up with something new and exciting and/or another ObiAniDala plotline, which is what I seem to do every year…which one I end up doing probably depends at least partly on how S2 of the Mandalorian goes, since two of the three ideas heavily feature Bo-Katan. Of course, one of those lacks a plot and the other is pretty episodic/involves a lot of blank space I still need to fill in…

Anyway, we’ll see how that goes after the show airs and I get more event information, especially since it’s going to be structured differently/teaming up writers and betas much earlier in the process, which will be nice and possibly help chronically-undecided me actually pick something so I’m not scrambling to finish at the last minute but given that it’s me I probably will be anyway XD

As for other SW projects…I still owe a few meme fills from, like, April…but otherwise, extant projects are mostly back-burnered for now.

AtLA Projects:

Aka, the reason why SW projects other than Precipice and SWBB (and any one-shots/prompt fills that occur to me) are back-burnered, lol.

I am working on an AU outline, set to come out this month. There’s a couple of fulltext fics I’m playing with. I haven’t gotten any actual text written down yet, but I know where I’m going with them, at least to start.

The AU outline will be a canon-divergent thing set during the Ba Sing Se arc, and will be hopefully out Soon.

Fulltext fic #1 is…basically, the premise is, Lu Ten had a lover during the Siege, the soundtrack to this fic involves a lot of West Side Story, he left her with someone to remember him by, and then there’s some mindbending and complicated politics after his death. I think I talked a little more about this in a previous post? Anyway, one of the things I’m considering is whether to just tell this story linearly, or to start several years later, and go into the whole star-crossed lovers backstory as she regains her memories of what actually happened. The advantage to the first option is that it’s easier to work with shifting POV, which I prefer; and also involves more canon characters more quickly. The advantage to the second is that I think it would work really well for this particular storyline? Assuming I could get people invested in her and/or Ba Sing Se Politics/Worldbuilding that fast …y’know, when I think about it like that, maybe linear is the best option, lol…

Fulltext fic #2 is an Avatar Zuko AU, where he figures it out at age thirteen, and at that point decides he has roughly three and a half years until the comet, aka three and a half years to figure out how to make all this work (not to mention at least starting to learn air, water, and earth), and hopefully by then he’ll know what he should be doing with it? Whether it’s to resurface and Prove His Worth by defending the Fire Nation during the leadup to the comet, or something else (though Something Else doesn’t quite occur to him until he starts doing the other stuff). This will heavily feature at least one of my old OCs, and probably a few others (and likely one or two new ones), especially during the first two years. I’ve got things more or less worked out up until Aang resurfaces and Zuko’s plans have to shift/he has to cut his earthbending year short (much to Toph’s annoyance). Because once Aang is awake, everyone thinks he’s the Avatar (he’s not; there’s another explanation for how he iceberg’d for a century), and that fact just escalates All Of The Things.

((I’ve mentioned before that I am Pathologically Incapable of not creating a bunch of OCs and AtLA is a particularly strong example of that, so...yeah, that’ll be a Thing in pretty much anything I write in this fandom))

…anyway, this should be fun, once I actually get actual text down XD

Original Fic:

I did write one thing last month! Which was nice. Hopefully, I’ll get a bit done this month, too. For those of you who don’t know, most of my original stuff is posted on rainbowfic, which is a great community and if you guys do original stuff you post online, you should come join.

I’ve also started poking at a couple of new concepts, because that is how my brain do. Including one Arthuriana story despite the fact that I’m not super into Arthuriana but then my brain was like “what if Mordred was a girl?” and welp. Here I am.

NaNo:

I’m proooooooobably going to do a similar setup to what I had the past couple years--set myself a wordcount goal, but not bind myself to any single project. Depending on how things go this month, either with Precipice!verse or SWBB or my AtLA stuff, or if that Mordred thing catches on, I might try to prioritize one or more things (like, have my goal be 20k on X project, and 30k on other stuff), but I’ll decide that closer to the date.

…I think that’s everything! What are you guys up to lately? Does anyone have NaNo plans? Any thoughts on stuff I mentioned on my docket, so to speak? What’s on your mind?

[writeinspiration]

How Long Should Your Novel Be? (The Definitive Answer)

Text of the article pasted below!

Many aspiring novelists ask themselves, “How long should my novel be?” The answer to this question is surprisingly complex. There are multiple issues that need to be to addressed… and I’m going to cover ALL of them in this article.So let’s get it!

My Journey

It took me eight years to craft my debut novel, The Page Turners.

Eight years is far too long to spend writing a first book. Looking back, I cringe at the thought of what I could have created in the time I wasted drafting and redrafting that novel.

One of the many reasons it took me so long to write my first book was that, like many rookie authors, I wanted my debut to be an epic story. I had twenty-five years worth of life experiences, thoughts, emotions, and stories to draw from, and I was determined to cram all of it into a novel that would dazzle readers and immediately launch my literary career into the stratosphere of superstardom!

At one point, the manuscript for The Page Turners was up to 130,000 words, but the published version is a little over 55,000; hardly an epic.

But you know what? Stephen King’s first novel wasn’t The Stand. It was a tight-packed little masterpiece called Carrie.

Once I followed King’s lead by focusing on intimacy and letting go of my aspirations of a sweeping and grand narrative, the project finally become manageable. After years spent struggling with this beast of a story, I was suddenly dealing with a focused and fast-paced narrative that had a clear theme and a nice sense of rhythm and harmony.

Before long, finally publishing the book was no longer a distant pipe dream; it had actually become an attainable goal. In shortening the length of my novel, I made my life as a writer much easier.

The Benefits of Short

It’s easier to redraft and review a shorter novel.

It’s easier to convince beta readers to give it a look, and you get their feedback much quicker.

As an indie author, it’s significantly cheaper to pay for copy-editing of a shorter novel, and the production costs of printing the final books are also more affordable.

Across the board, virtually everything becomes easier and more do-able once you commit to shortening your novel.

A shorter book also forces an author to focus with laser-like accuracy on the story’s most important elements: the plot and lead characters. Tangents, supporting characters, and non-relevant aspects of the narrative are kept to a bare minimum because there simply isn’t room for them in a short book.

Tell an enthusiastic young writer you need them to write a 2,000-word article, and there’s a good chance they’ll return with 4,000 words of mostly unusable material. On the other hand, tell them you need 500 words and not a single word more… and they might just come up with something great!

I’m quite fond of the Orson Well’s quote, “The enemy of art is the absence of limitations,” and I think it can be applied wonderfully to word count. Keep the book short, and you’re much more likely to create good art. At the very least, you’ll reduce the chances of creating bad art. (The only thing worse than a bad novel is a bad novel of epic length!)

With all of this in mind, I tell my writing students to aim for a 55,000 word novel for their debut book. A total of 55,000 words is the perfect length for a rookie author. It’s short and sweet, and it forces the writer to stick to the point, something young writers often struggle with. And, of course, as mentioned earlier, it makes the entire project more manageable.

Is a 55,000 Word Manuscript Novel Length?

In his article, “Word Count: How Long Should a Book Be?”, Glen C Strathy turns to The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America’s (SFFWA) criteria for the Nebula Awards to determine his word count criteria.

Here’s how the SFFWA defines the stories they review for the award:

Short story – under 7,500 words

Novelette – 7,500 to 17,500 words

Novella – 17,500 to 40,000 words

Novel – anything over 40,000 words

National Novel Writing Month (NaNoWriMo) (an annual event that challenges writers to craft a novel within the month of November) identifies 50,000 words as the minimum target for their definition of a novel.

As such, by either the SFFWA or the NaNoWriMo’s definition, a 55,000-word book is certainly novel-length.

That said, if you would prefer to turn to general opinion and/or critical regard to determine the minimum length of a novel, consider The Great Gatsby. F. Scott Fitzgerald’s masterpiece is only 55,000 words long, and it’s considered by many – myself included – to be one of the greatest novels ever written.

In fact, a number of my favourite novels of all time are around this length: The Outsiders by S.E. Hinton, Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury, The Turn of the Screw by Henry James, The Old Man and the Sea by Earnest Hemingway, Lord of the Flies by William Golding, The Catcher in the Ryeby J.D. Salinger, To the Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf, The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka, Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad, The Picture of Dorian Grey by Oscar Wilde, Notes from Underground by Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll, Slaughterhouse Five by Kurt Vonnegut, and The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams, to name but a few!

As this list clearly demonstrates, despite what many young authors mistakenly believe, more words are not always better. From Kafka to Carroll, some of the greatest prose writers ever to live chose to produce shorter novels.

In Praise of Long

Despite my recommendation that aspiring authors focus their efforts on producing a shorter book as their initial publication, I would be remiss to ignore the variety of well-loved long novels out there.

In her Salon.com article, “Why we love loooong novels”, Laura Miller provides a convincing argument in praise of the epic. She also references the New York Times report that author Garth Risk Hallberg received a $2 million advance for his 900-page debut, City on Fire – a clear indication a shorter debut novel is not always the best route to critical acclaim and financial riches!

Riffing on Miller’s article, Maddie Crum’s Huffington Post article, “An Ode to Unaccelerated Reading” lists ten excellent novels well worth their page count, and I’m sure we all have a beloved epic tome or two weighing down our bookshelves.

In fact, it was likely my love of Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings and Stephen’s King’s The Stand that got me into trouble with The Page Turners word count in the first place.

I’m not arguing that a novel must be short to be great; I’m simply suggesting that if you want to make the transition from aspiring author to published author in as smooth a manner as possible, you may want to save your epic for your sophomore release.

Industry Standards by Genre

Of course, only a few of the short novels I mentioned earlier were debut releases, and today’s modern writers, especially those looking to break into the mainstream publishing industry, would be wise to take into account industry standards when it comes to determining world count for their work in progress.

In a helpful article written for Writer’s Digest in 2012, Chuck Sambuchino outlines recommended word counts for various different genres of books. His recommended word counts are as follows:

Commercial and literary novels for adults – 80K to 90K

Sci-fi and Fantasy – 100K to 115K

Young Adult – 55K to 70K

In another article on word count and book length, “How Long is a Book? Determine Your Novel’s Genre, Subgenre, and Best Word Count”, Ronnie Smith expands on Sambuchino’s list by adding some additional genres to the mix:

Romance – 80K to 100K

Mystery – 75K to 100K

Thriller – 90K to 100K

Western – 45K – 75K

These recommendations are extremely helpful to keep in mind while working on your book, particularly if you intend to secure an agent and a traditional publisher for your work.

Keep in mind, however, that Sambuchino and Smith’s recommendations are based on the long-entrenched requirements of the traditional book publishing industry. As such, the recommended word counts are largely the result of industrial standards and therefore have more to do with the production requirements of paperback books than they do anything related to storytelling technique, artistic aspirations, or the preferences of readers.

New Standards

In recent years, the rise of ebooks, along with the ever-increasing ease with which independent authors can self-publish their work via web and print-on-demand has completely changed book industry standards in terms of word counts requirements.

With storytelling becoming increasingly digitalized, the very meaning of terms like “books” and “novels” are being consistently destabilized.

Ebooks come in a variety of forms and lengths, and print-on-demand can turn a project of any reasonable word count into a paperback publication. Authors are now free to craft books and novels with word counts that are bound only by the author’s imagination and creativity, and the audience’s receptivity.

Hugh Howey’s hit self-published “novel” Wool was originally released as a series of e-novellas. Authors Johnny B. Truant and Sean Platt are releasing serial fiction that is then collected together into “seasons”, thereby combining 19th century Charles Dickens-like publishing model with that of modern television. Erotic authors, riding the surging 50 Shades of Grey wave, are consistently finding new and innovative ways to get their work into reader’s hands, including bundling books from several authors together to create what is, essentially, an anthology of novellas.

Where to From Here?

If it was difficult to determine exactly how long a novel should be in the past, it’s only going to become increasingly more difficult in the future. As independent authors continue to push the boundaries and test what digital publishing and print-on-demand have to offer, and as the traditional publishing industry attempts to keep up with technological innovations reshaping the publishing landscape, there’s no telling what a “book” might look like in the years to come.

If you’re looking for a career in traditional publishing, educate yourself on the word counts the publishers and agents you’re targeting are looking for. If you are embracing independent publishing, get creative! There’s an exciting world of storytelling possibilities out there, and whether your book is a short jaunt or an epic journey is totally up to you. Remain true to your vision, give your audience the read of a lifetime, and the last thing they will be thinking about is word count.

[a-bit-too-much-of-a-zelda-fan]

Linked Universe Fanfiction ch. 9: Can We Get Back to Adventuring, Please?

Stop! You’ve Violated the Law!

So, you’ve stumbled upon this original post for my Linked Universe fanfiction. That’s okay, it happens to everyone. As of March 2021, I’ve uploaded the entirety of this fanfic to my Archive of Our Own page. Along with finally giving the story a name--Oops! All Links: A Linked Universe Story--I made substantial edits to some of the chapters. These range from minor stylistic revisions to fixing a gaping plot hole that kinda completely broke the character conflict in the earlier chapters. I also renamed and renumbered (but not reordered) the chapters. Specifically, this is now Chapter 11: Can We Get Back to Adventuring, Please?

The AO3 iterations of these chapters are the definitive versions. So, if you would like to read this fanfiction, please do so on AO3, right here. With this embedded link. Hehe. Geddit? Link?

Note: My screen name on AO3 is FrancisDuFresne. Yes, that is me. I am not plagiarizing myself.

Anyway, for posterity’s sake, the rest of the original post is below the cut.

The Links continue their journey to the next village and now face a dense, dark forest. By the way, have you ever wondered what the Links think of the Timeline? Thus continues my fan narrative of the @linkeduniverse AU. Word count: 1275

“Just a few more minutes, boys!” Wind exclaimed. “We’ll be out of these hills and into the… oh, shoot.”

Legend smirked. “You forgot about the possible swarms of monsters?”

“… Yeah.”

The Links had been walking a shade above three hours since returning to reality. The fire was far from gone from their minds, but they were glad to be rid of this place. They had to admit it was beautiful, though. The noontime sun shone on rolling hills, wind blowing the tall, swaying grass. A few clouds had crept up on the edges of the horizon but showed no sign of raining on their proverbial parade.

As far as Time was concerned, things were back to normal. His companions hadn’t brought up the masks, and they acted no differently towards him than before today. Time suspected they may still have questions but didn’t want to dampen their good mood by asking them. That was fine. They could discuss it more tonight when they were comfortable and safe in an inn.

Wild chuckled. “Relax, Wind. We don’t know for sure if there are any monsters. The woods are just so thick that I can’t get a good reading of it.”

“After yesterday,” Legend began, “I’m not shocked there are limitations to that Slate of yours.”

Wild was about to shoot back a retort when Sky butted in, “Drop it. We got out of there safely.”

“Thanks to you, Sky.” Hyrule said.

“You can thank Fi,” he replied, patting the Master Sword’s hilt above his right shoulder. “She was the one that guided us.”

“She is quite the sword,” Time added. Secretly, he hated the Master Sword. He saw it as a curse, one of the many factors that led to his childhood suffering. However, it was a blessing to the other six of them that wielded it. He felt it best not to sully their opinion of it.

“Fi helped me too, once,” Wild said.

Sky looked at the back of Wild’s head; the latter had the map and was leading the group. He thought Fi had only ever spoken to him. He wasn’t offended, per se, more shocked than anything. “Really?”

“I was mortally wounded when Calamity Ganon struck my Hyrule a century ago. Zelda thought I was doomed, but the Master Sword glowed and sort of sang to her. That let her know I could still be saved. I suppose I owe Fi my life.”

“Huh,” Sky replied. He drew the sword. Its silver blade reflected the sun brighter than the others’ swords, save for the Four Sword. He smiled. “Heh, I wouldn’t expect any less of her.”

Given he himself had forged the Master Sword, Sky gathered that his adventure somehow took place before any of the others’. It still confused him how they all could coexist. By reciting the legends and history they knew, they figured out a somewhat cohesive, yet confounding, chain of events.

Sky forged the Master Sword and Hyrule had yet to be established. He was clearly first. Time witnessed the split of the Triforce, so he must be next. Based on the historical texts in Hyrule Castle, Twilight seemed to live centuries after Time. Over their time together, Twilight began to see eerie similarities between Time and the ghostly Hero’s Shade who mentored him. He preferred to ignore them for his own sanity’s sake.

It all got muddier after that. Time had suspected Zelda sending him back in time had somehow disrupted the flow of time. Lo and behold, Wind seemed to also live centuries after Time, but Hyrule had been flooded. His legends told of a Hero of Time that disappeared when he was needed. Time wondered whether Wind lived in the world that Zelda sent him away from.

Even more disturbing was Legend’s story. In his world, Ganon was sealed away by the seven sages, but not a hero. In this alternate reality, could Time have perished in his fight against Ganon? Hyrule had heard vague legends of a legendary sword, but never figured it was the Master Sword until he met his other selves. Strangely, Warrior and Wild somehow seemed to hail from a melding of everyone else’s worlds.

Four was the most peculiar case. Neither the Triforce nor the Master Sword seemed to exist in his world. Instead, there were the Picori bestowing the Light Force upon the Hylians. The concept of it all utterly confused the Links. After trying to piece it together, they never mentioned it again.

Sky was snapped out of his thoughts of multiple timelines and realities when Warrior said suddenly, “Well, it’s about time.”

They had reached the top of a hill and were faced with a tall, dense forest. The heroes couldn’t see the village beyond, but figured the treetops were obscuring it. Wild frowned. He thought they would be able to see it based on map’s elevation readings. He hooked the Sheikah Slate back on his belt.

He withdrew his paraglider from his pouch, gripped one handle with his left hand, and knelt on the ground. In a flash, ghostly flames appeared around Wild. He jumped. An updraft carried him a hundred feet in the air, a hazy image of a Rito soaring up with him. His paraglider holding him aloft, he got a better view of their surroundings.

Satisfied, Wild returned to the ground. Despite seeing him use this ability several times before, the others were still awed by the sight. The concept of fallen warriors imparting this and three other powers upon him was foreign. Time’s experience with his masks was similar, but Wild’s seemed much more wholesome in nature.

“Don’t worry, I can see the tops of buildings way down there,” Wild confirmed. “Five or so hours in there and we’ll be through.”

“Wait, wait,” Warrior said. “Let’s think this through. We do not want another ambush on our hands.”

Wind groaned. He found Warrior’s obsessions with plans and tactics annoying. Time shot him a look. Wind saw it and stood at attention.

Warrior continued, “Legend, arrow count.”

Thinking back to last night, he remembered that he had counted the arrows before going to bed. That seemed so long ago. “Uh… oh, right. Forty-two.”

“Hm… four each. Wild, you’re our best archer, you need more. Volunteers?”

Sky shrugged. “Aye. I’m better with a sword anyway.”

“Seconded,” Time said.

“Third…ed?” Wind flubbed.

A chuckle spread across the group. Fighting back more laughter, Warrior composed himself. “Okay, Wild, take sixteen. Make them count.”

Wild nodded.

“Legend, Twilight, Four, Hyrule. Take four each. I’ll take five.”

Legend pulled their stash of arrows out of his pouch and divvied them up. Warrior came up last and took the remaining five. They fit their ammunition in their quivers. “Right, next order of business,” Warrior continued. “Twi, transform and take point. We need your senses. Wild, I want you behind him with two arrows nocked. Fire at Twi’s mark. Sky, cover them. Everyone else, fall in behind them. I’ll take up the rear. Keep your eyes on the shadows. It looks pretty dark in there, so everyone grab a lantern. We’re low on oil, so let’s try to get out of there ASAP.”

The others nodded. This seemed easy enough. At least, if they didn’t encounter anything nefarious. They knew they probably would, but they could handle it. Warrior turned to Twilight and nodded. The latter took on his beastly form and took the lead. Wild drew his bow and nocked two arrows. The others unsheathed their swords and raised their newly lit lanterns. With a last look at the clear blue sky, the heroes entered the dark forest.

[defleurtradingco]

The Merry Month of Mirth- Riddle

(Previous: Exchange , Next: Tender)

“So you say someone was passing these out on the street, and no one did anything about it.” The minotaur Tahrek, the basement-library’s keeper at the DeFleur Trading Co. headquarters, asked as he squinted down at the comparably tiny cigarette packet. “Despite it being against the law- you could get in trouble for that-”

“The police do not have eyes everywhere.” Solaina had her arms crossed as she stood to the side of his (comically) huge desk.

Tahrek held a magnifying lens over the pack and hrm’d about it a little while longer, poking at it gently.

“Do you know why this would suddenly be promoted here in America? I have seen these back in Paris when I was last there.”

“Normally I would tell you that it isn’t uncommon for people to want to sell their goods overseas, to turn a profit.” Tahrek answered in monotone. “However, all things considered, yes. I believe this is yet another product from the Royal Order of Jesters. It’s hardly new. They just re-branded the packaging a little is all.”

“The Royal What of WHAT?” Ray blurted out obnoxiously as he and Aaron sat nearby eating their sandwiches, staying WELL away from any space that was occupied with books (Ray complained so much about not getting to have lunch earlier that Tahrek reluctantly allowed them to eat down there in NEXT to workspace, but just so long as they didn’t TOUCH anything. Or get crumbs everywhere.)

The bull’s ears flattened. “The Royal Order of Jesters. They are an offshoot of the fraternity that is the Freemasons. No doubt you’d heard of them.”

“I have, though, I do not know very much beyond their name.” Aaron scratched at his chin lightly as he finished his sandwich.

“Normally they choose to remain secretive, this Order. And yet at the same time, they brag about how everything is under their thumb- much in the same way that the DeFleurs have their hands in many things also. Though, they seem to relegate their attention towards more media based points of interest.

There haven’t been many recorded run-ins with them I’m afraid, so information is scarce. This may be something you’d want to ask your grand-uncle about, Solaina.” The woman raised a brow. “How long has this Order been around exactly?”

“Almost three to four centuries at least, according to many printed texts. I would not rely so much on the internet if I were you.” Tahrek snorted, turning around to go look someplace else. He returned with several different books and laid them all out on the desk (moreso for himself than anybody else, it wasn’t like they were tall enough to see.) “Their origins trace back to England in 1717 when the Grand Lodge of England was founded, however, there are scraps of records going back as early as 1646 within the area. If you ask me, I believe they are much, MUCH older than that. However, since I wasn’t exactly ‘in the neighborhood’ at the time, I could not give you a definite answer.”

Solaina pulled out her cell phone, tapping away at it. She waited for a response, and in a matter of seconds, she got one.

“I will need to speak with him then. He may be able to shed more light on the situation, with any luck.” By that she meant Fortunato. “...It is strange though that we have such little information on them to begin with...”

“They are not a topic that comes up frequently in conversation I must admit.” Tahrek glared towards Ray and the sound of a paper bag being loudly crunched up. “Are you QUITE finished?” “Yeah yeah, just shoving all our garbage into the BAG, is that OK with you?? Can we go now? I don’t wanna deal with this.” Ray just wanted to go home.

Aaron pinched the bridge of his nose. He too didn’t want to get involved with whatever this was, whether or not he really WAS off from this so called rotation Solaina mentioned previously. “Solaina we are going to go home now, if that is all right with you?” Solaina nodded, “Of course. Just make sure you fill out a report before you leave. I apologize we did not get to have lunch together. I will treat you another time. Your car is upstairs in the parking lot.” The werewolf nodded at her before ushering Ray along. “Thank you, take care. Do not get into so much trouble if you can help it.

At that she couldn’t help but smile. “I will try.”

Once they stepped into the elevator and were gone, Tahrek let out a low sound that could only be described as suspicion.

“...Solaina I have a feeling this may be one riddle we may want to leave alone.”

“Oh? And why is that?”

“Consider this. If we barely have any information on them, and, let us humor them, say they are as powerful as they claim…

If their hand in the media is indeed true, then that is a fight I’m afraid we’d lose.”

Solaina shook her head. “I would not worry so much yet. If they have been watching for so long and we have just managed to see them recently, then it may have simply been a random event.”

“That or, following trends, this was done on purpose.”

Tahrek wasn’t a paranoid fellow by any means, but he always took many different views and angles into account. He couldn’t help it. It was why people came to him for advice in the first place. As long lived as he was, he knew how to read patterns and predict behaviors and outcomes better than anybody else under the DeFleur’s employment.

“Grandfather must know something about them. I would be hard pressed to believe otherwise.”

“Considering he founded the company, they may have approached him during some point in time. After all, he owned-”

“He owned almost the entire world. It was in his pocket. Yes I know.” Solaina interrupted.

“To put it BLUNTLY, yes.” Tahrek’s brows furrowed heavily. “So it is likely.”

“The question I have for now is why he has not written or spoke much about it. We should not be so uninformed about something like this.” Deep down however, Solaina had a feeling. A feeling suggesting that the lack of information available was on purpose.

“I agree… Be cautious at the very least.”

“I know. I am going to go see him now. Thank you for your help Tahrek.” The minotaur nodded. “You’re welcome. I’ll be here if you need anything, as usual.”

Solaina gave a small wave as she too headed for the elevator back upstairs.

Fortunato was in his office. Or so his text read. With any luck, he’d still be there when she arrived.

He had to know something about all this.

[likethetailofacomet]

Viewing Party

So the other night @ooo-barff-ooo and I were talking about how much we loved our TRR MCs, Claire Berkley and Joanna Malone, and how it would be cool if they were friends and I was like well what if they were and then this happened. 

Without further ado, I give you the ultimate friendship of C and J, getting drunk together and watching everyone’s favorite fairy tale on live television: The Royal Romance- Liam and Riley’s wedding. 

FEATURING: JOANNA MALONE, CLAIRE BERKLEY, AND DAN DAN THE BARTENDER MAN. 

“See you tomorrow, Dan,” Claire called from behind the bar.  “Same bat time, same bat place.” He said over his shoulder. He gave a one handed wave and strode toward the front door and sweet freedom. He’d been there since 11 am and it was approaching midnight- the joys of working a double shift- and he was due for another one in the morning, so he couldn’t get out of there fast enough. Claire had come in at 5pm, and would sling drinks until last call at 4am, when the shift workers and doctors and construction guys and fisherman had had either thier first or last drinks of the night. Joanna would open, Dan would pull the double, and Claire would close. That was the general flow.

Tonight, though, was not a general night. At roughly 5 am EST the most anticipated marriage of the year would be televised live- the Cordonian Royal Wedding-New York bartender Riley Brooks was rising to the rank of queen as she married future king Liam Rys after falling in love with him in the most modern of Cinderella stories: she took out the trash at his bachelor bash and ended up stealing his heart and his hand.

Claire checked on her ten or so customers, making sure that all of their glasses were full before slipping into the closet they called a kitchen. There was a single basket fryer, a flat top that could fit no more than four frozen burger patties, and a coffee maker. She reached for the can of Folger's on the top shelf and scooped some of it into the brew basket before jamming it into the machine and pressing "start". She leaned against the counter ledge as she waited for the deep brown liquid to fill the little clear pot, pulling her phone from her apron to text Joanna.

-Hey girl, you're stopping for snacks right? I'm starving. 

Jo had been off from work since 5pm when Claire got in. She'd gone home and taken a nap before running a few errands for the viewing party they'd been planning ever since they saw that first tabloid article about the Prince choosing his bride. Claire and Jo were not the type of girls who would normally get so involved in the billion dollar weddings of fancy rich nobles and dignitaries around the world- hell they had been invited to Steve's wedding- a guy they used to work with and actually knew without the need for magazine or television coverage- and despite their manager saying that they could close the bar for a night so everyone could go to the wedding, Claire and Jo declined, not really liking Steve...or weddings. "I have a school thing that night...um...presentation. Of my...thesis," Jo had said. She was working on her Master's degree while slaving at Keagan's, so her excuse seemed to work, even though it was a summer course and she wouldn't actually be working on her thesis for another five months.  "And um, I have an...appointment that afternoon that....I can't reschedule..." Claire chimed in her thinly veiled excuse. She did have an appointment...for hair color...and she'd really rather not reschedule it just to go sit at Steve's wedding. But this wedding, dubbed "The Royal Romance" by the media, was a different story, namely for who would be standing next to the Prince as he said his "I do's".

-Um, did you see the pictures of the Prince's friend? The dude with the hair and the eyebrows and the denim? He's all the snack we need, C. (but yes I also got snacks for eating) 

Claire laughed at Jo's response, typed out a quick one back saying how excited she was, and then poured herself a large black coffee before heading back to the bar to finish up her shift. As the last patron stumbled out the door and it shut with a tingling of bells, she flipped the sign to the closed side, locked the door and turned off the neon lights in the windows. She went back to the bar cooler and took a tray of jello shots out, setting them on the freshly cleaned bar top. She then went to her bag and took two brightly colored headbands that she’d attached lace and tooling and feathers and beads to, and set them next to the shots. Changing the channels on all the televisions to various news stations, she sat back and enjoyed the “pregame coverage” of the wedding while she waited for Joanna. Just as she finished the last of the coffee she’d brewed hours earlier, she heard a tapping at the window and looked over to see her friend waving excitedly and holding up a bag. Claire set her empty coffee mug down and crossed the bar to open the door and let Jo in.

“Welcome to the wedding of the century, Madame,” Claire greeted her with a flourish and a funny bow.

Jo did an awkward curtsy. “Why thank you Madame, so pleased I could join you.” The two dissolved into laughter and headed over to the bar. Joanna hopped up onto a stool and took stock of the things Claire had laid out while adding the bag she’d brought with her. She picked up one of the headbands and laughed. “Oh my god, Claire, did you really make us fascinators?”

Claire raised her eyebrows. “Um, yeah I made us fascinators! Riley has been obsessed with fancy hats throughout the whole social season! Homegirl would not shut up about them- like, every chance she could get to wear one she did and she even brought them up in interviews… I thought it would be weirder if I didn’t make us fascinators.”

“Good point. I really don’t know how Prince Liam is looking past that. He must really love that dizzball.” Joanna plopped the colorful headpiece on top of her noggin and Claire took the other one and shoved it into her frizzy hair. Next Joanna picked up one of the shots Claire had made. “Ew, Jell-o shots?” she made a face, pulling one half of her mouth up to show her disgust.

“Caramel apple jell-o shots, to be exact. You know, because Cordonia’s obsessed with apples? And caramel because I’m obsessed with caramel.” She shrugged. “Once we’re a few drinks in we won’t care if they’re gross.”

“So true my friend. So,” she opened the shopping bag she’d had with her and pulled out several small plastic containers. “We’ve got…olives…stuffed grape leaves…and, drum roll,” Claire obliged, rapping her pointer fingers on the bar top. “Baklava! You know cause,” Jo shrugged, “Cordonia, Greece…they’re sorta the same right?”

“Sure. Probably not but sure.” Claire laughed and Joanna tossed an olive at her.

“Okay well they are tonight. Also,” next she pulled out a sheet of paper. “I made up a drinking game for this here wedding.” On the screen they were showing a photo montage of Riley and Liam from all the different events from the social season. “Okay, rules- If anyone mentions apples, or there’s a flag with apples or we see an apple tree or they say “Cordonian Ruby”, we take one of these gross shots here,” she pointed to Claire’s Jell-o shots. “Any time we see fancy hats, or some noble lady curtsies or some dude in a suit bows, we take a sip of our ciders. If they call Riley “The American” we finish ‘em.”

“Wait, let me get this straight. You made up a drinking game with no whiskey involved?” Claire asked, skeptically narrowing her eyes at Joanna.

“I wasn’t done, C! Okay, so any time Mr. broody Mc Brooderson Drake Walker, love of our lives and real reason that we are watching this ridiculous wedding at 5am, is shown looking like he wants to kiss Riley, we do a shot of whiskey in his angsty honor. I was going to suggest Fireball but-“

“But you remember the holiday party from last year. Yeah, everyone does,” Claire hid her face in her hands embarrassed, preferring to forget that night and the drunken mess she’d been.

“Right. I remembered the holiday party and how Fireball turns you into a demon. So, I figured SoCo would do.”

“Yeah, that’s never made me dance on the bar while trying to fight Steve, so good call.”

Joanna nodded. “Any rules you want to add?”

Claire thought for a moment and then something blue and…unique…caught her eye on the screen. They were talking about Maxwell Beaumont again, and his propensity to wear themed suits. He had this hilarious blue suit with a squid on it; even the bow-tie was a tiny cephalopod. “Oh! Yes! Every time they have to pan away from that,” she pointed to Maxwell in the suit, “so as not to ruin a picture or a shot, we take a cider sip.”

Joanna laughed. “Deal. Oh! Its starting!!” She spun her stool so she could lean back against the bar to watch. Claire poured them each a cider and they clinked them together before taking a sip, pinkies out. “Ugh, and to think, this girl worked right down the street from us. Like, this coulda been us, C!”

Claire blinked before they both burst into laughter. “Yeah we’d both make excellent queens, I’m sure.”

*** *** *** *** *** *** ***

Dan unlocked the bar door and opened it, setting the bells jingling. Before he had even set one foot inside, he heard the raucous laughter of his two best friends, and shook his head wondering what he was about to walk into. “Is it just me, Jo, or does the Queen Mother look like a Royal Ducking Bitch?” Claire’s voice was sing songy and full of laughter.

Joanna was laying her arms and top half on the bar top, laughing hysterically, almost to the point where she couldn’t get her words out. She managed to respond, “Quack, mother ducker!!” before giggles swallowed her ability to speak further.

“Did…did you two really just autocorrect yourselves?” Dan called, hands on his hips taking in the scene in front of him. They each had a funny looking headband dangling from their heads, empty jello glasses littered the bar, and at least three shots of whiskey each sat next to them. If only Drake hadn’t been pining for Riley The American Queen so badly, they wouldn’t have had to nearly finish the bottle of SoCo.

“Yes, Dan, we are at a fancy ducking event here.” Claire pointed to her fascinator, to how it was barely staying together after she and Jo had danced and drank and laughed and flopped against the bar top.

“Yeah, and we can’t be ducking rude and curse like sailors, Dan!” Joanna chimed in. “The Queen would not allow it!”

“She would not!” they had put on silly accents by now, not coming anywhere close to the Cordonian accent…or any accent in the world, really, but forcing so much laughter from one another that they cried.

“Okay tweedles C and J,” Dan clapped them both on the back. “Outta my bar, you drunkards. Go sleep off the wedding, I’ll see you back for your shifts in a few hours.” Now it was his turn to laugh almost to the point of tears, as they both groaned thinking about bartending while hungover at 3 in the afternoon.

“Worth it,” Jo said to Claire, high fiving her sloppily.

“Totally.” Claire answered.

tagging people who i think might find this funny even though its really the most gratuitous thing i’ve ever posted: @ooo-barff-ooo @sleepwalkingelite @brightpinkpeppercorn @zaffrenotes @endlessly-searching-for-you @mind-reader1 @andy-loves-corgis @agent-bossypants

[qqueenofhades]

ACK. Hilary I need your thoughts on all this "Lucy is the Heir of Rittenhouse" reveal. Why did they cut it? Do you think it will come up again? How would Flynn react? Etc.

Welp.

I’ve only had a brief skim over reactions, etc, so if I say anything that anyone else already has, well, that’s just how that goes. But also I’m shook because… that is a fairly major info tidbit to drop as a deleted scene, and because it didn’t actually appear in an aired episode, it has a negotiable status as canon. Either we can take it as something Lucy knows and has (for obvious reasons) decided not to talk about, or something that has not yet happened. I’ll personally take it as the former, and that we’ll have it dealt with when she tells someone about it in season 3. Carol is dead, so there’s not really any way for her to learn it again or in another context. Supposedly they cut it for time, which is a little iffy to me, because it’s not a long scene, it’s a major reveal, and it would have added a whole new complexity to Lucy’s actions throughout the season and what she’s keeping back from the rest of the team. So yes.

I wrote several metas early in the year and then after 2x10 about how Lucy was leaning into her Rittenhouse heritage/being willing to use some of their same tactics, but in the exact opposite purpose. This, as we’ve pointed out, adds a whole new context to 1x10, 2x01, and 2x10 at least, as well as arguably 2x02 and 2x04 and other moments where we see Lucy really dead set on “we need to do this and I don’t necessarily have time to play nice and I’m entirely cool with possibly dying if so.” Especially in the jail scene with Flynn in 2x02 and then the jail scene with Carol (where Lucy is imprisoned in Salem) in 2x04 and so on. This also answers the fairly major plot hole of why future!lLucy wouldn’t just tell Flynn that David Rittenhouse was one man in the 18th century and have it end right there. (It doesn’t answer why our Lucy doesn’t know about David Rittenhouse anyway, since he was a fairly well-known intellectual figure and she would definitely have heard of him, since she knows even obscure people/events, but anyway.) She can’t tell Flynn that, because her entire existence depends on it, and they need to find a way to beat Rittenhouse without erasing her – which is hella difficult since she’s descended directly from the dude. After all, if you kill David and John, maybe Rittenhouse doesn’t exist, but neither does Lucy, as well as God knows what else. That also doesn’t stop David’s followers, and anyway, yes. So that is a clever way to answer the obvious question of why they couldn’t just go there and kill David right away.

Also, I’d just like to point out that in terms of Lucy’s relationship(s) with Flynn and Wyatt, this is a revelation that is directly important for… well, only one of them. It doesn’t really make a difference for Lucy’s relationship with Wyatt if this is the case or not. Indeed, we have seen Wyatt explicitly know that Jessica was Rittenhouse, and still choose her/beg her to come back with him. Stopping Rittenhouse is not personal to Wyatt. It is the job he’s been recruited to do and has maybe become a little more personal after what happened with Jess, but that still didn’t stop him from wanting Jessica as long as she was an option, Rittenhouse ties or otherwise. He only attempted to go back to Lucy with the ill-advised ILY after that had been ruled out, and after making further efforts (telling Flynn not to shoot Jessica) to preserve the possibility of a reconciliation. So honestly, as it stands in canon text, if presented with Rittenhouse or Lucy, Wyatt chooses Rittenhouse. It’s even the case with him not shooting Emma or Carol when he had the chance – yes, it had to do with his feelings for Lucy, but both times, it’s clear that Lucy’s opinion was that she wanted him to go for it (she wanted him to shoot Emma in 2x05, she tries to do it in 2x10, she’s clearly dismayed when Wyatt tells her that her mother got away in 2x06 – she doesn’t want Carol dead, but she wants her stopped). Wyatt and Lucy care for each other, but they have a fundamental disconnect on what they are willing to do to stop RH, and Wyatt has explictly or implicitly chosen Rittenhouse over Lucy at repeated moments. (Oh hello, Shawn Ryan mentioning that Flynn understands Lucy on a deeper level than Wyatt does.)

In contrast, Flynn knows that Lucy is Rittenhouse on both sides of the family, but he doesn’t know that she’s descended from THE Rittenhouses. Stopping Rittenhouse has always been intensely personal for Flynn and at the core of his character motivation; indeed, in season 1, he went for the “stop Rittenhouse” option at the expense of repeatedly messing it up with trying to get Lucy to join him. That is what makes it more narratively significant that he has increasingly moved to choosing Lucy over that vengeance quest, and when given the explicit opportunity to do in 2x10 what he failed to do in 1x10 (and seriously, this makes the parallel between these episodes EVEN MORE than it was), he doesn’t. There is no question or ambiguity in the narrative: when presented with the chance to kill Emma or comfort Lucy, Flynn doesn’t hesitate an instant in choosing the latter. I mentioned in one of my earlier metas that Flynn and Wyatt physically and emotionally switch places in Lucy’s life in 2x03, when Flynn struts into the bunker and Wyatt runs out to Jess. This is also the case here. In season 1, Wyatt chooses Lucy over Rittenhouse, mostly implicitly because he doesn’t know what the major picture is until near the end of the season. In season 2, Wyatt chooses Rittenhouse over Lucy. In season 1, Flynn chooses stopping Rittenhouse over Lucy as a person; in season 2, he EXPLICITLY chooses Lucy as a person over stopping Rittenhouse. He doesn’t kill Emma in 2x07 and 2x10 directly because of Lucy. Lucy is never a second choice or a lesser focus for Flynn in s2 (as she is for Wyatt all-post 2x03).

Once again: in season 2, Wyatt chooses Jessica (who is/represents Rittenhouse) and honestly, has no real major character reason to do otherwise.  Flynn chooses Lucy, who is also Rittenhouse genetically, but represents a complete repudiation of them, and does so despite having a major character reason (the death of his wife and daughter; his entire vengeance quest) to do otherwise. Furthermore, Wyatt and Lucy don’t agree on what kind of danger Rittenhouse is and what they’re willing to do to end it/the personal price they’re willing to pay. Wyatt isn’t willing to really sacrifice anything at this point whatsoever, whereas Lucy was prepared to wipe her entire family and identity (and life!) from existence by blowing up the Mothership in 2x01. Flynn has known from the start the danger that Rittenhouse is, Lucy has come more and more around to his view, and they agree on the sacrifice that will be necessary. 

In short, textually, Lucy is moving closer and closer to alignment with one of these men, and away from the other (not hate, but just a simple reflection of how both dynamics developed in season 2). Wyatt has (mostly indirectly) refused to NOT choose Rittenhouse over Lucy, and has done so to support his interests. Flynn has directly refused to NOT choose Lucy over Rittenhouse, and at cost to his interests. That is a more important/weighty decision, character-wise. So as noted, this is a major piece of character/plot information (that Lucy is the Heir of Slytherin) and it deepens and twists and fleshes out her connection with Flynn, and the importance of him choosing her, despite her heritage and the pain that Rittenhouse has personally caused him. It doesn’t really do anything of comparable importance to her connection with Wyatt, and if anything, weakens it. This is Lucy’s entire family and existence at stake, but she’s still willing to give it all up, whereas Wyatt is not willing to give up anything, even this alt-version of his wife after he explicitly learns she’s Rittenhouse and always has been. (And again – this isn’t hate and I don’t think he should have just dropped his fight for Jessica, since that’s been his character motivation since the pilot, but it’s… right there in the text.) 

Now that Carol is dead, Lucy is in fact (as far as we know) the only living heir of the original Rittenhouse bloodline. That’s… a lot to deal with. She is in fact the princess, as Emma keeps calling her. At some point in season 3 (WHEN NBC? WHEN?) that will need to be dealt with. It doesn’t really change or develop her connection with Wyatt (as I said, if anything, it puts them on even more unequal footing in what they’re willing to do/commit) but with Flynn? …. Yeah. He loves her, but he’s gonna be startled by it, and it adds a whole new dimension to all their past interactions (especially 1x10 and 2x10) and their development and their partnership to take down Rittenhouse (the literal princess/last blood heir and their greatest nemesis), the symbolism of that, the decisions that they have made in that interest, and for their characters both together and apart, and honestly. That is the kind of romantic conflict/angst spanner I’d expect/that makes more sense for the couple that’s going forward, not back.

[weddingjewelers]

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The worldwide marital relationship brokering transact thrives upon unrealistic warranties and deficiencies in knowledge given to potential brides. While the females could think of their better life, the boys just who purchase a spouse tend to find submissive, placid, and subservient ladies which they can reign over and control. The post workplace discipline quantity detailed for a great company at some time could also be finished the next, and the business that advertises itself as a matrimony broker could in fact end up being promoting porn material or prostitution. Though authorities compare these businesses to every factor from marital life mills to slave dealers, they usually are paid to provide a wife to a buyer. Instead, they will cost Their very own male clients for a report of women who the consumer can write.

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Because the collapse for the Soviet Union, large numbers of jap European girls have sold themselves in this means, generally via Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, and Moldova. Men who record themselves in such books are labeled as “mail-order husbands”, although this can be a lot less recurrent. Some on line mail-order bride-to-be websites furnish matchmaking options. When joining, you fill in some particulars about yourself, your wishes within a future partner.

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Some one hundred businesses in the United States together now are experts in selling mail-order romance, relating Asian gals with males from the Usa, Canada, Down under and European Europe. Even though mail-order relationships can’t be deemed very common, they’ve turn into increasingly well-liked within the last 10 years, consultants claim.

Tens of thousands of men write to Asian girls every year, and an estimated two, 000 to three, 000 of these discover girlfriends or wives in this fashion. In a property office full with a photocopier and typesetter, she compiles a catalogue of those ladies and directs it, for a fee, to 1000’s of males in the United States and Europe who definitely are looking for Oriental brides. Hans’s experience was far from unique — in fact , the change between offline and online energy is probably one of the major aspect at play in trendy dating between foreigners and Filipinas. Before a man involves the Korea, the lady contains the benefit, as a result of solely a fraction of Filipina women have the technological capabilities and British data to satisfy men internet. But the dining tables flip when the foreigner arrives within the nation.

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Still, thousands of ladies see that as a calculated risk, mailing their video clip to be put in a list they could by no means discover. For them 2 weeks . gamble that the unknown long term might be much better than an depressed present. In 2001, at 23, your lady discovered her approach to a fledgling internet coffeehouse in a close-by city and registered in Cherry Flowers, the most ancient and most set up mail-order bride-to-be service in the world. Cherry Flowers began publishing brochures of throughout the world women on the lookout for husbands in 1974, recharging foreigners a charge as a swap for a girl’s handle. In 2001, this company shifted it is whole procedure on-line—and Leonor began obtaining emails from an American in his 50s moving into Thailand, known as Dan McKee. No dating for years “to know one another better. ” Dating sites with mail purchase brides contain a minimum of one significant benefit more than well-liked dating apps like Tinder. Some folks there are trying to find some fun, many are on the lookout for hookups, and a few require a serious romantic relationship with someone special.

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Ulster on the Brink - part 1

Ulster on the brink

An edited text of a paper presented to the 15th Conference on 20th Century European History, New York, June 23rd 2012.

An understanding of the Irish Emergency is essential for any study of the War of 1914-1920. The events of the Emergency were hugely significant in their impact on Britain's capacity to respond to German aggression at the beginning of the War and later efforts to contain Communist revolutionary movements across Europe between 1917 and 1923.

First Rumblings

The roots of the emergency lie of course in Britain's troubled, centuries old, relationship with Ireland, but the direct cause was Unionist fears of a Dublin government in the event of Home Rule. These fears often seemed paranoid to English politicians, not versed in the unique Irish capacity to hold a grudge for centuries. From time to time statements emerged from the Unionist camp that, given the many protestations of loyalty to the Crown, seemed so bizarre as to make any attempt at rational debate a futile exercise. In January 1911 for example, Captain James Craig, the main organiser of Unionist resistance wrote to a friend:

Germany and the German Emperor would be preferred to the rule of John Redmond, Patrick Ford and the Molly Maguires.

He wasn't alone. On 23rd September Carson spoke at a vast rally of Unionists at Craigavon (Craig's house), attended by some 50,000.

We are faced with perhaps the most nefarious conspiracy that has ever been hatched against a free people, but make no mistake – we will fight., even though those we fight are going to play with loaded dice. Our demand is a very simple one. We ask for no privileges, but we are determined that no one shall have privileges over us. We ask for no special rights, but we claim the same rights from the same Government as every other part of the United Kingdom. We ask for nothing more; we will take nothing less. It is our inalienable right as citizens of the British Empire, and heaven help the men who try to take it from us. Whatever happens we must be prepared...and time is precious in these things – the morning Home Rule is passed, ourselves to become responsible for the government of the Protestant Province of Ulster.

But - if we are to be put from the Union, and left to the mercies of Mr Redmond and his crew, I would infinitely prefer to change my allegiance right over to Germany and the German Emperor, or to anyone else who has a proper and stable government.

Statements like this were of course seditious and placed the Asquith government in some difficulty. It was clear from the rapturous response that Carson was gaining huge support and he would not be easily silenced. Probably as much from a desire for what they wished for to be true as anything else, the Liberals therefore convinced themselves that Carson was bluffing and did nothing. “We must not attach too much importance to the frothings of Sir Edward Carson” said Churchill. The Republicans were equally dismissive with Jerry MacVeagh, the secretary of the Irish Party, saying “Sir Edward will not discard his wig and gown for a spiked helmet and a khaki suit.”

And so matters rested in an uneasy standoff until the new year, with an announcement that Winston Churchill, by then First Lord of the Admiralty, would speak in Belfast on Home Rule, alongside Messrs Redmond and Dillon from the Nationalist Party. This meeting was moreover billed to take place, not in some neutral venue, but at the Ulster Hall, the symbolic heart of Unionism in the North. Unsurprisingly the Ulster Unionist Council, outraged at what they described as 'a deliberate challenge thrown down by Mr Churchill', declared their intention of preventing the meeting taking place at all. Implicit in this response was the message that if he insisted he should be prepared to take the consequences.

Having no doubt achieved what he intended, Churchill agreed to move his speech to another venue, although this proved hard to find. The Opera House remained unavailable, despite rumours of a knighthood for the manager, and eventually the Government was reduced to shipping in a marquee from Scotland and erecting it on the Celtic Football Ground. Fearful of unrest, Dublin Castle also moved five battalions of infantry, two companies of cavalry and many extra police into the Belfast area.

On 8th Feb 1912, a day later than originally planned, Churchill arrived at Larne to be met by a huge crowd, defiantly singing the National Anthem. At lunch in the Grand Central Hotel in Belfast another large – and loud – congregation of Orangemen gathered outside. Their mood was aggressive and it probably only the presence of Carson and Lord Londonderry standing on the balcony of the Ulster Club opposite prevented an outright attack on Churchill's car as he left for the football ground. Even so his car was several times surrounded by the crowd and only extricated with some difficulty by escorting police. Indeed on one occasion it seemed likely that it would be overturned, an event later described by one Unionist as being a consequence of the crowd's 'involuntary swaying', although other reports suggested that the presence of Mrs Churchill alongside him was more of a factor with cries of 'Mind the wumman' as the crowds pressed in on the vehicle.

The speech, to a carefully controlled audience, was something of an anti-climax. A huge rainstorm had kept many away. The marquee was partially flooded and only about two thirds full. The only interruptions came from suffragists, one calling out in a broad Belfast accent to demand suffrage for women, while another shouted out “Women are being tortured.” Churchill, perhaps conscious that he was in enough trouble, ignored the interruptions and the women were swiftly removed.

It was after the speech however that trouble really began. Perhaps because of their close shave on the journey out, Mrs Churchill was sent, by circuitous and dingy back streets to the station and thence to Larne while Churchill, never one to duck a fight, returned to his hotel by the same route as before. Here despite the rain the crowd of Orange protesters had grown and this time in the absence of Mrs Churchill they proved less willing to refrain from mobbing the car, rocking it back and fore until it overturned. Having vented their feelings and no doubt prompted by the appearance of a troop of cavalry the crowd then dispersed singing ribald anti-Catholic songs as they went.

Churchill and his companions were eventually recovered from the upturned vehicle. All had only minor injuries apart from Churchill who suffered a broken leg and serious damage to his dignity. The injury was to be leave him with a serious limp and beset by pain for rest of his life. It also left him an implacable enemy of Carson and Unionism.

For King and Country?

Partially as a riposte to Churchill's speech earlier in the month and partially as a demonstration of strength, the Unionists held another huge rally on 24 February 1912 at the Agricultural Society show grounds on the edge of Belfast. Around 60,000 Unionists turned out despite bitter cold and driving rain to hear Bonar Law and Carson speak. In an uncompromising speech, delivered in front of a Union Jack some 50 feet across, Bonar Law assured those present that the Conservative Party would support Ulstermen if they resisted Home Rule by force.

Your cause is not that of Ulster alone. Your cause is the Empire's. I can imagine no length of resistance to which Ulster can go, in which I would not be prepared to support them, in which my Party would not support them and in which, in my belief, they would not be supported by the vast majority of the British People.

In his turn Carson returned to his constant theme of Ulster's willingness to fight.

I recognise my responsibility; Heaven knows I am always thinking about it. From morn till night, I think of the grave tragedies that may lie before us. It doesn’t make me shrink one iota as regards myself; no man in my position can help but think of others who have to fight out this battle. I contemplate what may happen, it is natural to feel – even the bravest heart – I shall not say with fear, but with a sense of responsibility that is almost appalling. But I know this, I am dealing in all parts with brave men who have made up their minds and if we have to go into a fight – which God forbid – we will do so knowing that for the last thirty years, for no fault on our part which can alleged against us, we have been a threatened and an outraged people and we will also be conscious in our minds that every warning which it was possible to give the government from the very first day on which this wicked conspiracy was put forward against us – every opportunity was taken warning them that under no circumstances would we submit to be thrust out of the government under which we were born by the most unscrupulous government that I have ever known or read of.

Ulstermen will not suffer to be handed over to a Catholic government in Dublin. We will not suffer to see our loyalty dismissed, set aside and denigrated. Ulster will resist, by force of arms if needed - Ulster will fight.

Carson did not elaborate further how that fight would be organised but that became clear the next day with two announcements by the Ulster Unionist Council. The first was the creation of a Volunteer Army of 100,000 men willing to be trained in the use of arms and ready to use those arms in the defence of Ulster if need be. The second was the launch of a Covenant to be signed by every adult Ulsterman, declaring themselves ready to stand for Ulster and the Union.

BEING CONVINCED in our consciences that Home Rule would be disastrous to the material well-being of Ulster as well as of the whole of Ireland, subversive of our civil and religious freedom, destructive of our citizenship, and perilous to the unity of the Empire, we, whose names are underwritten, men of Ulster, loyal subjects of His Gracious Majesty King George V., humbly relying on the God whom our fathers in days of stress and trial confidently trusted, do hereby pledge ourselves in solemn Covenant, to stand by one another in defending, for ourselves and our children, our cherished position of equal citizenship in the United Kingdom, and in using all means which may be found necessary to defeat a Home Rule Parliament in Ireland. And in the event of such a Parliament being forced upon us, we further solemnly and mutually pledge ourselves to refuse to recognise its authority and to resist its imposition. In sure confidence that God will defend the right, we hereto subscribe our names.

And further, we individually declare that we have not already signed this Covenant.

The choice of words 'men of Ulster' was deliberate. Carson and the others saw the Covenant as a prerequisite for the creation of an armed force in which women were to have no part. A 'Declaration' to be signed by the women of Ulster was launched in parallel which made clear their subservient role.

WE, whose names are underwritten, women of Ulster, and loyal subjects of our gracious King, being firmly persuaded that Home Rule would be disastrous to our Country, desire to associate ourselves with the men of Ulster in their uncompromising opposition to the Home Rule Bill now before Parliament, whereby it is proposed to drive Ulster out of her cherished place in the Constitution of the United Kingdom, and to place her under the domination and control of a Parliament in Ireland.

Praying that from this calamity God will save Ireland, we hereto subscribe our names.

The campaign began in the West at Enniskillen, moving daily closer to Belfast and its climax. At the first rally, 50,000 Orange men marched past the platform in military order. The same pattern continued as the campaign developed; Orangemen paraded in force and the same resolution was passed by acclamation - “We won't have Home Rule”, soon to be abbreviated to “We won't have it” and chanted at every opportunity. The culmination of the campaign came in May in a ceremony at the Ulster Hall in Belfast where Craig handed to Carson a faded banner that had been carried, it was claimed, at the Battle of the Boyne. Unfurling it before the crowd, Carson declaimed “May this flag for ever fly over a free Ulster.”

The next day was a Sunday, with services all over the Province at which the signing of the Covenant was presented as a religious obligation as much as a political one. The Protestant churches gave it their full support, with Charles D'Arcy, Bishop of Down, Connor and Dromore announcing from the pulpit "We hold that no power, not even the British Parliament, has the right to deprive us of our heritage of British citizenship." After the services had ended Carson and other Unionist leaders walked the short distance from the Ulster Hall to Belfast City Hall, preceded by the Boyne Standard presented to him the previous evening and with a guard of men wearing bowler hats and carrying sticks. At the City Hall entrance – no difficulties were offered for this use – Carson was welcomed by the Lord Mayor and Corporation in their Robes, the Poor Law Guardians, the Harbour Commissioners and even the Water Board. Inside, the Covenant was set on a circular table draped with the Union Flag. Carson was the first to sign, followed by Lord Londonderry and then by representatives from the Protestant Churches.

Outside City Hall, under the command of Major Frederick Crawford, another Ulster activist of long standing, Carson's guard had been supplemented by others drawn from Unionist Clubs and Orange Lodges across the Province, and now made a force of some 2,500 men. These marshals admitted the general public to sign in batches of four or five hundred at a time until 11pm that night. Similar enthusiastic scenes were to be found across the Province. Meanwhile, at the Ulster Hall women signed the Declaration of Support, although not without some disruption from suffragists. The treatment given to these women on the day was brutal and something that would rebound on the Unionist movement over the next few years. In public buildings, church halls and Market Squares across the Province, similar signing ceremonies were taking place. By the end of the day, it was claimed by Carson that some 20,000 people had signed the Covenant and 12,000 women the Declaration. Eventually some 300,000 men signed the Covenant and 240,000 women, the Declaration.

In June a British Covenant was announced at a massive rally in London's Hyde Park with probably 300,000 people assembling to hear Lord Milner and Carson speak.

BEING CONVINCED in our consciences that Home Rule would be disastrous to the material well-being of the whole of this United Kingdom and perilous to the unity of the Empire, we, whose names are underwritten, loyal subjects of His Gracious Majesty King George V., do hereby pledge ourselves in solemn Covenant before God, to stand by our fellow countrymen in Ulster in defending, by all means which may be found necessary, their cherished position of equal citizenship in the United Kingdom, and in taking or supporting any action that may be effective to prevent the Home Rule Bill being put into operation, and more particularly to prevent the armed forces of the Crown being used to deprive the people of Ulster of their rights as citizens of the United Kingdom. And in the event of such a Bill being forced upon us, we further solemnly and mutually pledge ourselves to refuse to recognise its authority and to resist its imposition. In sure confidence that God will defend the right, we hereto subscribe our names.

 And further, we individually declare that we have not already signed this Covenant.

The signature campaign for this was largely organised through the Primrose League and the Union Defence League. By the end of the summer, two million signatures were obtained. Prominent signatories included Field-Marshal Lord Roberts, Admiral of the Fleet Sir Edward Seymour, Rudyard Kipling, and Sir William Ramsay FRS together with many servicing officers of the Army and Navy.

Despite the huge level of support, many condemned the campaign. The Daily Herald described the signatories as being:

... all members of that treasonous and seditious conspiracy known as the 'British Covenant' in support of armed revolution in Ulster.

Tom Mann, in a speech in Birmingham, was caustic in comparing his treatment for publishing a leaflet calling on troops not to shoot striking workers, while “Knights and Peers of the Realm create private armies” without fear of penalty. Labour MPs in the House of Commons were equally acerbic denouncing Carson and Bonar Law alike as unpatriotic, treasonous and seditious. On several occasions the session had to be suspended by the Speaker with near brawls between members.

Another report in the Daily Herald captured something of the character of the debate.

In great anger at the penalties inflicted on the Syndicalists, Mr. George Lansbury, M.P., speaking in the House of Commons, endeavoured to persuade the Government to take action against the authorities in Ulster who are responsible for the alleged drilling of Ulstermen to resist Home Rule when it comes. Mr. Jerry MacVeagh, the wag who is secretary of the Irish Parliamentary party, referred to a statement of Lord Dunleath that it was not military drill, but squad drill, adding for himself that " the only object was to enable large bodies of Orangemen to turn round when they received a word of; command from their leaders.'' (Laughter.) Mr. Asquith said the Government was fully informed as to what was " going on, " the immediate object being, as I understand, to prepare for a party demonstration in a few weeks time," (Laughter.) If they suspected any seditious purpose they would take action, since no authority could sanction drilling for an illegal purpose. Mr. Lansbury asked if the law would not be called in should the Miners' Federation commence to teach its men drill. Mr. .Asquith: That is a hypothetical question, and I will answer it when it arises. Mr. Lansbury finished up by presenting Mr, Asquith with a leaflet circulated in Ulster informing the people that officers of the army had told their friends they would order their men not to fire on the people of Ulster if they rebelled against Home Rule.

Nationalist feeling elsewhere in the UK was aroused too. In Scotland, 'The Thistle' said:

Scotland has had to fight for years to get her most urgent needs attended to, the demands of her members of Parliament being largely ignored, whether the party in power be Liberal or Conservative. How then arises this difference of treatment? The answer is a sad one, but it is plain and undeniable. The brutal English majority in Parliament turns all but a deaf ear to the manifold requirements of Scotland, because the Scottish people are peaceful and law-abiding—but it truckles to the remonstrances and complaints—civil and religious—of the Irish people, because they resort to violent means if their demands are refused.

Other newspapers played down the Unionist call to arms in favour of attacks on the Home Rule plans. A Times editorial argued that “to shut [the Unionists] out of their present Constitutional position and to subject them to the Nationalists would be oppression of the grossest and most cruel kind” going on to say of the campaign – in Ulster and in the rest of the United Kingdom – that “it is by its gravity, its moderation, and its unflinching firmness that it will arrest the attention and secure the support of the English and the Scottish people.”

Ulster Mobilises

Despite the protestations of Loyalty to the Crown, the launch of the Covenant and the associated mobilisation of the UVF was nothing less than a declaration of willingness to use armed force against His Majesty's Government. Bonar Law repeated his pledge of Conservative Party support for the Unionist cause in numerous speeches both at public meetings and in the Commons. In a particularly heated exchange with Asquith he said:

Do you plan to hurl the full majesty and power of the law, supported on the bayonets of the British Army, against a million Ulstermen marching under the Union Flag and singing 'God Save The King'? Would the Army hold? Would the British people — would the Crown — stand for such a slaughter?

Across Ulster men were signing up in their hundreds for the new Ulster Volunteer Force and enthusiastic bands of men could everywhere be seen drilling, usually with crude wooden staves in place of rifles, although in a few cases armed with shotguns and the occasional rifle.

By the end of April 1912 it was clear to the Nationalists, if not the Government in London, that Unionists were becoming increasingly militarised. Weapons were appearing at parades and training was beginning to include firing exercises. In June the UUC went a step further, approving the creation of a Provisional Government for Ulster if Home Rule became law and setting up a Military Council to oversee the development and arming of the UVF. Lord Roberts of Kandahar was appointed to the command of the UVF. Rumours were already widespread of large scale purchases of arms by agents acting for the UUC and the creation of the Military Council appeared to confirm this. The UUC also launched a fund (underwritten by several wealthy Belfast businessmen) to create an indemnity guarantee for British Officers who resigned their commission or were dismissed for refusing to use force again Loyalists.

The Republicans responded in kind – twice. In May 1912 the creation of an Irish Volunteer Army was announced. Although not admitted in public, it was understood on all sides that the secretive Irish Republican Brotherhood were prime movers. The IRB were traditional Republican and not sympathetic to the concerns of workers or women. Everything was to be subordinated to the task of securing Irish Independence. Faced with this, supporters of Larkin and Connolly began recruiting volunteers for a proposed Irish Citizen Army in July.

Over the next few months all parties focussed on building positions of strength. The UVF by the end of June had reached 35,000 members across most of Ulster. From a slow start the IVA had reached only about 8,000 concentrated mostly in Dublin with some small groups in rural areas across the south. By the end of July the figures stood at UVF 40,000, IVA, 20,000 and ICA 1,500. The newly created ICA was concentrated in Dublin with smaller groups in Limerick, Waterford and Cork and Belfast.

As membership in these militias grew so did intercommunal tensions. On 29th June matters came to a head, when a Protestant Sunday School outing was attacked by a group of Republicans from the Ancient Order of Hibernians who took exception to the union jacks being waved in the procession. Seeing the attack under way, other locals joined in the affray. More by luck than anything else, the two groups were eventually separated by the few available local police officers without any serious physical injuries, who then managed to get the Protestant group onto their train back to Belfast. By Monday, the story of the attack had spread across Orange Belfast, no doubt multiplied in the telling, and the inevitable reprisals began. Roman Catholic workers in the ship yards were attacked and driven from the yards and more attacks took place on their homes. Retaliations by Republicans were swift. Throughout July and August tit for tat attacks continued with both Catholic and Protestant families attacked at work, on the streets and in their homes.

By now the Government, while publicly dismissive, was beginning to be concerned. They were already faced by major disruption from labour disputes, with 10,000 troops committed to the North East of England and at least 40,000 troops deployed elsewhere to support hard pressed police. The prospect now of violence in Ulster was not appealing, especially given that Republicans were also mobilising against the perceived threat of an anti-Catholic and anti-Republican militia. To make matters worse, suffragist violence was also on the increase with intermittent arson attacks on Unionist properties and the property of prominent Unionists in Ulster and more generally in London and elsewhere.

The Committee Stage of Home Rule Bill was also considered in June. A late amendment to exclude Antrim, Armagh, Down and Londonderry was reluctantly accepted by the Unionists but after three days of debate was defeated by 69 votes, failing to secure Asquith's support. This was nevertheless a tactical victory for the Unionists since at least the Government had been forced to admit of the possibility of a separate Ulster. Speaking at a meeting in London, Carson admitted that the result was not unexpected. He went on to say however:

I think the time has come for us to take a step forward in our campaign and that is what I shall recommend be done.

Not for the first time Carson was ambiguous about the precise meaning of his statements. Publicly there was a large military style parade in Belfast at the beginning of September, where, for the first time armed members of the UVF appeared in public, although without any overt recognition of the fact from Carson or other members of the UUC. Similar parades took place over the next few weeks across the Province. The UUC also announced that a commission had been established to prepare a constitution for any Provisional Government that might need to be established with the aim of a report before the end of 1912.

[schmidtchristmasmarket]

Ten Things to do in Rome for Christmas

Were you planning to be in Rome around the time of Christmas? Tis the season to be jolly, so be sure to check out these ten recommendations. This was a thought list to write because there are many amazing things to see and do in Rome around this time of year. However, here at the Schmidt Christmas Market, we decided to boil everything down to just ten of the best things to do in Rome. Without further ado, let's begin!

Sign up to get our blog in a weekly email Christmas Markets

It's no wonder that we'd recommend a Christmas market, but hear us out. Although Italy doesn't quite have the same concept as Christmas as the U.S., Rome nonetheless puts on a fantastic display. Perhaps the most visited and widely regarded market resides in the famous Piazza Navona. There are also other options like the ones in the Campo de' Fiori, which are also worth visiting. The Christmas market is held in Piazza Navona square was built in the 1st century under orders of Emperor Domitian. The original purpose was a hippodrome, which would also serve as a place to reenact naval battles. The area would be flooded, and miniature versions of warships would be used. This market hosts a wide range of vendors, from street performers to artists, musicians, and stalls. So make sure to stop by and compare it to the Schmidt Christmas Market. Christmas Trees Galore

Although Rome's concept of Christmas is not quite the same as the American version, Rome does know how to put on a great Christmas tree show. All around Rome you will find enormous and well light Christmas trees. Although there is plenty of competition, some of the best trees can be found around the Coliseum in Piazza Venezia. Go to the top of the Spanish steps and bask in the Christmas décor. The backdrop of the ancient Roman coliseum also makes for interesting photos and stories! A short ten-minute walk will also take you to the main boulevard to arrive back to Piazza Venezia. This Christmas tree comes with a splendid nativity scene along with a massively tall tree. What makes this even better is if you continue walking down Via del Corso, you will shortly reach the area around the Spanish Steps. This area has yet another nativity scene (perhaps a better one) and a large well-light Christmas tree. This area also generally has lots of people leisurely walking around shopping for Christmas decor and presents. Experience Christmas Culture in Rome Rome also has a very impressive list of experiences you can partake in. From live musicals to opera's, plays and more, there's no shortage of Christmas themed events. Here are just a few of those impressive spectacles we love. The Nutcracker at the Teatro dell’Opera Vivaldi’s Four Seasons and other artists at the Chiesa di Ponte Sant’Angeloa around 7 PM. Handel, Beethoven, and Bruckner at Parco della Muscia or sometimes the Sala Santa Cecilia. Disney on Ice: Frozen also at the Parco della Musicia. Christmas concert as the Sala Baldini around 5:15 PM Again, these are just a few of the options you have to enjoy Rome's Christmas culture. You could probably even attend several of the events since some smart early in the evening while others start later. Go Ice Skating

This wouldn't be a Christmas blog without ice skating! Rome offers some great ice skating options. Consider walking over to the ice skating rank at Castel Sant'Angelo; if you're not around there, then no worries because Rome has plenty of other options as well! You could also try the popular ranks around Re di Roma, Tor di Quinto, or Villa Giordani.

Christmas Sweets and Treats

Rome also has some great food options, which are Christmas themed. Italian food is also famously delicious, so you'll have plenty to enjoy! We recommend venturing over to a store called Eataly near Piramide in the Testaccio area of Rome. The Eataly store features a large indoor market stocked full of traditional foods and treats centered around Italian cuisine. You'll probably also come across stacked boxes of cake called Panettone. This is a special "Christmas only" sweet bread that melts in your mouth when you eat it. It's more like someone figured out how to cross bread with candy floss. Manger of Bethlehem As an ode to the past, Rome still practices a special event giving homage to Christmas's true meaning. In Rome, you can find the re-creation of the Manger of Bethlehem scene, a Christian feast is put on, which features the concept of Jesus coming to humanity in the form of a helpless baby boy. Since Bethlehem meant "bread," a feast is put on to remember Jesus and eat the "body of Christ" as thanks. Midnight Mass Speaking of Christian traditions, Rome has plenty of them! You could also attend a midnight mass. In fact, many Romans suggest that Christmas only starts with midnight mass. To participate, walk over to the Basilica of St. Peter, where the Pope and others celebrate. Despite the "midnight" part of the name, the church has found it more practical to hold the celebration earlier in the evening. This is mostly for families and the elderly. Either way, it's quite the spectacle. Urbi et Orbe Thie address the Pope gives to the numerous followers of Catholicism both in the Vatican City and to the world. Urbi et Orbe means "to the city and to the world," the city referring to Vatican City. During this address, the Pope also does Christmas greetings and talks about the meaning of Christmas. Expat Christmas Parties Rome also hosts a series of Christmas themed parties specifically for ex-pats. These parties are generally done through ex-pat communities and are cheap or sometimes free to attend. In some cases, you just need to bring food, and you're in! The nice thing about these parties is you can enjoy Rome during Christmas with people from your country yet still learn about and enjoy Christmas in Rome. Christmas in Rome Tour Finally, Rome offers many different tour options for Christmas parties. These tours generally take you to some of the places we've mentioned earlier. They also stop off at markets, eateries, and more to show you what Rome has to offer during the Christmas season.

Sign up to get our blog in a weekly email That concludes our list of things to do in Rome for Christmas. If you liked this post, then consider following our Christmas blog for more. Or check out the Schmidt Christmas market for more Christmas decor.

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[lievbios]

Angel || Fred Burkle

Name: Fred Burkle

Age: 23

Relationship: Single [Verse depending]

Sexuality: Pansexual

Job:

Faceclaims: Amy Acker

Winifred “Fred” Burkle is a physics student and member of Angel Investigations, and later the head of Wolfram & Hart’s Science Division.

Born in Texas, Fred moved to Los Angeles to attend graduate school at UCLA until one fateful day when her jealous physics professor, Oliver Seidel, used dark magic to banish her to the demon dimension Pylea, where she spent five years as a human slave; the time there took a serious toll on Fred’s sanity. In 2001, Fred was finally saved and returned to Earth when the vampire Angel and his friends arrived in Pylea and liberated them from the control of the Covenant of Trombli.

Upon recovering from her mental trauma, Fred joined Angel Investigations, adding her smarts and scientific knowledge to the team. Unfortunately, when Angel Investigations took over Wolfram & Hart in late 2003/early 2004, Fred met her end when one of her coworkers, Knox, brought in an ancient sarcophagus which infected her with the essence of the Old One Illyria, and despite her friends’ best efforts, Fred perished and her body was taken over by Illyria itself; though her soul was apparently completely destroyed in the process, Illyria retained Fred’s memories and some of her emotions and personality traits.

However, after Illyria’s death and the reversal of the end of magic, Fred was resurrected in London, actually Fred and IIlyria share the same body.

Fred was born in Dallas, Texas to Roger and Trish Burkle. When she finished San Antone High School,[1] she moved to Los Angeles for graduate school at UCLA. Originally majoring in history, Fred took a physics class with Professor Seidel which inspired her to take another path. Around this time, she began working at Stewart Brunell Public Library. On May 7, 1996, while shelving a demon language book, a curious Fred recited the cryptic text out loud and was accidentally sucked into a dimensional portal to Pylea. Her future friend, Lorne, was sucked into the same portal on his side and ended up in Los Angeles. The portal was actually opened by Fred’s jealous college professor, Professor Seidel, who had sent every promising student to it, essentially sending them to their death. Fred was the only one of at least six to return.[2] While still in school, Fred was a marijuana user and was something of a conspiracy theorist.[1]

For five years, Fred spent an arduous life as a “cow,” the Pylean equivalent of a slave. The harsh life of solitude and serfdom took a serious toll on her social skills, as well as her mental health. When Angel met Fred, she was curled up in a cave, scribbling on the already-covered walls, having seemingly convinced herself that her previous life in Los Angeles had not been real. Fred had once been forced to wear an explosive shock collar. However, Fred’s salvation came when Angel and his crew arrived in Pylea to find Cordelia Chase, who had become trapped there. When Angel’s demon came fully to the fore, it attacked just about everyone but Fred, including Charles Gunn and Wesley Wyndam-Pryce. Despite this shocking display of violence, Angel never seemed to scare Fred and even at his most demonic, he never attacked her. In fact, she seemed to have a calming effect on him.

After Pylea was liberated, Fred accompanied Angel and the rest of the gang back to Los Angeles and stayed in the Hyperion Hotel to re-adjust to life on Earth and regain her mental stability. Despite several traumatic instances, such as being held hostage by Gunn’s old vampire-hunting crew, she adjusted quite well to “normal” life. Her knowledge of physics and mathematics made her an excellent asset when researching and developing strategies. Fred’s ingenuity and resourcefulness also allowed her to create several constructs and contraptions that helped her adapt to stronger and more powerful enemies. After some time, Fred’s parents came to Los Angeles looking for her, but Fred avoided them and appeared afraid of them, briefly leading the rest of Angel Investigations to believe that the Burkles were abusive. However, Fred’s reluctance to see them was a result of her trauma from Pylea and the Burkles were in fact loving and supportive. Though she initially decided to return home to Texas with her parents, Fred ultimately decided that her place was in Los Angeles with Angel Investigations, a decision which her parents respectfully accepted.

Everything changed for Fred when she and the rest of Angel’s crew joined Wolfram & Hart. A spell removed all of her memories of Angel’s son, Connor. Fred received her own laboratory and became the head of Wolfram & Hart’s Science Division. She was a major asset to the team. Angel consistently relied on her department to quickly and efficiently solve problems. At this time, Fred was concentred to help to materialize the new member, a ghostly Spike. During a mission paired with Wesley, she was almost killed by Emil’s henchmen. Angel blame Wesley for it. After going on a few dates with co-worker Knox, Fred began to have feelings for Wesley again. The two paired up for about a week, but the couple’s happiness was not to last.

As she lay dying, Fred’s mind began to give way. Nearing the end, she panicked, stating that Feigenbaum, a stuffed rabbit named for mathematical physicist Mitchell Feigenbaum who studied chaos theory, should be there. When Wesley asked her who Feigenbaum was, Fred replied that she did not know. Cradling her in his arms, Wesley stayed with Fred until the moment she died, after which her body was taken over by Illyria.

Shortly after these events, Angel used Fred’s death to his advantage in order to infiltrate and ultimately destroy the Circle of the Black Thorn, the Senior Partners’ primary source of power on Earth, by making it appear that he himself was the one who arranged for Illyria’s sarcophagus to be transported to Wolfram & Hart.[3]

Some time after Illyria’s death, Angel encountered what appeared to be Fred walking along a street in Magic Town, London.[6] Talking with Fred as she is assessed by Nadira, Angel determines that Fred was apparently restored by the restoration of magic causing most of the old rules to be ‘reset’ as things that were lost were brought back. Fred explains that she remembers Illyria’s time in her body, such as her attempt to awaken her armies, but is still aware of Illyria within her, granting her access to Illyria’s older memories and occasionally allowing Illyria to take over when she is exhausted or stressed (Although they both sleep when Fred sleeps). Thanks to these flashes, Fred is able to reveal to Angel that Eldre Koh’s tribe were killed by Illyria centuries ago to frame him so that the cult he belonged to would be disbanded.

Fred was a normal human woman with no supernatural abilities. However, her brilliant mathematical mind, immense knowledge of quantum physics and science, and a natural ability in designing inventions made her an important asset of Angel’s team.

During this time, Fred also acquired some moderate fighting skills, mainly using a crossbow as a weapon, but even sword and gun. Later, when Jasmine took over Los Angeles, she was forced to face down all of Los Angeles on her own and was also able to hold her own unarmed, taking out a few armed Jasminites, including one armed SWAT member.

Following her resurrection, Fred has acquired a 'Jekyll-and-Hyde’-esque dynamic with Illyria, with Illyria able to manifest from Fred with her full powers and abilities while Fred only has the potential of those powers rather than being able to use them herself.

Fred was a fairly kindhearted and sweet individual, perfectly willing to help others. The most notable example was perhaps her interactions with Spike. When he confided in her that he was being slowly dragged into Hell, Fred worked tirelessly to build a machine that would restore his corporeal body. She was the first to believe that Spike was “worth saving” and though her efforts ultimately failed, she nonetheless earned Spike’s perpetual gratitude. Her personality was, in a sense, similar to that of Willow Rosenberg.

Just as Fred was willing to help others, she was also fairly vengeful against those who threatened her or her friends. When she and Gunn realized that Connor was responsible for Angel’s three month disappearance, Fred berated him while repeatedly hitting him with a stun gun. Another example was when Fred pursued revenge against Professor Seidel, an act which nearly came to fruition, if not for Gunn’s intervention.

Fred was also an innocent, unassuming young woman which often led people to underestimate her. On many occasions, she used this to her advantage, such as shocking Connor with a stun gun and knocking out a suspicious lab assistant at Wolfram & Hart. Also, she showed signs of great inner strength and an innate ability to survive on her own despite overwhelming circumstances. This was shown as she attempted to flee from Jasmine’s followers and earlier with her experiences in Pylea. In fact, while conversing with Illyria, Spike had said that Fred was one of the strongest people he ever met, solely based on the fact that she could still be able to love as after everything she had gone through in her life.[7]

Due to her traumatic experiences in Pylea, Fred briefly suffered from an undiagnosed mental disorder, although she fully recuperated. Although that it return brievly when she was attacked by an intedimensional tentacle demon, invocated by Seidel.

VERSES

[riverofhistory]

Episode 1: Dissecting the Past

The following is the transcript for the first episode of On the River of History.

For a link to the original podcast, go here.

The podcast will now be hosted here. This episode has now been split into 4 parts for easier listening.

Part 1

Greetings everyone and welcome to the very first episode of On the River of History. I’m your host, Joan Turmelle, historian in residence.

In this series, I will be taking up the task of explaining the history of the world. As any historian may tell you, it is never an easy job and it is certainly never one that will be truly complete. Put basically, there is just so much to tell and so many ways to tell it. While I am devoted to my goal of keeping this series holistic in scope, it may be inevitable that some parts of the story will be left out.

In preparation of this series, I had gone through several different options for how I wanted to tell this story. One way was an old-fashioned route: going through a complete nation’s history from past to present and then onto the next nation and starting the same process over, much like Will and Ariel Durant or Henry Cabot Lodge. Another way was to focus on geography: staying on one continent, going through the history of all the societies that were birthed there and moving on, a method similar to the work of Ralph Linton or Glenn King. In the end, I settled on a compromise.

Our journey on the River of History begins with the formation of the Earth and the subsequent origin and evolution of living things. Afterward the focus will shift to just one organism, that being (of course) our own species Homo sapiens. Following humanity’s spread across the world and the various ways in which different peoples adapted to the ice ages and their aftermath, the series becomes slightly episodic. While always moving forwards in time, I will be jumping from various geographic locations, tracing different societies as they develop and change. For example, in the story of China’s history, I will discuss the rise of states and the Shang Dynasty, before leaving to focus on another region, but in time I will return to China to discuss what happens next. And this will continue further and further forwards towards modern times.

As far as what will be discussed itself, I do not intend to just simply talk about the basics of a nation’s rise and fall or single out major events like key battles. When relevant interest arises, I will take the time to discuss the different aspects of a historic society: breaking down the intricacies of its art, language, belief systems, architecture, and science, as well as notable individuals.

Indeed, the river is vast, and we will sail it together.  

For all intents and purposes this episode acts a sort of prologue. Before we jump into the main narrative, I’d like to spend some time talking to you all today about historiography. This is the study of how historians look at and record history, be it that of their home nation or of the globe. In doing so, I hope to share with you all just how complicated it can be to write a history of, anything really. There are many ways to do it, and they all have their pros and cons.

But now comes the million-dollar question: what is history? In analyzing the various aspects of historiography, I hope to be able to provide an adequate answer.

We often divide our past into two parts: history and prehistory. Prehistory, as the etymology suggests, is the time before history. So then, where is that cut off point? The most common definition is that history begins when people started writing down records of events in their lives. As such, many historians tend to focus on documents, records, and journals: anything that can be traced to an individual or many at some point in the past who can be named and perhaps traced to a living lineage. These can be found among families who have held onto these documents, or they can be found in places of worship, banks, libraries, and museums. So, in a sense, history would be tied to the practice of writing.

With this in mind, we recognize that history would have begun at different times for different societies. The people of Egypt created hieroglyphics around 5,300 years ago. Sumerian cuneiform developed from earlier pictorial systems around a hundred years later. In present-day Pakistan, the people who settled along the Indus River Valley created a script (still undeciphered) 4,600 years ago, and the Minoans of Crete made an equally undeciphered script 3,900 years ago – though these latter two may have arisen from contact with the peoples of Sumeria and Egypt. The written word did not see the light of day in the Americas until 2,400 years ago, probably among the Olmec. China gave us the last independently created writing system roughly 4,500 years ago. Over time, as peoples and ideas moved across the world, so too did their writing systems, slowly changing and developing into new forms. Thus, the histories of those different societies could officially begin.

In keeping with this concept, we must also recognize that many peoples around the world would not have had their own histories because they never developed writing. For the indigenous peoples of Australia, New Guinea, much of the other Pacific Islands, most of the Americas, and in vast regions of Africa and Asia, their histories came when outsiders (primarily Europeans) introduced writing to them. In keeping with a good definition for history that we want to work with, should this be so? I say, no.

As many indigenous peoples will tell you, there are other ways of recording the events of the past. Oral traditions are words and stories transferred by speech. These have often been dismissed by historians and others, on the assumption that a) they are unreliable because of the nature of human communication, essentially working like one long game of telephone and b) they can only go back a few generations. But continuing work with first nations peoples are shattering those assumptions.

Take aboriginal Australians, for instance. Linguist Dr. Nick Reid and colleague Patrick Nunn have worked with various nations throughout the island continent and were able to analyze 18 oral histories and stories. They tell of times when the continent looked different from the present day: The Great Barrier Reef was originally connected to the mainland of Queensland and the Wellesley Islands near Carpentaria formed a sharp peninsula. What fascinating the researchers was not so much the stories themselves, but these tidbits of information preserved within them. It is nothing new to historical geologists that Australia’s coastlines looked very different once upon a time: with the growth and decline of the great glaciers of the northern hemisphere during the ice ages, the sea level rose and fell in tow. Parts of the coastline originally extended for hundreds of miles and New Guinea and Tasmania belonged to the same landmass. For living aboriginal Australians to keep memories of these environmental changes in their stories means that their oral histories extend not for centuries, but for thousands of years. Dr. Nick Reid has estimated that the oldest of these histories could be at least 10 to 12,000 years old.

The situation is similar for indigenous Americans too. The Klamath, who live in present day Oregon and California have an oral history of a large volcano that once erupted, later collapsing and becoming what they call giiwas, but we you may know as Crater Lake. Geologists, again, are very familiar with the formation of Crater Lake: like many such phenomena, after the caldera cools rain falls and slowly fills the crater until it turns into a lake. This particular event has been dated to 7,700 years ago and that means that the Klamath have retained this cultural memory in their stories for that long.

It is clear that oral traditions can be just as accurate and just as informative as written records. I have just spoken of the memories of geologic events. But that is just a small fraction of the knowledge preserved in this manner. There are tens of thousands of myths, medicines, recipes, natural histories, agricultural techniques, chronologies, and other aspects of society that have lasted millennia.  

I think the point has been made. Whether written or spoken, history should not be so clear cut as this. Besides, though both methods are valuable in their own ways, they can be prone to issues. It cannot be denied that biases have always be present in many historical records. Sometimes, people lie or do not recall things clearly. Sometimes there are contradictions between different texts that report on the same events. Sometimes not enough information on a particular battle or ceremony of holiday was not collected, and the author was forced to make up details. Places names are recorded but never their locations. Documents may lack signatures or dates. Perhaps most frustrating of all, the livelihoods of one nation’s people can be observed and recorded by representatives of another neighboring nation. Should these nations be in conflict with each other, those records may be biased and even derogatory. And the historian is left to figure out fact from farce. What then?

Part 2

There are other tools that a historian can use to unravel the past and indeed the following three methods have provided some of the richest (and in many cases the most accurate) details.

Archaeology is the study of past peoples and their societies from a purely material perspective. Despite what you may think or have heard, archaeologists are not concerned with prehistoric animals, like the popular Mesozoic dinosaurs: that is the domain of the paleontologists (though the two fields share many methods). The historical evidence an archaeologist is looking for is in the earth and soil, where time and environment have overtaken the hands of workers and warriors and buried them away. What an archaeologist may find is nothing more than scraps (indeed, there is a technical term for a garbage dump – they’re referred to as middens), but on many occasions are the rewards breathtaking. Entire cities buried in sand, horse-drawn chariots with horse and chariot still attached, beautiful frescos, and even long lost written documents. If I’m making things sound romantic, you’ll have to forgive me, much of archaeology’s early history was treated this way, often by people who sought recognition or a source of personal riches. Interspersed among these individuals were dedicated researchers who truly wanted to know the past like the back of their hands.

In the deepest ways, archaeologists face a tougher time reconstructing the past than traditional historians. The impression is given that a researcher working with scraps or pottery shards or fragments of wood has little to imagine or even work with. Thankfully, archaeology nowadays is blessed with a rich back catalog of past sites and societies. One fantastic resource, for example, are the Human Relations Area Files which include a database of archaeological traditions that can be used by students and researchers (and I will put a link in the show notes). Many archaeologists have become specialists of a particular time period and locality, so what may look like useless pebbles to the layperson can be like diamonds. And if any artifacts happen to me in poor shape, they’re kept anyway for future students. They may yet be diamonds themselves.

Though the technology has changed dramatically, the methods of archaeologists have more-or-less remained constant. First and foremost, appropriate permission must be given by government officials or anyone else involved – sometimes sites are found by accident on a person’s property, sometimes a construction project has to be delayed for fear of destroying a historic site. Because their targets are underground, the next step in an archaeological project is to do a survey of the area. Sometimes an old map or document must be consulted for clues on what to expect. Often a site is much too large to be seen from the ground and drones or helicopters need to be used to fully observe a site. In the air, the team can conduct photographic or geophysical surveys: mapping out the land from above and looking for anything that might aid the eye. During a survey, it helps to plot out the desired excavation site onto a grid. This can be done with simple tools like string and posts of wood or nails. This ensures that any artifacts found are identified with their locations in the place they were originally buried. If you want to reconstruct a historic site accurately, or even understand the circumstances that led to a site’s demise, it helps to know where you found everything exactly.

Archaeologists nowadays rarely excavate entire sites unless absolutely necessary. The process is long, costly, and inherently destructive. Rather than simply pick up a shovel and start digging, all possible excavation sites need to be carefully planned out and singled to the most appropriate spots as determined by the previous survey work. Then the work begins, digging vertically through parts of the soil and dirt to reveal any layers present. These layers correspond to specific points in time. The farther down you dig, the older the remains or, alternatively, the youngest layers are the newest: this is the law of superposition. At all times there are workers cataloguing recovered specimens, creating drawings and taking photos of the excavation process, and generally recording any information recovered. Often there are conservators on site as well, developing strategies to best collect fragile objects like pottery shards or thin human bones. Timing is key: some archaeological sites are lifelong projects with researchers returning every few years or so, while others come and go depending on what restrictions on time are present. The site of Little Egypt in Georgia (preserving Native American burial mounds from the Pre-Columbian period), was only excavated twice before the construction of a local dam resulted in the site being flooded in and destroyed.

Archaeology offers a materialistic look into the human past that is often missing from traditional historical practices, and when brought together sometimes the two can corroborate and expand our understanding. More often than not, the two can also cancel each other out: usually it is the work of archaeologists that run historical records afoul. The anonymity of the subjects is prevalent as well. When you’re dealing with periods of time that extend far beyond written records it’s impossible to know the names of any individuals found. Their careers and stories of demise, sure, but never their names. Not to mention the names of societies as well. Archaeologists have had to provide technical names to now lost cultures, because they’ve been gone for so long that no one survives to inform us about what those people called themselves. In this series, when I use names like Solutrean, Mississippian, or Afanasievo, I’m referring to archaeological terms, not the actual names of the societies themselves.

Linguistics is the study of languages and historical linguistics concerns the evolution of languages and how much (or how little) they have changed. Nowadays, learning a language is easy and most countries today provide education for students wishing to learn any number of world languages. Back in the past, however, languages were often tied to specific societies. Whenever a people had to move, they brought their language with them. Sometimes they came across new aspects in the places they traveled to or ended up inventing a new tool that had to be named. This was the way that new words were created, and these would have been taught to the younger generations, eventually becoming a basic part of the lexicon. In other cases, when peoples spread to new lands they conquered and subsumed the local populations. If these people were to be integrated into the dominant culture, it made sense to teach them the dominant language too. If the process is forced enough, the local languages may become extinct, but there were occasions when subjugated or enslaved peoples were able to incorporate the dominant language among their own: thus keeping their original tongue alive in a modified form. These creole languages eventually developed into full languages in their own right. In the era of European colonization, several creole languages formed, with the most familiar being those among enslaved Africans in the Americas. Languages can also have cognates: these are words that share a common ancestor. Sometimes cognates stem from related languages, but they can also derive from completely unrelated languages too. The word for ‘hurricane’ in English was created from the Spanish ‘huracán’, which itself stems from the Taino name for the god of hurricanes ‘Juracán’. The Amerindian language of the Taino peoples, called Arawak, is as distantly related to Spanish as Spanish is from Mandarin Chinese. Cognates can be found everywhere. But there can also be false cognates as well: two words that seem to be related in a common origin but are actually completely different.

So, what does this all have to do with history? Simply put, when you study a language, or two, or three, you are reading the work of hundreds or thousands of years. The presence of certain words can reveal what sorts of items were used or what animals and plants past peoples encountered. Historical linguists are also faced with the task of analyzing and classifying languages, trying to find the familial relationships between them. They have recognized that Spanish, French, Italian, and Portuguese share enough features that they belong to the same language family, called Romance. Similarly, Romance languages are similar to Osco-Umbrian languages. This is a family that includes historic languages spoken in Italy that are now mostly extinct, but we have records of them from documents. So, the two families are grouped together in an even larger family called Italic. And you can take it even further. By grouping languages in this way, researchers can reconstruct the evolutionary history of languages, and because in these pre-modern times societies and their words were often closely knit, the past movements of peoples can be deduced as well. It’s not the most exact method and many studies trying to tie languages to the movement of peoples have since been debunked, but it offers an accompanying body of information that, save for written documents, would otherwise be lost.

The last method, and perhaps the newest (relatively speaking) is the use of DNA or Deoxyribonucleic Acid to study the past. All humans, indeed, all living organisms on Earth, use DNA to house the genetic material needed to grow and reproduce. The field of biology has advanced tenfold in recent years, and the process of collecting and sequencing an organism’s DNA is pretty mundane stuff. What fascinates scientists is the information that is available in DNA, and what it can tell us about the past.

Nearly all DNA sequences contain differences between each other, the result of copying errors during the process of DNA replication. These mutations remain in the genetic code, and when an organism reproduces, those mutations can be transferred from parent to offspring. Often a mutation does nothing in particular; sometimes it alters the way a gene is displayed; other times it can prevent a gene from functioning. When a mutation changes how a gene is expressed, it can have consequences on the organism that houses that genetic code. If the mutation provides a benefit for the organism, like it helps the animal or plant survive in its environment, then there is a likely chance that the mutation will be transferred again once that organisms reproduces. And so on, until that change is present in the entire population. I’ll be discussing the ramifications of this process in a later episode, but for now I want to illustrate why this process is important for the historian.

In an individual’s genome (that is, their complete genetic code) there are a multitude of different mutations that have accumulated over time through that person’s family history. Compare two people’s genomes and you can see how much of their DNA are similar or different to each other. Biologists have been able to work out the average rate of mutations in human beings, and so they can examine two people’s genomes and see how long it has been since those family lines diverged from one another. This is a bit of an oversimplification, but the basic idea is there. Human geneticists have now studied the DNA of millions of people (from the past and present) and have been able to build enormous data sets that analyze the population histories of human beings. People are notoriously messy, however, and populations have often interbred with one another. This the traditional historian, as well as the layperson, knows too well: we live in a vastly interconnected global ecosystem, and it is nothing for two people separated originally by vast expanses of land and water to meet up and start a family. And the opposite end of the relationship spectrum is unfortunately present as well: years of study of historic societies have demonstrated a sickening trend of warring nations raiding a settlement, killing the men, and sexually assaulting the women. In time, the subjugated women give birth to children, and those children will eventually grow up and start their own families. All of this complex history of genetic mixing can be found in human genomes, and researchers have been able to reconstruct the past movements and intermixings of populations. They have even been able to discover demographics of people who no longer exist in an uncontacted form. Again, I will be elaborating on these discoveries in later episodes.

Historic documents and records, archaeology, historical linguistics, and human genetics. The story of the human past, and the methods used to uncover it, has never been as rich and as fascinating as it is right now.

Part 3

It’s easy to think about the past hour, or the past day, or the past week. Extend your reach and the month will be familiar too. Continue on to a year and then gaps will appear in your memory. The further you go back in time, the difficult it is to remember what occurred. Such is the issue of the historian who wishes to understand the events of the past. Many individuals from several different societies have developed calendars that help us make sense of everything, but even then, there is room for disagreement.

The most commonly used calendar in the world is the Gregorian Calendar. Named for Pope Gregory the 13th. In 1582 AD, he established the calendar as a replacement and an update to the older Julian Calendar, which itself was the creation of Julius Caesar in 46 BC. Both calendars had the same purpose: the year was divided into 12 months, with the months at their current lengths. However, the Julian Calendar originally reduced the actual solar year by 10 minutes. Trivial? Perhaps. But from its inception, the Julian Calendar gradually began to slow down the passage of time. Every three years, a leap day had to be added as an attempt to correct this. However, the years continued to shorten, until the time of Pope Gregory, when Christmas Day was now 10 days behind schedule. As Christmas was seen as an important day, the birth of Jesus of Nazareth, it was urgent that something be done. Thus, Pope Gregory sought to reform the calendar and institute his own. The difference? Those 10 unnecessary days were removed, and the leap day was added every four years, on February 29. Our last leap year was in 2016 and the next will be in 2020. This reform greatly improved the accuracy of counting the years and was widely accepted among the Catholic Church. It took two centuries before the Protestants made the switch, and now most of the world uses the Gregorian system, save for some of the Orthodox churches.

What makes the Gregorian and Julian Calendars unique are the way they divide the past. Both calendars officially start in 1 AD, that is, Anno Domini (a Latin phrase meaning in the year of our Lord). Thus, we are currently in the year of our Lord 2019. All times prior to 1 AD are labeled with BC, which means in basic English “before Christ”. The decision to start the date in 1 AD stems from the work of Dionysius Exiguus, a monk of the Eastern Roman Empire, who developed the system in 525 AD. It is currently unclear as to why Dionysius argued that Jesus of Nazareth was born on 1 AD, but no matter how he came to that conclusion, we now recognize that he was mistaken. The work of biblical scholars and other historians have argued that the most accurate date for the birth of Jesus was sometime in the year 4 BC (and no, it would not have been on Christmas). That is the current consensus, so both calendars are technically flawed in this respect. Despite this, the Gregorian Calendar is the most accurate method for calculating time as it closely matches the actual solar year and there are no signs that it will be replaced any time soon.

But others have tried. In 1993, geologist Cesare Emiliani created his Holocene Calendar. He recognized the accuracy of the Gregorian Calendar and its system of leap years, but he was concerned that the recognition of a ‘year of the Lord’ posed a philosophical problem for historians. While the life of Jesus and the advent of Christianity were (and are) important events in their own right, in the grand scheme of human history highlighting this date of birth is, to put it as polite as possible, arbitrary. Many regions around the world did not have any means to recognize this era, nor would they have known of Jesus himself: in the Pre-Columbian Americas, for example, it can be argued that the effects of Christianity wouldn’t take part until Christopher Columbus and his men forcibly placed them upon the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean after 1492 AD. Then there’s the inconsistently of the lack of a year 0. There is no 0 BC nor 0 AD: it goes from 1 BC straight into 1 AD. It’s a strange mathematical situation.

As a better and more holistic solution, Cesare Emiliani’s calendar begins roughly at the start of the Holocene Epoch, the time in the geologic history of the Earth to which we currently live. The International Commission on Stratigraphy recognizes the beginning of the Holocene at 11,700 years ago, but Cesare’s calendar extends to 12,000 years ago (it is based on an earlier calculation). Within this period of time, all of human civilization developed, from the earliest agricultural projects and community structures to the modern age. Thus, Cesare argues, the beginning of the Holocene is a more noteworthy start to a calendar. In essence, 10,000 years are added to AD dates, and BC dates are to be subtracted from 10,001. That makes our current year 12,019 of the Human Era (this is the calendar’s Anno Domini), and also gives us a year 0.  

It’s a nice system, in this historian’s opinion, and others have made attempts to gain the calendar more acceptance. But for now, it’s a niche calendar.

Moving on to the other concerns in understanding time, we recognize that our calendars only work to a limit. When a historian finds a document that was written before the advent of the Gregorian or Julian Calendar – that is, another calendrical system is used or just none at all – they have to find a means to place the true age of the document in its place. Archaeologists face this issue too. Nearly all of their finds lack signatures or dates, so they have to find other ways to calculate their true age.

In the study of time, there is relative dating, and there is absolute dating. Relative dating is elementary: as I have previously described in my discussion of archaeological methods, artifacts and settlements buried in the uppermost layers of the ground are younger than those buried below them. Archaeologists can excavate many items from several layers and then place these in a row and trace their development over time. Flinders Petrie, an Egyptologist working at the beginning of the 1900s, famously cataloged hundreds of preserved Egyptian pots and placed them in an intricate system from oldest to newest. In doing so, he was able to identify any pot that came his way just from its shape and form alone.

Absolute dating is more precise, and its methods varied but always based upon the rate of decay of atoms.

In radiocarbon dating, samples are recovered from organic materials like wood, bone, coal, and hair. Chemists recognize that carbon-14 is taken in by plants during photosynthesis, where it is converted into oxygen. These plants can be ingested by animals that will eventually die, or the plants will die on their own, or the wood from trees is cut and re-purposed into furniture or housing, which will eventually be destroyed by rotting or by fire or whatever. In any case, the exchange of carbon for oxygen ceases, and the carbon-14 undergoes decay at a known rate. The half-life of carbon-14 – the time when half of all the carbon has decayed – is 5,730 years. The older a sample is, the less carbon-14 it has. And this can be taken back 50-40,000 years, when nearly all of the carbon has broken down. By taking organic samples, archaeologists can measure the rate of decay and determine how old the samples are and these can be checked against our own calendar for precision.

The other method is potassium-argon dating. Here the situation is similar: potassium atoms decay at a known rate, only this time they develop into a new atom, argon. Samples have to be uncovered in volcanic rocks in order for potassium-argon dating to work, but the method is great for remains as old as 4.5 billion years. As you might guess, this is one of the preferred methods of archaeologists concerned with the earliest humans and their ancestors.

There are other methods as well, but I’ll leave you all with these for now. It is important to recognize that historical records do not have to end with writings or even oral traditions; they can be extended as far as the beginnings of the Earth. Historians today have access to a larger set-piece than they previously had.

Part 4

I’ve spent a while talking about how historians find out about the past, but now I must discuss what we do with this information. While it is one thing to study human history in order to know when events occurred, many people have made attempts to find meaning in it all. The questions beg: why does our history matter? What can our history tell us about ourselves today? What was the causation or chain of events that led to event x happening? Is there a natural progression to history, like some underlying process of growth or progress? Can a study of historic happenings help us predict future events? These are deep and loaded questions, but that has not stopped historians.

One of the most familiar attempts to reveal hidden truths to history was by historian Arnold J. Toynbee in his 12 volume work A Study of History. This was a major book series, with the first volume published in 1934 and the last not seeing the light of day until 1961. Through an exhaustive comparison of world civilizations, Toynbee attempted to find a set lifestyle for society. He imagined civilizations like living organisms: being born, reaching adolescence, experiencing a peak age, and eventually declining into unrecognizability. Toynbee argued that the key to a civilization’s success was in the efforts of what he called “creative minorities”, who were essentially rulers that sought solutions to any issues facing the societies they oversaw. If the issues threatening a civilization were at the right caliber (just shy of insignificant, but far below apocalyptic), then they can be overcome, and the society grows. If the opposite occurs, and a civilization’s leader ceases to come up with good solutions, then that nation simply faces desolation. Toynbee’s study of history relied on a supposed notion that all civilizations share a form of destiny. Ideas like destiny are ambiguous matters: there is no hint that the future is written in stone and no way to test that idea scientifically. Many critics have pointed this out among their reviews, and so Toynbee’s view of history has faded into obscurity.

The writer H. G. Wells, familiar to many through his science fiction work, completed The Outline of History in 1920, right at the end of the first World War. His outline was just that: a rundown of the events of the past. One of the larger overarching themes in Wells’ book was that the history of humankind was marked by a near ubiquitous goal of creating the most beneficial and most educated societies. Over time, different nations slowly drew themselves together through alliances, and there was be a steady path that culminated towards a single nationality, humanity. War, famine, poverty, nationalism, and prejudice would have to be fervently abandoned, while reason, science, and compassion be embraced wholeheartedly. One world religion, one education system, a democratic political system, and a single economic system that benefited all. This vision of utopia was common among many twentieth century authors, as the horrors of World War 1 provoked many into wishing for a better future for humanity. Indeed, some even argued that this Great War would be the last major war and that their vision of a perfect world was on the horizon. While there can be no doubt that a brighter future for the human species is a noble goal, the failure of H. G. Wells and of the other utopian authors laid on the circumstances of the world history that happened following WW1. Instead of the “Modern World State”, they saw the Great Depression and the ten-fold devastation of WW2. The vision of world history as a road to utopia was quickly expunged, and by the time of the final revised edition of H. G. Wells Outline of History in 1971, the final chapter became sharply agnostic and worrisome.

Nikolai Berdyaev, a philosopher, released The Meaning of History in 1923. His analysis was, in the end, rather pessimistic. He saw history as an endless series of human failures and that any attempts at achievement were doomed to fail as well. Likewise, the historian Oswald Spengler saw that the outcome of all world civilizations was decline and death; like Toynbee, he suggested that societies had natural lifecycles and elaborated on that idea in his 1918 book The Decline of the West. In an honest and thorough examination of world history, it is truly difficult to find any indication that societies truly die at all. While many distinct cultures have certainly seen their day, aspects of those cultures have survived to the present day. Take the Phoenicians, for instance, who no longer dominate the Mediterranean and its trading routes but have provided the world with the modern alphabet.

Most of these attempts to find an overarching theme to world history have not succeeded, but there was at least as many attempts to uncover the lessons of history. I, like many historians, would agree that there are valuable things to learn from an understanding of the past. One of the most famous and continuously repeated quotations regarding this matter comes from a Spanish philosopher, George Santayana: “Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.” These words derive from a volume of Santayana’s book The Life of Reason from 1905-1906. Admittedly, the quote has been reproduced many times into different forms, but the meaning is generally the same. What Santayana was arguing was that human beings should look to events of the past to see what has worked and what has not, so that they do not make the same mistakes twice. The usefulness of this philosophy can only work so far, because in principle it relies on the suggestion that human affairs are predictable. If something is done one way and had this outcome, then if repeated the outcome will be the same. Many philosophers have debated the truth of this matter: how exactly can we be sure that things really play out in this way? What about “third times the charm”? These are questions that historians have debated fervently, especially when political parties and their followers suggest solutions that have been attempted in earlier times to little avail.  

What about the notion of progress? Progress is defined as the improvement of some aspect of life. Many have argued that history has an inherent progress, and that human societies naturally follow a path from primitive to advanced. Things have steadily improved and the world of the 21st Century is a better place than any other period in history. On the surface this seems to be true: human life expectancy has risen over the years; the birth rate is higher than the death rate (so children are actually surviving through childhood); literacy rates have increased; education is now available for more youth; and so on. However, there are cracks in the façade. Certain aspects of human existence are improving, but our global environment is failing rapidly. The world’s natural resources are in decline; wild populations of plants and animals and their habitats are being wiped out with no replenishment; not to forget the rise in carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels that is warming our atmosphere at such an alarming rate that vast populations in Africa, India, and the Pacific Islands are dying due to their effects. The oceans are swamped with microplastics and are gaining acidity and many parts of the land are no longer viable for agriculture. Human beings have created a healthier and well-educated population, but they’ve also disregarded the natural environment that this same population depends on. What measure then is this supposed progress, if all that we’ve gained can so easily be taken away in the coming decades? Human beings have bit the hand that fed them, and that hand is their own.

Some historians have more or less abandoned any suggestion that progress is something that can be measured, or even something that matters. Historian Felipe Fernández-Armesto has provided a strong counterargument to the idea that there is a progression from primitive to advanced: he writes “Strictly speaking, ‘primitives’ do not exist: all of us are the products of equally long evolution.” Groups of uncontacted peoples in the Amazon, subsisting on foraged meals, are on equal ground with the citizens of São Paulo, the most populated city on Earth. These Amerindian peoples have lasted as long as their Latinx neighbors: when you travel back in time far enough, you find a common ancestral population that started with the same circumstances. Similarly, one could argue that periods of time in the past were better than modern times: see the various arguments by archaeologists about the apparently better health of pre-agricultural groups than their farmer descendants. A foraging lifestyle is difficult, and starvation was often at your doorstep, but at least you didn’t have to worry about arthritis, cavities, or monocultural diets. Progress is at best illusionary: as a concept it is useless to the historian and it is not a view that I will be subscribing to in this series.

I’ve discussed the various ways in which historians can know the past, and I’ve followed with a rough and patchy look at how those same historians have attempted to make sense of this knowledge. But what about you, the listener? If my presumption is correct, you’re listening to this series in the hopes that you will gain some insight into the history of the world, or at least you’re here because you genuinely like history as a topic. I enjoy history because of the doors that it opens. The worlds of the past offer a far more enriching experience than any imaginary world, in my opinion. In a fictional setting, any and all of its laws and causations are already set in stone. Everyone has a name, every place has a known location and system of rules, and every event has an explanation. Historic times do not have this luxury. The farther you go back in time, the more difficult our understanding becomes. There is always a sense of mystery here. There are details that are still unknown, details that may never be known. The past is enticing and exciting.

That’s why it saddens me to see world history treated with such carelessness by both young and old. In many polls, history classes are among the least popular subjects among students. Some schools have even removed history as a compulsory subject, relegating it to an elective. National histories are often given precedence over world history, and while it is certainly valuable to know the history of the nation to which the students belong, most of the time those classes are swamped with nationalism and falsehoods. Key facts about historic individuals and events are inaccurately told and these errors are repeated through textbook after textbook. The complexities and nuances of battles or political debates are downgraded into “good vs. evil” stories as if they were fairy tales. Lists of dates and names are required to be memorized, but teachers often fail to give explanations as to why these records are important in the first place. Then comes the issue of so-called “great-man” history: the idea that all the events of the past were the result of singular men (and it is usually always men) and the actions they took to change their world. Any historian can tell you how difficult this view is to hold in light of a proper understanding of the past. It’s not so simple. There is rarely (if ever) any role of Socratic discussion in these classes – textbooks treat the historical narrative as a series of facts that are to be regurgitated. Concerned and responsible individuals are working to change this, and there are some beautifully rich resources out there for students of history, but there is still much work to be done.

The famous musician Sting offers a curious recount of his time in history class: he said “I once asked my history teacher how we were expected to learn anything useful from his subject, when it seemed to me to be nothing but a monotonous and sordid succession of robber baron scumbags devoid of any admirable human qualities. I failed history.”

History is important because it is our shared heritage. It is the accumulation of millennia of individuals with now unknown names who were able to adapt themselves to their environments and then create their own habitats. Despite the distances, peoples around the world fostered beautiful and rich cultural traditions that have slowly changed over time and influenced each other. There were times of dread and death, but these were punctuated by periods of hope, hope that always kept people inventing and exploring and creating. That you are here right now is the result of an endless chain of individuals who survived despite the odds. A proper history of the world can do more than recount the stories of the past, it is a chance to answer questions about the present, and the future. The issues of our times, the circumstances that led to the development of all our conditions, the reasons that peoples and nations act the way they do, all those quandaries are available to you when you explore world history. That is what history is.

With all this being said, what makes me qualified to talk to you about the history of the world? I’m a United States citizen of Puerto Rican and French-Canadian heritage. I’m a transwoman and a secular humanist. I have never left the United States or its territories. My experiences are not universal to all people, not even members of my own family. Why should I speak for Earth?

This is the same problem that faces all historians around the world. Some solved the problem by collecting their peers together to tell the story – so that no single voice takes prominence. Most world history books or television productions are the result of work by multiple people from various backgrounds and historic fields. Singular authors of world history do exist, of course, but to complete their task they have often found themselves having to move beyond their sphere of life in an adventure of “thinking outside the box” and often the results fail due to personal prejudices slipping in anyway. With an appropriate use of cultural relativism, a historian can understand other past societies. Not to the level of the people who actually lived there and experienced the world in their own ways, but just enough to give an honest voice. Physicist Nigel Calder offered the analogy of looking at world history “like a Martian”. That is, separating yourself from all your personal opinions and identities and looking around the world as if you had never been born on this planet. Each new society and culture is a learning experience, like being in kindergarten again. In this light, everything – from politics to science to the arts – are given a new perspective and a new light. From there, you can gain new understanding, not just of others, but of yourself, and tell the story of humanity in an enlightened way. That is easier said than done, but it can be done.

We may look different, believe in different things, live in different places, but we all belong to the same species, Homo sapiens. With this recognition in mind, I will use the humanity I share with all of us to tell the greatest story of all time, the history of the world.    

And with that, we must lay anchor to our river journey. On the next episode: we will begin at a time long before humans. Before life on Earth. In order for there to be a world history, there had to be a world, and I will share the long-lost secrets that geologists and cosmologists have revealed about the formation of the Earth and its land and oceans, which laid the foundations for all that we know.  

That’s the end of this episode of On the River of History. If you enjoyed listening in and are interested in hearing more, you can visit my website at www.mixcloud.com/RiverOfHistory. A transcript of today’s episode is available for the hearing-impaired or for those who just want to read along: the link is in the description. And, if you like what I do, you’re welcome to stop by my Twitter @KilldeerCheer. You can also support this podcast by becoming a patron, at www.patreon.com/JTurmelle: any and all donations are greatly appreciated and will help continue this podcast. Thank you all for listening and never forget: the story of the world is your story too.

[afishtrap]

In the postwar era, early modern or Edo period (1600-1868) Japan has most often been represented as a culture in isolation due to ostensibly draconian  Bakufu  regime policies that promised death to any one returning from abroad ( sakokuron , or the "Closed-Country" theory). While historians of Japan acknowledge limited contact with Dutch, Chinese, Korean, and Ryukyuans, the two hundred and sixty-some years of the Edo Period has consistently been interpreted as a time in which an indigenous Japanese culture developed and flourished without the corrupting influence of extensive foreign contact. This project takes as its subject the stories of thousands of Japanese fisherman and sailors who became distressed at sea ( hyôryûmin  ) and subsequently drifted throughout the Pacific before being rescued and repatriated by foreigners during the late 18 th  and 19  th  centuries. The hundreds of narratives that comprise this textual category of early modern hyôryûki or "castaway narratives" served as the primary means of representing encounters with foreigners in and around the Pacific region and, in turn projecting an emerging Japanese national consciousness. The origins of these hyôryûki  are tied to the earlier establishment of diplomatic protocol for handling repatriated castaways primarily within an East Asian context and the kuchigaki  ("oral testimonial") narrative records that resulted from interrogations of the repatriated subjects by both   bakufu  and domain officials. Late Edo castaways also had their stories of drift recorded in kuchigaki form, however with the encroachment of first Russian, and later English, American, and other western ships in the waters off the coast of Japan in the late Edo period (post-1780) other  hyôryûki forms--both scholarly and popular--came to proliferate, as it became imperative to translate and re-imagine geopolitical developments in the greater Pacific. This dissertation not only uncovers a diverse textual and cultural category of hyôryûki  , but also the complicated interrelationship between cultural production and concrete territorial and political concerns of the State. In so doing, it not only challenges traditional historiography of early modern Japan, but also reclaims a certain cultural specificity for the late Edo Japanese   hyôryûki, contextualizing these texts within a more global process of colonization and modern Nation-State formation.

Michael S. Wood. “Literary subjects adrift: A cultural history of early modern Japanese castaway narratives, ca. 1780-1880.” East Asian Languages and Literatures Theses and Dissertations. University of Oregon, 2009.

The writing of these hyoryuki accounts was an activity charged with political and ideological import. Through their regulation, production, replication, and dissemination these texts represent a broad textual category that conveyed knowledge of others, while also inscribing a new self-identity in the form of an emerging national body for Edo readers. The overwhelming focus on defining the "Japanese" body in terms of diet, hairstyle, language, clothing, song, religious practice, and other performative acts is a characteristic common to most late-Edo hyoryuki. In other words, the subject of these accounts is just as much an emerging national, cultural, and metaphysical Japanese identity, as it is the exotic and foreign bodies and spaces of far away places. Thus, the production of these accounts and the establishment of varying formal aspects of hyoryuki genres both speak to a shifting and gradually colonized Pacific, while also projecting a certain epistemological foundation for Japan's own national territorial and cultural claims.

Pointing to archeological evidence, we might rightly say that maritime drift has taken place from pre-historical times and that cultural exchange resulting from these accidental trans-oceanic encounters was significant.4 The vast archive of world folklore provides us with numerous examples of castaway figures such as Urashima Taro and the Book ofJonah. Likewise, monumental cultural texts such as the Kojiki and Homer's Odyssey, also suggest that the castaway figure is in fact a "monomyth" and heroic archetype that embodies a formulaic departure, trial, and return on a journey of self-discovery. Certainly, the conditions of drift have long been ripe with dramatic and metaphorical meanings. But while synchronic similarities linking Edo period castaway accounts to classical canons and prehistoric folklore are certainly evident, this project focuses on the historically and culturally specific characteristics of late-Edo accounts, in order to understand them in a specific Pacific context of the late-eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In other words, while castaways may be as old as humanity's first attempts to float, the form any such narrative takes is inevitably both historical and particular to the language, traditions, and milieu through which it is told.5

[...]

Some of the earliest written Japanese historical documents to survive today testify to the exceptional nature of castaways. For example, in the twenty-fourth volume of the Zoku Nihongi there is the story from 763 C.E. of a ship returning from Korai (Kr.: Koguryo) that became distressed and drifted, only to be saved after proper supplication was offered to the gods.14 Other texts such as Matsura no miya monogatari, probably written by Fujiwara Teika around 1185, foreground the experience of a heroic Japanese figure in China and chronicle the superhuman challenges posed in repatriation. ls This early literary castaway account, if we might provisionally call it that, represents the historical figure Kibi-no-makibi  in hyperbolic terms, ultimately emphasizing a certain Japanese cultural superiority over China. According to Maruyama Masao the national character of Japan emerges through encounters with the outside and a particular dialectical relationship between native and foreign.

[...]

Despite several examples that predate the Edo period, the category of hyoryuki is generally considered by Japanese historians to be an early-modern phenomenon and a result of maritime prohibitions (kaikin) instituted by the Tokugawa bakufu regime in the 1630s and ostensibly maintained until the 1850s. While Haruna Akira recognizes that events designated as hyoryu were not limited to the early-modern or kinsei era (generally recognized to be synonymous with the Edo or Tokugawa period), he emphasizes the significance of these events for the maintenance of national integrity within East Asia during this same period. Furthermore, he points out that these events were important means of learning about the world outside of East Asia.21 At the same time focusing on formal qualities that distinguish Japanese hyoryuki, Haruna notes that the textual category that takes as its subject events of drift is a particularly early-modern phenomenon in Japan.22 Likewise, the historian of Japan-Korea relations Ikeuchi Satoshi, just looking at documented accounts of drift between the Japanese archipelago and the Korean peninsula, identified 91 cases involving 1235 Japanese individuals drifting to Korea between the 1618 and 1872. Even more astonishing are the numbers he gives for Koreans drifting to Japan; 35 incidents between the years 678 and 1079, 50 examples taking place between 1289 and 1591, and an amazing 971 cases between 1599 and 1872 (roughly corresponding to the early-modern period).23 Today there remain thousands of representative documents that comprise this textual category of hyoryuki.