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zusnetwork · 2 years ago

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Control Your Own Data with Züs | Weekly Debrief July 12, 2023

Control Your Own Data with Züs

Cloud Cover AMA:

Happy Wednesday! Our bi-weekly Cloud Cover AMA (Ecclesia #19) is scheduled for tomorrow, Thursday, July 13th, at 9 AM PST. Join us as Saswata presents the latest updates on the Züs Mainnet and the Active Set. Keep reading today’s post to learn more about blockchain updates and how to control your own data with Züs.

We highly value your participation! Feel free to submit your questions on the Discord channel or via Telegram. Now, let’s dive into this week’s updates!

Calling all Züs Community Members!

We need your help! As we approach the Mainnet launchs, we invite you to test our Apps. Your feedback is invaluable in ensuring a seamless and user-friendly experience. To participate, simply visit https://zus.network/launch-apps/ and select the App you would like to test. We kindly ask you to share your feedback on our Discord Channel.

Storm of the Week:

Züs Empowers Users to control their own data in a Data-Driven World

In the wake of the recent class-action lawsuit against Google over data privacy concerns, the need to change how we manage, and control data is more apparent than ever. The lawsuit was triggered by Google’s implementation of a new policy that permits data scraping for AI training, with allegations stating that the company extracted data from millions of users without their consent, underscores the risks associated with centralized data storage systems.

Züs aims to fill this need with our decentralized cloud storage solution. Our system empowers users to control and own their data, marking a significant shift away from the risks associated with Centralized Storage systems.

“Publicly available” data does not equate to “free to use for any purpose.” Instead, any utilization of data for purposes such as AI training should require explicit user consent. Leveraging blockchain technology, we can provide transparency, enabling users to verify how their data is accessed and used.

This approach not only preserves user privacy, but also prevents unfair competitive advantages for large entities like Google. No single entity governs vast amounts of data in a decentralized system, precluding such competitive imbalances. The road to decentralized storage comes with challenges, but at Züs, we are committed to overcoming them. Our goal is not just to build a product but to shape the future of secure, transparent, and fair data management. We believe the future of data storage is decentralized and user focused. Join us as we redefine the way we control, store, and protect our data.

Blockchain Updates:

Last week, the blockchain team focused on the Smart Contract (SC) optimization PR and initialized the benchmark tests on large data MPT. However, the performance was not effective enough to be merged, so they decided to postpone the PR and continue the investigation after Mainnet. Here are some assumptions regarding the reasons behind the suboptimal performance of the optimization on large MPT data:

a) The team observed that partitions slow down when one partition becomes full, requiring the packing and generation of a new head partition. Moving the item’s index MPT node results in a significant amount of MPT writing. For example, if a partition size is 10, we would need to access the MPT at least 10 times.

b) It appears that MPT path addressing becomes sluggish when dealing with large MPT nodes. If this assumption holds true, we will need to store information such as the global config and provider nodes in a shorter path to enhance the speed of get and put operations later.

The team moved focus from the SC optimization to closing backend issues.

The following are the main issues and PRs the team closed:

PR #2603 – Closed the issue here. It involved using benchmark tests to ensure that no extra tokens were minted after running SCs. The team added assertions in the smart contract to check for unexpected token minting and burning by examining the before and after balances of each transaction’s from and to addresses. Running these checks directly in the SC would significantly slow it down, so performing them in benchmark tests was a suitable choice. So far, all SCs have been working well.

PR #2604 – Replaced the zcnsc.GlobalNode WZCN nonce with partitions. Previously, the WZCN global nonce was stored in a map within a single MPT map. The size of the map would increase with the number of new zcnsc mint SC calls. The team fixed this issue by replacing it with partitions.

PR #2607 – This PR utilized gosdk to sync the client nonce in the 0chain repository, allowing miners/sharders to retrieve the latest nonce before constructing new transactions. It also gave us the confidence to import other packages from gosdk to avoid duplicate code. However, we kept an eye on the docker image and binary sizes.

PR #2585 – This PR provided a quick fix for the min lock demand. The team discovered a bug where the min lock demand config was loaded with the wrong key, resulting in the min lock demand config always being 0. This led to incorrect allocation and remaining demand calculation.

PR #2575 – Implemented max token supply checking during transaction execution. Further details about the issue can be found here.

PR #2577 – This PR introduced the usage of Data Transfer Objects in Update Provider SmartContract Calls. The update provider smart contract endpoints previously accepted an object as input, which caused an issue in distinguishing between unchanged and default settings. To address this, we modified the input to use omitempty with pointer types. Additional details can be found in the issue here.

PR #2573 – Removed the postgres-post container from the sharder, as it had no effect. Binding the initial script to the postgres container was sufficient.

PR #2552 – Eliminated repeated transaction validation code in miners when accepting new transactions.

PR #2584 – Fixed staked capacity during writeprice update. We checked the total data saved to avoid reducing the allocation size below the used capacity.

PR #2593 – Removed min lock demand updating in the event db.

PR #2574 – Addressed the fix for the block rewards endpoint.

PR #2592 – Resolved the docker compose issue with conductor tests.

PR #2564 – Resurrected useful indexes in the event db.

PR #2580 – Reduced max_read_price and max_write_price to 7 ZCN and added max_charge to sc-config.

PR #2594 – Reduced the offer when finalizing the allocation. This had already been done when canceling the allocation, so it was also implemented in the allocation finalizing SC.

Gosdk repository:

PR #1073 – Refactored downloads in gosdk to use sys.File. It introduced new methods such as DownloadFileToFileHandler, DownloadByBlocksToFileHandler, DownloadThumbnailToFileHandler, DownloadFileToFileHandlerFromAuthTicket, DownloadByBlocksToFileHandlerFromAuthTicket, and DownloadThumbnailToFileHandlerFromAuthTicket to allow the usage of any in-memory implementations of the sys.File interface. Additionally, a new fileHandlerDownloader option was added, utilizing these new methods for sdk.CreateDownloader.

PR #1034 – Exposed multiop winsdk.

PR #1013 – Added the path in the thumbnail hash.

PR #1004 – Refactored repair.

PR #1085 – Changed the contract of Sharder and Miner update settings, which was part of the fix for the issue here.

PR #1084 – Added support for sending chunks.

PR #1090 – Fixed the download file callback panic.

PR #1096 – Resumed download.

PR #1099 – Cleaned up the preferredBlobbers list from the chain config.

PR #1093 – Fixed the excluded path.

PR #1033 – Displayed the correct size.

Blobber:

PR #1114 – Removed the fileID from the fileMetaHash in the blobber.

PR #1140 – Updated the challenge timing submission.

PR #1163 – Fixed the blobber size.

PR #1166 – Prevented redeeming readmarkers for free reads.

PR #1158 – Fixed the concurrent map write.

PR #1141 – Removed the custom nonce.

Control Your Own Data and Have Peace of Mind with Züs.

Data is a huge part of our lives and managing it can be incredibly challenging. Thankfully Züs is here to help. With the right tools, you will be able to control your own data and you can have peace of mind knowing that your data will remain secure and protected at all times. To learn more about Zus updates, join us for our AMA tomorrow.

source https://zus.network/blog/posts/control-your-own-data-with-zus-weekly-debrief-july-12-2023/

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doonitedin · 3 years ago

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Maharashtra: COVID-19 cases in kids dropped by 95% in September | Mumbai Live

After reports of more children getting contracted with the coronavirus infection in the possible third wave surfaced, experts have suggested that no such trend has not been observed. This came as more adults are getting inoculated, with no vaccine available for children so far, a higher proportion of children who could be susceptible to COVID-19 have so far proved unfounded in the…

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mumbailivenews · 4 years ago

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#icse examinations 2021 #varsha gaikwad #class 12 #cbse #class 12 exams in maharashtra #state school education minister varsha gaikwad #central government regarding Class 12

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vishvavasu · 3 years ago

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As in certain other Southeast Asian states, the Toungoo throne aimed at the radical subordination of the principal elites— princes, ministers, governors, and headmen—to the person of the ruler. Styled "Lord of Life," the king was considered to be the ultimate owner of the resources of the country, while the administrative and military machine was regarded as his personal instrument. In theory all Burmese offices and incomes were temporary revocable grants; there was no feudal class whose political and landholding privileges enjoyed legal sanction against royal interference.25 In an edict of 1638, King Tha-lun (r. 1629-1648) explained his position within the state as follows: "I am the great and noble king who has dominion over eight realms that I have demarcated, and over every single person [who lives therein]. All people depend on the king alone [for their welfare] and there is no one who is not owned by him."26

25 Cf. the discussion of the traditional Javanese central government in Anderson, "Idea of Power," pp. 33-36, and Moertono, Statecraft, pp. 35 fF., 94; and the discussion of political theory and practice in the Late Ayudhyan and early Bangkok polity in Akin, Thai Society, chaps. 3, 4. See too the general description of Asian "patrimonial" states and of "sultanism" in Max Weber, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, edited by Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich (New York, 1968), I, 231-32, and III, chaps. 12, 13. Karl A. Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power (1957, repr., New Haven, 1973) is particularly sensitive to the absolutist dimensions of Asian polities, although his failure to distinguish sufficiently between claim and reality and his ethnocentric judgments have come in for heavy criticism. For evaluations of WittfogePs model as applied to South Asia, see E. R. Leach, "Hydraulic Society in Ceylon," Past and Present 15 (1959): 2-26, and R.A.L.H. Gunawardana, "Irrigation and Hydraulic Society in Early Medieval Ceylon," Past and Present 53 (1971): 3-27.

26 RUL 45235, Edict 78, 1000 tazaung-mon 3 wax., p. 67. Page numbers in this and subsequent notes refer to the manuscript copy of RUL 45235 prepared by Prof. Than Tun of the University of Mandalay. Cf. another good copy at NL 1612, ngaw r. On the identity of the eight realms or kingdoms (fyi-daung), see ZOK, pp. 8, 48.

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brookstonalmanac · 4 years ago

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Events 7.21

356 BC – The Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, is destroyed by arson. 230 – Pope Pontian succeeds Urban I as the eighteenth pope. 285 – Diocletian appoints Maximian as Caesar and co-ruler. 365 – The 365 Crete earthquake affects the Greek island of Crete with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme), causing a destructive tsunami that affects the coasts of Libya and Egypt, especially Alexandria. Many thousands were killed. 905 – King Berengar I of Italy and a hired Hungarian army defeats the Frankish forces at Verona. King Louis III is captured and blinded for breaking his oath (see 902). 1242 – Battle of Taillebourg: Louis IX of France puts an end to the revolt of his vassals Henry III of England and Hugh X of Lusignan. 1403 – Battle of Shrewsbury: King Henry IV of England defeats rebels to the north of the county town of Shropshire, England. 1545 – The first landing of French troops on the coast of the Isle of Wight during the French invasion of the Isle of Wight. 1568 – Eighty Years' War: Battle of Jemmingen: Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alva defeats Louis of Nassau. 1645 – Qing dynasty regent Dorgon issues an edict ordering all Han Chinese men to shave their forehead and braid the rest of their hair into a queue identical to those of the Manchus. 1656 – The Raid on Málaga takes place during the Anglo-Spanish War. 1718 – The Treaty of Passarowitz between the Ottoman Empire, Austria and the Republic of Venice is signed. 1774 – Russo-Turkish War (1768–74): Russia and the Ottoman Empire sign the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca ending the war. 1798 – French campaign in Egypt and Syria: Napoleon's forces defeat an Ottoman-Mamluk army near Cairo in the Battle of the Pyramids. 1831 – Inauguration of Leopold I of Belgium, first king of the Belgians. 1861 – American Civil War: First Battle of Bull Run: At Manassas Junction, Virginia, the first major battle of the war begins and ends in a victory for the Confederate army. 1865 – In the market square of Springfield, Missouri, Wild Bill Hickok shoots and kills Davis Tutt in what is regarded as the first western showdown. 1873 – At Adair, Iowa, Jesse James and the James–Younger Gang pull off the first successful train robbery in the American Old West. 1877 – After rioting by Baltimore and Ohio Railroad workers and the deaths of nine rail workers at the hands of the Maryland militia, workers in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, stage a sympathy strike that is met with an assault by the state militia. 1904 – Louis Rigolly, a Frenchman, becomes the first man to break the 100 mph (161 km/h) barrier on land. He drove a 15-liter Gobron-Brillié in Ostend, Belgium. 1907 – The passenger steamer SS Columbia sinks after colliding with the steam schooner San Pedro off Shelter Cove, California, killing 88 people. 1919 – The dirigible Wingfoot Air Express crashes into the Illinois Trust and Savings Building in Chicago, killing 12 people. 1925 – Scopes Trial: In Dayton, Tennessee, high school biology teacher John T. Scopes is found guilty of teaching human evolution in class and fined $100. 1925 – Malcolm Campbell becomes the first man to exceed 150 mph (241 km/h) on land. At Pendine Sands in Wales, he drives Sunbeam 350HP built by Sunbeam at a two-way average speed of 150.33 mph (242 km/h). 1936 – Spanish Civil War: The Central Committee of Antifascist Militias of Catalonia is constituted, establishing an anarcho-syndicalist economy in Catalonia.[3] 1944 – World War II: Battle of Guam: American troops land on Guam, starting a battle that will end on August 10. 1944 – World War II: Claus von Stauffenberg and four fellow conspirators are executed for the July 20 plot to assassinate Adolf Hitler. 1949 – The United States Senate ratifies the North Atlantic Treaty. 1952 – The 7.3 Mw  Kern County earthquake strikes Southern California with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme), killing 12 and injuring hundreds. 1954 – First Indochina War: The Geneva Conference partitions Vietnam into North Vietnam and South Vietnam. 1959 – NS Savannah, the first nuclear-powered cargo-passenger ship, is launched as a showcase for Dwight D. Eisenhower's "Atoms for Peace" initiative. 1959 – Elijah Jerry "Pumpsie" Green becomes the first African-American to play for the Boston Red Sox, the last team to integrate. He came in as a pinch runner for Vic Wertz and stayed in as shortstop in a 2–1 loss to the Chicago White Sox. 1960 – Sirimavo Bandaranaike is elected Prime Minister of Sri Lanka, becoming the world's first female head of government 1961 – Mercury program: Mercury-Redstone 4 Mission: Gus Grissom piloting Liberty Bell 7 becomes the second American to go into space (in a suborbital mission). 1969 – Apollo program: At 02:56 UTC, astronaut Neil Armstrong becomes the first person to walk on the Moon, followed 19 minutes later by Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin. 1970 – After 11 years of construction, the Aswan High Dam in Egypt is completed. 1972 – The Troubles: Bloody Friday: The Provisional IRA detonate 22 bombs in central Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom in the space of 80 minutes, killing nine and injuring 130. 1973 – In Lillehammer, Norway, Mossad agents kill a waiter whom they mistakenly thought was involved in the 1972 Munich Olympics Massacre. 1976 – Christopher Ewart-Biggs, the British ambassador to the Republic of Ireland, is assassinated by the Provisional IRA. 1977 – The start of the four-day-long Libyan–Egyptian War. 1979 – Jay Silverheels, a Mohawk actor, becomes the first Native American to have a star commemorated in the Hollywood Walk of Fame. 1983 – The world's lowest temperature in an inhabited location is recorded at Vostok Station, Antarctica at −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F). 1990 – Taiwan's military police forces mainland Chinese illegal immigrants into sealed holds of a fishing boat Min Ping Yu No. 5540 for repatriation to Fujian, causing 25 people to die from suffocation. 1995 – Third Taiwan Strait Crisis: The People's Liberation Army begins firing missiles into the waters north of Taiwan. 2001 – At the conclusion of a fireworks display on Okura Beach in Akashi, Hyōgo, Japan, 11 people are killed and more than 120 are injured when a pedestrian footbridge connecting the beach to JR Asagiri Station becomes overcrowded and people leaving the event fall down in a domino effect. 2005 – July 2005 London bombings occur. 2008 – Ram Baran Yadav is declared the first president of Nepal. 2011 – NASA's Space Shuttle program ends with the landing of Space Shuttle Atlantis on mission STS-135 at NASA's Kennedy Space Center. 2012 – Erden Eruç completes the first solo human-powered circumnavigation of the world.

#Events

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thembnko · 4 years ago

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Beware of speculation

WAR produces speculation. As the aftermath of the First World War and the Second World War saw massively produced amounts tend to make governments the target of financial speculators. This is because as producers of the monies they keep in central banks as securities or bonds governments also acquire debt they use as collateral. Many United Kingdom (UK) and US citizens and civil servants during the First World War were private bondholders who lent to the US, British and French governments. When on 24 April 1917 President Woodrow Wilson signed the First Liberty Loan Act authorizing the Treasury to borrow up to $5 billion for the US to enter the war that made them extra-rich. Entente and Allied debts were after the war $600,000,000,000. They purchased some of the debt. Britain and France soon refinanced their short-term debts to private US citizens by borrowing from the US government. The Transvaal supplied about half the total world output of gold. It funded 60 percent of the war debt paying even for German reparations when Germany had massacred 100,000,00 Hereros before the war in South West Africa. War debts were a form of massive “profiteering” because the British also pretended they entered into agreements with colonies even though they had no planned economic development taking place there. All that they emphasized in reports to the League of Nations was how resource endowed Africa was. The Treaty of Saint-Germain was for Austria to pay Britain £250,000 monthly and on it interest of £97,670 4s. 11d. The title indicated colonies were signatories. France had its own debt paid in gold because it insisted so.

Era Dabla-Norris edited in 2019 for the IMF In Debt and Entanglements Between the War. This book is for the whole world to understand how debt for Europe and the US accumulated after the war. The IMF and the World Bank determines financial assistance and exerts strong influence on policies developing countries adopt and on whether or not they receive credit. It highlights learning about the debt the First World War caused is an important step in the resolution of any large-scale problems the world currently has like Covid-19 but as a policy determining help it leads all potential international creditors to conclude developing countries do not have money and commodities to pay emergency loans. They also do not have similar wealth as the citizens of the US before the First World War. Currency volatility and permanent debt are now a permanent feature of developing countries meaning more than 55 percent of the world's population will starting in 2025 have countries with no revenues. Chad, Somalia, and Niger are already those countries hence US officials and Army Commanders went to all the three countries in September 2020 to establish military bases to fight China.

A basis for all countries to understand the international debt the First World War caused is looking at demand and productivity capitalism very quickly underwent as a result of the plundering of Africa during the First World War. For 90 years the IMF like the League of Nations which gave Britain, France, Italy, and Belgium African colonies made the world not to know that. The fall of the international gold standard made Europe and Britain face political uncertainty Africa faced too.

South Africa's gold helped and made the US emerge as a major creditor nation. Governments in Europe were swamped with debt after the First World War but co-operation with the US made 'common movements in growth rates in national GDPs (for example, a worldwide boom in the 1920s followed by the Great Depression in the 1930s)' possible within a short period of 18 years. No region in the world had produ the fall of the international gold standard made Europe and Britain face political uncertainty Africa faced too the same consequence. South Africa's gold helped and made the US emerge as a major creditor nation. Governments in Europe were swamped with debt after the First World War but co-operation with the US made 'common movements in growth rates in national GDPs (for example, a worldwide boom in the 1920s followed by the Great Depression in the 1930s)' possible within a short period of 18 years. No region in the world had productivity as Europe and the Americas because raw materials France, Britain, Italy, and Belgium extracted from Africa were extremely abundant. Labour as a result grew demands for social security, housing, wage increases of 10 percent, shorter working hours, an age limit to start to work, recognition of women's protection and bargaining rights. Realise this: social security and housing together form a 'social wage' that is provided for by the state in billions of US dollars. Worker income was seperate. This in human relations was a great revolution funded through speculation. The standard of living increased dramatically. The International Labour Organization (ILO) had one aim after it was formed after the war in 1919: to prevent another war using social policy. All governments co-operated with it. All countries eventually increased momentum for faster delivery of social services such as education, health, child and elderly guardianship by having volunteers except in Africa. By 1973 governments had so co-operated to make Europe's and the US's living standard equal at so an entire region moved at the same time. An entire region now has the same labour legislation.

The ILO only started working in Africa in 1973. To date labour legislation in Africa is not uniform and does not equal Europe's or the US's. It only covers work injuries and bargaining and unlike in Europe and the US excludes housing and social security.

When making comparisons between 1913 and 1928 regarding productivity and population growth it will be found the world’s population had increased by 10 percent. The production of foodstuffs and raw materials had increased by 25 percent. Foodstuffs alone increased by 16 percent and raw materials by no less than 40 percent. GDP growth rates averaged 5,8 percent. The League of Nations recorded that this was for Europe a ‘very rapid and substantial progress.’ ‘Other Continents’ just had ‘normal progress.' For the rest of the world it was only 2,4 percent. This differentiation continued in 1929. If the Soviet Union was excluded the differences would be still great. Growth in international trade was not so marked showing the increases were due to South Africa and Africa.

Britain had a standard of living that was higher than any other country in the world. In 1930 it had 1 million people that were unemployed but 12 million workers were insured. There was in general an expansion of 43 percent in the number of the insured population since 1923. There was a post-war boom which raised Europe's competitiveness. Weekly wage rates in Britain were 70 percent above the 1914 levels. Overseas investments totalled £235 million. Gold placed Britain internationally in the strategic position of being able to influence the value of all currencies and the price of commodities because it set the value. Mines in South Africa had to increase employment. From 100,000 South African mines had to employ 205,000 black workers producing £42,997,608 worth of gold in 1927 and £85,323,447 the following year. The world's monetary stock of gold rose during 1930 from £2,301 billion to £2,407 billion but only eight countries (Germany, Britain, France, Italy, Spain, US, Argentina, and Japan) held 80 percent excluding South Africa. Of the eight the US, France, and Britain controlled 74 percent.

South Africa's gold exports increased from 10,7 percent to 10,8 percent in 1956. The ANC had by the time already a known delegation to the UK in 1919 pleading for liberation and adopted in the wake of the Second World War an Africa Claims document calling on Europe and the US to stop colonization and the Freedom Charter promising the nationalization of mines. It had no British government’s support for the white South African government to end apartheid and yet again reinstated the gold standard premising as before the Second World War national security on it. To the extent a Trends in Usage of Gold report of the National Materials Advisory Board showed Britain made South Africa still produce by 1965 more gold than any other country. It produced 30,554,000 ounces; Canada 3,587,000 ounces; and the US 1,675,000 ounces. Austria came last at 878,000,00 ounces. This gold was for a single country with a population slightly higher than South Africa’s. Because of apartheid mining companies including municipalities deferred the payment of wages arguing blacks used the money for liquor. The US’s Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) facilitated the arrest of Nelson Mandela for forming UMkhonto WeSizwe (MK) as a military wing of the ANC. Thus after giving its gold and raw materials for capitalism upon which speculation rose South Africa now has 2.2 million people living in slums. Every year it delivers 200,000 free formal houses but because of population growth the figure just moves slightly. Consequently government will never end slums and that prospect has now been increased by the need for government to repay the R500 billion it borrowed from the IMF for Covid-19 during March 2020.

There are seven chapters in Debt and Entanglements Between the Wars and they all emphasize the fact that sovereign debt is a claim on a state’s future revenue. Karl Marx devoted time for four decades to write about the debt. In The Class Struggles in France 1848 to 1850 he highlighted the increasing role of the state on debt under capitalism. He saw debt as an instrument by which the exercise of political power and repression by the powerful over the powerless was made possible. For debt gave political power to the creditors of the state. He wrote it turned unproductive capital accumulation into a vital form where the national debt through government bonds formed the most important subject of speculation and the bourse the chief market for the investment of capital. So speculation under the development of capitalism before 1900 was made rife against the state because it had revenue and sources. Gold after its discovery strengthened the trend because cash deposits and liquid assets kept by central banks all of a sudden became very large.

Speculators siphoned money off the state paying little attention to the public’s needs. When he wrote speculation was a developing capitalist trend that had not caused wars. The world since then had two major wars in the First World War and the Second World War. They killed 10 million people. The Second World War originated because Adolf Hitler claimed Germany lost its surplus through the League of Nations when it gave Britain, France, Italy, and Belgium its African colonies after the First World War.

The IMF regarding Covid-19 has an Extension of Consultation Cycles Due To Covid-19 Pandemic, and Suspension of Framework To Address Excessive Delays in Article IV Consultations and Mandatory Financial Stability Assessments document. It is about mandatory Financial Stability Assessments (FSAs). The approach is not flexible for it lays the framework consultations as in the case of Venezuela going back to 2004 when Covid-19 did not exist. That opens opportunities for speculation since as Ingham Analytics also reports that from March 2021 the US ten-year Treasury hit 1,74 percent, its highest since January 2020. Stocks in the UK also rose to 0,84 percent from 0,2 percent. It reports yield curves steepened across the board compared with last year causing bond investors in the US to anticipate a rise soon in interest rates betting that inflation is close given the very large amounts central banks and the IMF gave for Covid-19 social relief. Ingham Analytics highlight inflation is bad for bonds. So bond investors are globally to press for interest rates to quickly rise again.

Much like in South Africa there has been a big rise in the supply of Treasury stock. To prepare for the speculation and prevent its possible damage to South Africa and Africa and to relations with Europe, US and BRICS including with multilateral organizations or international financial institutions the South African government must demand (a) an amendment of the IMF's Article IV so where Covid-19 matters are pertinent they are the only focus (b) an inclusive thorough study of prices in all major countries, the state of their exchange rates and monetary policies and preparedness to cope with higher interest rates.

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howwelldoyouknowyourmoon · 4 years ago

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Understanding Sun Myung Moon’s attitude to sex by taking a look at Korean history

by a Korean professor

Human Dignity and Sexual Culture: A Reflection on the ‘Comfort Women’ Issues

Chunghee Sarah Soh, Ph.D. San Francisco State University

Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to reflect on a particular dimension of the complex issues involving the Comfort Women movement for redress by focusing on what I call ‘masculinist sexual culture’. For the purpose of this paper I use the term ‘masculinist’ to refer to those men and women who believe not only in the Confucian principle of male superiority but also in male ‘sex-rights’(1) to have access to the female body both inside and outside marriage. Masculinists believe that men, in contrast to women, have biologically rooted sexual needs, and consequently, concede to men their ‘natural’ right to seek sexual comfort, both premaritally and extramaritally. Masculinist sexism permeated the traditional cultures of Japan, Korea and other patriarchal societies and is still prevalent today.

The androcentric euphemism ‘comfort women’ (ianfu) is an official coinage of imperial Japan, and was used to categorically refer to young females of various ethnic and national backgrounds and social circumstances who became sexual laborers for the Japanese troops before and during the Second World War. In contrast, the soldiers came to refer to these women as the ‘pi’ (pronounced as ‘pea’), a Chinese term meaning goods or articles, which, as a slang term, stood for female genitals.(2) The estimates of the number of women used as comfort women range between 50,000 and 200,000.(3) It is believed that about 80% of them were Korean.(4) There is no documentary evidence to determine either how many women were used or how many were forced to serve as military comfort women, except for the Dutch case.(5)

Seen from an anti-Japan, nationalist perspective prevalent among activists especially in South Korea, the comfort women issue is simple and clear: Japan as a colonial power exploited Korea’s human resources by rounding up tens of thousands of young unmarried girls and women to be used as military sex slaves. Seen from a more global perspective, however, the issues involved in the comfort women case are complex, running the gamut from the problem of ‘militarized prostitution’ to that of sexual slavery based on gender, age, social class, and ethnicity. Coerced sexual labor, i.e., sexual slavery, was inflicted primarily upon lower class young females of colonial Korea by imperial Japan during the Asia-Pacific War,(6) but not every former comfort woman had been forcibly drafted by the state power. In addition, while teenage Korean maidens from impoverished families constituted the overwhelming majority, relatively older Japanese prostitutes, and primarily lower-class women of colonized Taiwan and other occupied territories were also used as comfort women during the “Fifteen Year War” of aggression pursued by imperial Japan, starting from the Manchurian invasion in 1931 to its unconditional surrender in 1945.

At the core of the contestation over the representation of the military comfort women as sex slaves versus licensed prostitutes(7) lies the issue of state responsibility in forced recruitment of comfort women and the maintenance of the comfort system. On a deeper level, however, many of the central issues around sexual violence in warfare and its relationship to the cultural constructions of gender and human sexuality--more specifically heterosexuality--in patriarchal societies, are being called into question, including the masculinist sexual culture and the perennial question concerning the proper relationship between prostitution and the state. The Rest & Recuperation program for the U.S. soldiers during the Vietnam War was a recent example of a state institution looking after the physical needs of military men.(8) In fact, there still exist thousands of prostitutes in the kijich’on, the U.S. military camptowns in South Korea, and the Korean media used to refer to them as wianbu (“comfort women” in Korean).(9)

The comfort women movement formally began in South Korea in November 1990. The Korean Council for Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan (hereafter, the Korean Council), a non-governmental organization (NGO), is responsible for internationalizing the comfort women issue as a war crime and violations of women’s human rights in situations of armed conflict. With a series of hearings by the United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) beginning in 1992, the comfort women issue leaped to the attention of the world community nearly half a century after the end of the War. The Korean Council as a newly formed NGO has accomplished in less than a decade a level of success that went beyond the wildest dreams of the leadership in bringing the attention and support of the international community for their reparation demands against the Japanese government.(10)

As a sociocultural anthropologist specializing in gender issues, social inequality and the processes of culture change, I have followed closely the developmental processes in the internationalization of the Korean comfort women movement from the start. In addition, I have conducted ethnographic field research in Korea, Japan, and the Netherlands. As an example of ‘multi-sited’ ethnographies George Marcus discusses in his latest work,(11) this ongoing research aims to present from the perspective of critical anthropology a multilayered analysis of the complex issues involved in the redress movement. As a Korean American interested in comparative studies of the cultures of Korea and Japan, my goal is to go beyond the national boundaries and to present a balanced and nuanced analysis of once an unproblematized and almost forgotten issue of comfort women from the perspectives of cross-cultural, critical anthropology. And in order to do that, we must delve into the intersections of sex, power, and justice, not simply in heterosexual relations between men and women but also in international relations between nation-states of unequal power.

In this paper I will trace the social origins of the movement and to consider the tasks that remain to be tackled at the societal level in order to help prevent gendered violence against women from occurring not only in situations of armed conflict but in everyday life in many patriarchal societies. One of these tasks, I believe, is to start serious public debate on the ‘masculinist sexual culture’ that is at the root of diverse forms of pervasive social oppression and sexual violence against women.

Indeed, I would argue that it is masculinist double standard for sexual conduct that has contributed to lifelong psychological sufferings for an untold number of comfort women survivors because they were socialized to regard the loss of virginity as a shameful condition deserving social ostracism. Generally speaking, these survivors were socialized from childhood to regard the preservation of sexual purity (chongjol) as important as life itself. Thus, when they returned home after the war, some women were unable to reveal their ordeals even to their mothers. They gave up any hope of finding men who would accept them as legitimate wives if/when they found out about the loss of their virginity and their past as comfort women. They carefully hid their past for fear of social stigma and ostracization its revelation would bring to them and their family. Given the sexual mores of the Korean patriarchy, it is understandable that the survivors of sexual slavery for the troops of imperial Japan during WWII kept their silence for nearly half a century until the early 1990s. Some of them still refuse to reveal their past as comfort women. Others insist on using pseudonyms.

I should point out here that until the redress movement began, the Korean society generally regarded Japan’s comfort system as a military version of licensed prostitution. Koreans are justifiably angry that imperial Japan forcibly recruited young girls and women of colonial Korea for prostitution and sexual enslavement. However, they are unwilling to acknowledge the complicity on the part of some Koreans, which is amply revealed in the survivors’ testimonies. Korean men--and sometimes women as well--participated in the deceptive and/or forcible recruitment and some did so with a purpose of economic gain.

Le me now provide an historical overview of the masculinist sexual culture in Korean society and the social and political economic context that contributed to the emergence of the comfort women movement. In particular, we will examine the phenomenon of kisaeng tourism and consider the plights of the kijich’on sex workers in South Korea in order to highlight the underlying, invisible threads of masculinist sexual culture combined with the political economy of global capitalism that continue to influence the patterns of unequal power relations between the sexes and nation-states in the everyday lives of women working in the sex industry.

Korean Sexual Culture: An Historical Overview

Not many people are aware of the fact that the Korean comfort women movement grew out of feminist and nationalist opposition to the phenomenon of the so-called kisaeng tourism, which is a euphemism for prostitution tourism. The term kisaeng traditionally referred to professional female entertainers. The institution of kisaeng or kinyô was firmly established in Korean society by Koryô dynasty (918-1392) and continued throughout Chosôn dynasty (1392-1910).(12) Kisaeng were chosen from among young females of the lower classes and trained in the arts of entertainment for men, such as playing musical instruments, singing and dance. By the time of King Sejong (r. 1418-50), prostitution came to dominate the life of kisaeng. There were several proposals to abolish the institution of kisaeng by high-level Confucian scholar-officials. However, the opponents to the proposal successfully defended the institution by arguing among other things the likelihood of increased sex crimes if it were to be abolished.(13)

In the masculinist sexual culture, it is not surprising that such a biological-determinist argument would win the debate with relative ease and could continue to defend masculinist interests in satisfying men’s desire for sexual recreation by supporting the social institution of kisaeng and the customary practice of acquiring a chôp (concubine). The masculinists upheld the double standard for sexual behavior of men and women by classifying women into two types according to the main functions of their sexuality: women to marry for procreation and women to hire for recreation. The custom helped to further discriminate women according to their marital status. While married women as mothers and wives were accorded due respect for their contributions to the family life, unmarried women working as professional entertainers were social outcastes and were commodified as sexual playthings. Even when a kisaeng was taken as a concubine of a yangban (upper-class) man, she suffered legal and customary discrimination as a secondary wife. She could not participate in any formal events of the family. Her children were labeled as sôja (illegitimate offspring) in contrast to the chôkcha (‘legitimate children’ born of the lawful wife).

Typically, men in traditional Korea, especially those belonging to upper classes and working for the government engaged in recreational sex supported by the state-run system of kisaeng and the customary practice of concubinage. Traditionally, the masculinist sexual culture in Korean society rigidly controlled women’s sexuality by means of the cult of female virginity/chastity while it condoned, if not encouraged, sexual freedom for unmarried men and generally overlooked infidelity of married men. As mentioned earlier, unmarried women were expected to maintain their virginity until marriage and widows, especially of the upper classes, were prohibited from re-marrying. Regardless of the individual circumstances, women who lost their chastity were considered sullied, made to feel ashamed, and likely to be ostracized by their own families. In this cultural context, many women committed suicide after being raped or in order to avoid being raped during the two Japanese invasions of Korea in the late 16th century. Their deaths were recognized as honorable deeds of yôllyô (virtuous women), whose families were honored by royal commendations.(14)

When some widows of lower classes remarried out of economic necessity, they usually had to leave their children of the deceased husband behind, either with the late husband’s relatives or with their own natal family. In the case of Kim Hak-sun (1924-1997), who became the first Korean survivor to give a public testimony of her life as a “comfort woman” in 1991, her remarried mother left Hak-sun with a foster father. He sent Hak-sun to a training school for the kisaeng. When she finished her schooling, the foster father took her to China hoping to find her a job there since as a seventeen-year-old minor she was not allowed to work yet in Korea. It was there that she was taken by the Japanese military to a comfort station.(15) In the case of Kang Tôk-kyông (1929-1997), another former comfort woman, she lived with her maternal grandparents after her widowed mother remarried. She joined the so-called ‘Women’s Volunteer Corps’ or Yôja Chôngsindae in Korean in defiance against her estranged mother’s advice. She worked at a factory in Japan and fled from her factory dormitory to escape from hunger and hard life only to be caught by the military police and taken to a comfort station. The point here is that the tragic lives of numerous former comfort women, the great majority of whom came from poor families in rural areas, were embedded in the intersections of gendered oppression in the patriarchal marriage and family system and class inequality, as well as colonial exploitation.

Prostitution and Women’s Movement in South Korea

In the twentieth century, Japan’s colonization of Korea and its assimilation policies resulted among other things in the transplantation of some Japanese terminologies(16) and social institutions, such as the systems of family headship (hoju) and licensed prostitution, in Korean society. Thus, Japan’s modern system of licensed prostitution was firmly grafted in the soils of colonial Korea by the mid-1910s. It was formally abolished in post-colonial Korea in 1947.(17) Nevertheless, prostitution of female sexuality as a commodity has continued in South Korea in a variety of manners and places, sometimes with semi-official support, as exemplified in the development of kisaeng tourism targeting Japanese male visitors and the kijich’on sex industry catering to the U.S. military.

Kisaeng/Prostitution Tourism

It is not clear when and how the kisaeng tourism emerged in South Korea but it came to flourish by early 1970s after Korea and Japan signed the bilateral agreement to normalize diplomatic relations in 1965. The increase in the number of Japanese visitors to South Korea after 1965 has been phenomenal. In 1965, there were 5,110 Japanese visitors and 14,152 American visitors. By 1971 the Japanese visitors (96,531) greatly outnumbered those from the United States (58,003). In 1973, nearly half of a million (436,405) Japanese tourists visited South Korea, which was more than eighty-five times increase over the figure for 1965. And the 1973 figure was more than double the previous year (217,287), which was mainly due to Japan’s severing of diplomatic relations with Taiwan in September 1973. The majority of the Japanese men who visited Korea for the purpose of kisaeng party, according to a study by a Korean Christian women’s organization, came from lower classes to enjoy sexual entertainment at the one-fifth of the cost required for comparable service in Japan.(18)

In the 1970s Korean women who wished to work formally for foreign tourists staying at hotels had to acquire a license that certified their health status and the completion of required orientation education. The contents of the orientation lectures given by university professors were a modern version of those for imperial Japan’s Yôja Chôngsindae, the Women’s Volunteer Corp, emphasizing the importance of their work in earning precious foreign currency for the nation’s economic development.(19) I should mention here that in the 1970s the Korean government was also engaged in the surveillance and authoritarian control of the prostitutes servicing the US military. At the request of the latter that complained of the unhealthy conditions of the kijich’on sex industry, the Korean government started a clean-up campaign in 1971 that included infrastructural improvements and enforcement of regular medical examinations of prostitutes, detaining infected women at special centers.(20)

Women’s Activism: Linking Kisaeng Tourism to Wartime Comfort System

The first organized protest by women in Korea and Japan against kisaeng tourism took place in December 1973, both in Seoul and Tokyo.(21) Ewha Womans University students staged a demonstration at Kimpo Airport confronting Japanese tour groups with a placard reading, “Stop Sex Tourism”. Representatives of women’s organizations in Japan demonstrated at Haneda Airport in Tokyo in front of Japan Air Lines office aiming at Japanese tour groups and carrying placards reading, “Don’t go to Korea for sex tourism.” As of 1979, an estimated 100,000 women worked as tourism kisaeng.(22) In some cases, tourists at kisaeng houses/restaurants could choose their partners among those gathered in the waiting lounge. A Japanese tourist who contributed an essay to a magazine published in Japan compared figuratively his experience of kisaeng party to that of going to a slave market.(23) By late 1970s sex tourism spread to Southeast Asia, particularly the Philippines and Thailand. By early 1980s Japanese businessmen started running kisaeng houses in Japan by importing Korean women. In 1988 the Korean Church Women United sponsored the International Conference on Women and Tourism in South Korea. It was there that Professor Yun Chông-ok of Ewha Womans University first presented her research on Korean comfort women issue, which helped the participants from Korea and Japan see the underlying linkage between the issues of the comfort women in colonial Korea and kisaeng tourism in contemporary Korea. (24)

In January 1989 when the Korean government sent an emissary to the funeral of Emperor Hirohito, women’s organizations in South Korea protested to the government for not taking up against the Japanese government the unresolved issues of the latter’s postwar responsibilities including the comfort women issue. Feminist activists raised the same issues during the state visit of President Roh Tae Woo to Japan in May 1990. The comfort women issue was first raised in Japan’s Diet in June 1990 when a government official flatly denied any involvement of the state in the recruitment of comfort women. This denial angered women activists in Korea to an action that resulted in the formation of the Korean Council in November 1990. And the rest, as they say, is history.

I should also mention here that until the 1980s, when the Korean and U.S. troops regularly conducted the joint military exercises called “Team Spirit,” the kijich’on sex workers became camp followers.(25) Calling themselves “the blanket brigade,” they would follow the soldiers’ move during the exercise and each would offer sexual service to twenty to thirty soldiers a day. In the 1990s, the joint military exercises were curtailed but the camp following prostitution for the U.S. military continues, generating the coinage of the ‘second generation of military comfort women’. The activists working for the kijich’on sex workers point out that the historical legacy of Japan’s comfort women continues in Korea’s kijich’on serving this time the U.S. military. The atrocities of Japan’s imperial army in violating women’s human rights have been revealed in recent years, but few people in the United States are aware of heinous sexual crimes committed by American military men, most of whom go unpunished due to the unequal Status of the Forces Agreement (SOFA) contracted between the superpower United States and the newly industrializing Republic of Korea in 1967.

Let me mention one murder case that prompted an unprecedented mass demonstration of 3,000 people in a kijich’on called Tongduch’ôn in 1992.(26) Kenneth Markle (twenty years old at the time of the crime), a private of the U.S. Army stationed in South Korea, murdered Yoon Keum-I, a twenty-six-years-old sex worker, by battering her with a Coke bottle and stuffing it into her womb. He also shoved an umbrella into the anus of the bleeding, dying woman and stuffed matches into her mouth. He then sprinkled soap powder over her body, apparently to eliminate evidence of the murder. The cruelty of the crime enraged the residents of the kijich’on to stage a series of mass demonstrations, and eventually contributed to the formation of an NGO, “The National Campaign for Eradication of Crime by U.S. Troops in Korea,” in 1993. According to them, an average of two crimes were committed daily by U.S. troops from January 1993 to June 1996 and that on average the Korean government exercises jurisdiction in 0.7 percent of cases. The above-mentioned murder case is one of the very few cases in which the criminal is serving his sentence in a prison in South Korea.

Concluding Remarks

In the Korean media and official discourse, prostitutes are referred to as yullak yôsông, literally ‘ethically fallen women’. Yet men who purchase sexual service from these ‘fallen women’ are not called ‘ethically fallen men’, reflecting the fundamental bias against women sex workers in masculinist sexual culture. It is in this social and cultural context that some survivors have chosen not to reveal their past, and I am sorry to report that some of those who did had to suffer ostracism from their relatives and friends after their coming out. The survivor I interviewed in April 2000 was most bitter about it.

If we are serious about our commitment to the enhancement of life conditions of humanity, we must confront the global realities of predominance of men’s sex-rights over women’s human rights,(27) be they sex workers, single or married women. Many women and children who work in the sex industry whether willingly or forcibly are predominantly from poor families in search of livelihood. Prostitution is regarded as the world’s oldest profession and no society has gotten rid of it. If this new century is to be a century of human rights, we cannot avoid the issue of human dignity of sex workers in the booming international sex industry in which consumers of sexual service belong to richer classes and/or more powerful nation-states that not only exploit providers of sexual service economically but also demean them socially and psychologically.

Although there are various signs of significant change in the patterns of gender power relations, masculinist sexism that permeated the traditional sexual cultures of Korea, Japan and other patriarchal societies is still prevalent today. More than a quarter of a century after women began fighting against sex tourism, Japanese men’s sex tours flourish discreetly in South Korea. In December 1998, the police in Seoul arrested fifteen people including the bosses and employees of five sex trade organizations. What shocked the public was that the women involved in the sex tours included not only professional women working in the entertainment industry but also television and theater actresses, fashion models, foreign flight attendants, department store employees, and graduate school students.

The sex crimes of the U.S. servicemen in South Korea continue. The latest murder of a Korean woman working at a bar for foreigners in Itaewon by an American soldier that came to my attention was first reported in a newspaper on March 29, 2000. The soldier, a twenty-two-year-old corporal, fled from the 8th U.S. Army compound after a consultation session with a lawyer in the morning of April 28, 2000, when the first hearing on his murder charge was scheduled at Seoul District Court.(28) The Korean police arrested him several hours later but had to hand him over to the U.S. authority due to the SOFA terms.(29)

To conclude, human rights activists for the comfort women issue in Korea and elsewhere, whose representation of comfort women as military sex slaves has focused on Japan’s postwar responsibilities, must acknowledge that masculinist sexual culture was at the root of the comfort system, and address a fundamental social and political reality that the gross violations of human rights of comfort women originated from power inequity between the sexes, classes, and nation-states. One of the social implications of personal ordeals former comfort women had suffered both during and after the war is that similar tragedies will befall many more women unless patriarchal societies change their sexual culture. Prostitution is conventionally defined in terms of unethical behaviors of ‘fallen women’ while many men commonly depend on the sexual labor of socially despised women. We must move away from the mentality of blaming the victims to that of according full humanity to the downtrodden and search new ways to deal with old problems in order to help improve life conditions for all humankind. The masculinist sexual culture must give way to a humanist sexual culture in which each person’s humanity is respected regardless of sex, race, and social status.

Acknowledgements: I acknowledge with gratitude the financial support from the Northeast Asia Council for the Association for Asian Studies, San Francisco State University, the Japan Foundation, and the International Institute for Asian Studies of the University of Leiden, the Netherlands, which funded field research in Korea, Japan, and the Netherlands. The research time to write this paper was supported by a grant from the Research and Writing Initiative of the Global Security and Sustainability Program of the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, for which I am thankful.

Endnotes

1. See Pateman 1988. 2. Nishino 1992:46. 3. See Yoshimi 1995:79-80. 4. Hata (1998) asserts that Japanese women, not Koreans, constituted the majority ethnic group at comfort stations set up for exclusive use of the military. 5. See Soh 2000a for a further discussion of the Dutch case. 6. In this article I add Asia to the term “Pacific War” (which Ienaga [1978:xiii] uses to cover the “Fifteen Year War,” from the Manchurian Incident in 1931 to Japan’s defeat in 1945) with a purpose to highlight human sufferings experienced by the peoples in Asia during that war. 7. See Soh 2000a. 8. For more details see Enloe 1990, 1993; Sturdevant and Stoltzfus 1992. 9. See Soh 1996. 10. Interview with Yun Chông-ok, a co-representative of the Korean Council, January 7, 1995. 11. Marcus 1999. 12. Kwon 1999. 13. Ibid., pp. 215-217; Chang 1986. 14. See Kim et al. 1972. 15. For Kim’s testimony, see Chôngsindae Yôn’guhoe and Chôngsindae Munje Taechaek Hyôpûihoe 1993. 16. Korean automobile mechanics and many drivers use the Japanese term, jôshi, to talk about the condition of the engine. For example, engine jôshi ga chotta (The engine is in good condition) uses the Japanese term, jôshi, as well as the English term engine. 17. Licensed prostitution was abolished in postwar Japan in 1946 (see Garon 1997). 18. For more details, see Korean Church Women United (KCWU) 1983. 19. Ibid., p. 24. 20. See Moon 1997. 21. See KCWU 1983: 55-56. 22. Han’guk Kyohoe Yôsông Yônhaphoe 1983:23. 23. Ibid., p. 16. 24. For more details, see Soh 1996. 25. See H. S. Kim 1997. 26. The National Campaign for Eradication of Crime by U.S. Troops in Korea, n.d. 27. See Soh 2000b for a discussion of the meaning of women’s human rights for the survivors. 28. Han’guk Ilbo (April 29, 2000, B11). 29. KBS TV evening news, April 28, 2000.

References

Chang, Sa-hun. 1986. “Women Entertainers of the Yi Dynasty.” In Women of the Yi Dynasty, ed. Park Young-hai. Seoul: Research Center for Asian Women, Sookmyung Women’s University.

Chôngsindae Yôn’guhoe and Chôngsindae Munje Taechaek Hyôpûihoe, eds. 1993. Kangje-ro Kkûllyôgan Chosônin Kunwianpudûl (Forcibly Recruited Korean Military Comfort Women). Seoul: Hanul.

Enloe, Cynthia. 1990. Bananas, Beaches & Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics. Berkeley: University of California Press.

______. 1993. The Morning After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Garon, Sheldon. 1997. Molding Japanese Minds: The State in Everyday Life. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Han’guk Kyohoe Yôsông Yônhaphoe (HKYY). 1983. Kisaeng Kwan’gwang (Kisaeng Tourism). Seoul: HKYY.

Hata, Ikuhiko. 1998. “‘Ianfu densetsu’ o minaosu” (Rethinking the ‘comfort women legend’). In ‘Ianfu’ mondai to azia josei kikin (“Comfort Women” and Asian Women’s Fund), ed. Onuma Yasuaki, Shimomura Mitsuko, and Wada Haruki, pp. 197-199. Tokyo: Toshindo.

Ienaga, Saburo. 1978. The Pacific War: World War II and the Japanese, 1931-1945. Trans. Frank Baldwin. New York: Pantheon Books.

Kim, Hyôn-sôn. 1997. Kijich’on, Kijich’on Yôsông, Honhyôladong Silt’ae wa Sarye (The status and cases of Kijich’on, Kijich’on Women, and Children of Mixed Blood). Seoul: Saeumtô.

Kim, Ok-gil et al. 1972. Han’guk Yôsôngsa (History of Korean Women). Seoul: Ewha Womans University Press.

Korea Church Women United (KCWU). 1983. Kisaeng Tourism. Seoul: KCWU.

Kwon, Sun-hyông. 1999. Koryôsidae Yôsông i Kyubôm kwa Saenghwal (The norms and lives of women of Koryô). Pp. 135-162. Uri Yôsông i Yôksa (History of Our Women). Seoul: Han’guk Yôsông Yôn’guso Yôsôngsa Yôn’gusil.

Marcus, George E. 1999. Ethnography through Thick and Thin. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Moon, Katharine H. S. 1997. Sex among Allies: Military Prostitution in U.S.-Korea Relations. New York: Columbia University Press.

National Campaign for Eradication of Crime by U.S. Troops in Korea (NCEC). N.d. Cases of Crimes Committed by U.S. Militarymen. Seoul: NCEC.

Nishino, Rumiko. 1992. Jugun Ianfu: Moto Heishitachi no Shogen (Military Comfort Women: Testimony of Former Soldiers). Tokyo: Akashi Shoten.

Pateman, Carole. 1988. The Sexual Contract. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Soh, Chunghee Sarah. 1996. Korean ‘Comfort Women’: Movement for Redress. Asian Survey 36(12):1227-1240.

______. 2000a. From Imperial Gifts to Sex Slaves: Theorizing Symbolic Representations of the ‘Comfort Women’. Social Science Japan Journal 3 (1):59-76.

_____. 2000b. Human Rights and the ‘Comfort Women’. Peace Review (In press).

Sturdevant, Sandra P., and Brenda Stoltzfus. 1992. Let the Good Times Roll: Prostitution and the U.S. Military in Asia. New York: The New Press.

Yoshimi, Yoshiaki. 1995. Jugunianfu (Military Comfort Women). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.

http://www.icasinc.org/2000/2000s/2000scss.html

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The True History Behind 'Judas and the Black Messiah'

https://sciencespies.com/history/the-true-history-behind-judas-and-the-black-messiah/

The True History Behind 'Judas and the Black Messiah'

SMITHSONIANMAG.COM | Feb. 11, 2021, 3:15 p.m.

When Chicago lawyer Jeffrey Haas first met Fred Hampton, chairman of the Illinois chapter of the Black Panther Party, he was struck by the 20-year-old activist’s “tremendous amount of energy” and charisma. It was August 1969, and Haas, 26 years old at the time, and his fellow attorneys at the People’s Law Office had just secured Hampton’s release from prison on trumped-up charges of stealing $71 worth of ice cream bars. To mark the occasion, Hampton delivered a speech at a local church, calling on the crowd to raise their right hand and repeat his words: “I am a revolutionary.”

“I couldn’t quite say that, because I thought I was a lawyer for the movement, but not necessarily of the movement,” recalls Haas, who is white. “But as Fred continued saying that, by the third or fourth time, I was shouting ‘I am a revolutionary’ like everyone else.”

youtube

Judas and the Black Messiah, a new film directed by Shaka King and co-produced by Black Panther director Ryan Coogler, deftly dramatizes this moment, capturing both Hampton’s oratorical prowess and the mounting injustices that led him and his audience to declare themselves revolutionaries. Starring Daniel Kaluuya of Get Out fame as the chairman, the movie chronicles the months preceding Hampton’s assassination in a December 1969 police raid, detailing his contributions to the Chicago community and dedication to the fight for social justice. Central to the narrative is the activist’s relationship with—and subsequent betrayal by—FBI informant William O’Neal (LaKeith Stanfield), who is cast as the Judas to Hampton’s “black messiah.”

“The Black Panthers are the single greatest threat to our national security,” says a fictionalized J. Edgar Hoover (Martin Sheen), echoing an actual assertion made by the FBI director, in the film. “Our counterintelligence program must prevent the rise of a black messiah.”

Here’s what you need to know to separate fact from fiction ahead of Judas and the Black Messiah’s debut in theaters and on HBO Max this Friday, February 12.

Is Judas and the Black Messiah based on a true story?

In short: yes, but with extensive dramatic license, particularly regarding O’Neal. As King tells the Atlantic, he worked with screenwriter Will Berson and comedians Kenny and Keith Lucas to pen a biopic of Hampton in the guise of a psychological thriller. Rather than focusing solely on the chairman, they opted to examine O’Neal—an enigmatic figure who rarely discussed his time as an informant—and his role in the FBI’s broader counterintelligence program, COINTELPRO.

“Fred Hampton came into this world fully realized. He knew what he was doing at a very young age,” says King. “Whereas William O’Neal is in a conflict; he’s confused. And that’s always going to make for a more interesting protagonist.”

Daniel Kaluuya (center) as Fred Hampton

(Glen Wilson / Warner Bros.)

Speaking with Deadline, the filmmaker adds that the crew wanted to move beyond Hampton’s politics into his personal life, including his romance with fellow activist Deborah Johnson (Dominique Fishback), who now goes by the name Akua Njeri.

“[A] lot of times when we think about these freedom fighters and revolutionaries, we don’t think about them having families … and plans for the future—it was really important to focus on that on the Fred side of things,” King tells Deadline. “On the side of O’Neal, [we wanted] to humanize him as well so that viewers of the film could leave the movie wondering, ‘Is there any of that in me?’”

Who are the film’s two central figures?

Born in a suburb of Chicago in 1948, Hampton demonstrated an appetite for activism at an early age. As Haas, who interviewed members of the Hampton family while researching his book, The Assassination of Fred Hampton: How the FBI and the Chicago Police Murdered a Black Panther, explains, “Fred just couldn’t accept injustice anywhere.” At 10 years old, he started hosting weekend breakfasts for other children from the neighborhood, cooking the meals himself in what Haas describes as a precursor to the Panthers’ free breakfast program. And in high school, he led walkouts protesting the exclusion of black students from the race for homecoming queen and calling on officials to hire more black teachers and administrators.

According to William Pretzer, a supervisory curator at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of African American History and Culture (NMAAHC), the young Hampton was keenly aware of racial injustice in his community. His mother babysat for Emmett Till prior to the 14-year-old’s murder in Mississippi in 1955; ten years after Till’s death, he witnessed white mobs attacking Martin Luther King Jr.’s Chicago crusade firsthand.

“Hampton is really influenced by the desire of the NAACP and King to make change, and the kind of resistance that they encounter,” says Pretzer. “So it’s as early as 1966 that Hampton starts to gravitate toward Malcolm X … [and his] philosophy of self-defense rather than nonviolent direct action.”

Fred Hampton speaks at a rally in Chicago’s Grant Park in September 1969

(Chicago Tribune file photo / Tribune News Service via Getty Images)

William O’Neal in a 1973 mugshot

(Fair use via Wikimedia Commons)

After graduating from high school in 1966, Hampton, as president of the local NAACP Youth Chapter, advocated for the establishment of an integrated community pool and recruited upward of 500 new members. In large part due to his proven track record of successful activism, leaders of the burgeoning Black Panther Party recruited Hampton to help launch the movement in Chicago in November 1968. By the time of his death just over a year later, he’d risen to the rank of Illinois chapter chairman and national deputy chairman.

O’Neal, on the other hand, was a habitual criminal with little interest in activism before he infiltrated the Panthers at the behest of FBI agent Roy Mitchell (portrayed in the film by Jesse Plemons). As O’Neal recalled in a 1989 interview, Mitchell offered to overlook the-then teenager’s involvement in a multi-state car theft in exchange for intel on Hampton.

“[A] fast-talking, conniving West Side black kid who thought he knew all the angles,” O’Neal, according to the Chicago Tribune, joined the party and quickly won members’ admiration with his bravado, mechanical and carpentry skills, and willingness to place himself in the thick of the action. By the time of the police raid that killed Hampton, he’d been appointed the Panthers’ chief of security.

“Unlike what we might think of an informer being a quiet person who would appear to be a listener, O’Neal was out there all the time spouting stuff,” says Haas. “People were impressed by that. … He was a ‘go do it’ guy. ‘I can fix this. I can get you money. I can do these kinds of things. And … that had an appeal for a while.”

Why did the FBI target Hampton?

Toward the beginning of Judas and the Black Messiah, Hoover identifies Hampton as a leader “with the potential to unite the Communist, the anti-war, and the New Left movements.” Later, the FBI director tells Mitchell that the black power movement’s success will translate to the loss of “[o]ur entire way of life. Rape, pillage, conquer, do you follow me?”

Once O’Neal is truly embedded within the Panthers, he discovers that the activists are not, in fact, “terrorists.” Instead, the informer finds himself dropped in the midst of a revolution that, in the words of co-founder Bobby Seale, was dedicated to “trying to make change in day-to-day lives” while simultaneously advocating for sweeping legislation aimed at achieving equality.

The Panthers’ ten-point program, penned by Seale and Huey P. Newton in 1966, outlined goals that resonate deeply today (“We want an immediate end to POLICE BRUTALITY and MURDER of Black people”) and others that were certain to court controversy (“We want all Black men to be exempt from military service” and “We want freedom for all Black men held in federal, state, county and city prisons and jails”). As Jeff Greenwald wrote for Smithsonian magazine in 2016, members “didn’t limit themselves to talk.” Taking advantage of California’s open-carry laws, for instance, beret-wearing Panthers responded to the killings of unarmed black Americans by patrolling the streets with rifles—an image that quickly attracted the condemnation of both the FBI and upper-class white Americans.

Fred Hampton (far left) attends an October 1969 rally against the trial of eight people accused of conspiracy to start a riot at the Democratic National Convention.

(Don Casper / Chicago Tribune / Tribune News Service via Getty Images)

According to Pretzer, law enforcement viewed the Panthers and similar groups as a threat to the status quo. “They are focused on police harassment, … challenging the authority figures,” he says, “focusing on social activities that everybody thinks the government should be doing something about” but isn’t, like providing health care and ensuring impoverished Americans had enough to eat.

The FBI established COINTELPRO—short for counterintelligence program—in 1956 to investigate, infiltrate and discredit dissident groups ranging from the Communist Party of the United States to the Ku Klux Klan, the Nation of Islam and the Panthers. Of particular interest to Hoover and other top officials were figures like Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X and Hampton, many of whom endured illegal surveillance, explicit threats and police harassment. Details of the covert program only came to light came to light in 1971, when activists stole confidential files from an FBI office in Pennsylvania and released them to the public.

Though Hampton stated that the Panthers would only resort to violence in self-defense, Hoover interpreted his words as a declaration of militant intentions.

“Because of COINTELPRO, because of the exacerbation, the harassment, the infiltration of these and agent provocateurs that they establish within these organizations, it’s a self-fulfilling prophecy from the FBI’s point of view,” Pretzer explains, “[in that] they get the violence they were expecting.”

As Haas and law partner Flint Taylor wrote for Truthout in January, newly released documents obtained through a Freedom of Information Act request confirm the lawyers’ long-held suspicion that Hoover himself was involved in the plan to assassinate Hampton.

LaKeith Stanfield (left) as William O’Neal and Jesse Plemons (right) as FBI agent Roy Mitchell

(Glen Wilson / Warner Bros.)

What events does Judas and the Black Messiah dramatize?

Set between 1968 and 1969, King’s film spotlights Hampton’s accomplishments during his brief tenure as chapter chairman before delving into the betrayals that resulted in his death. Key to Hampton’s legacy were the Panthers’ survival programs, which sought to provide access to “fundamental elements of life,” per Pretzer. Among other offerings, the organization opened free health clinics, provided free breakfasts for children, and hosted political education classes that emphasized black history and self-sufficiency. (As Hampton said in 1969, “[R]eading is so important for us that a person has to go through six weeks of our political education before we can consider [them] a member.”)

On an average day, Hampton arrived at the Panthers’ headquarters with “a staccato of orders [that] gave energy to everyone around him,” says Haas. “But it wasn’t just what he asked people to do. He was there at 6:30 in the morning, making breakfast, serving the kids, talking to their parents.”

In addition to supporting these community initiatives—one of which, the free breakfast program, paved the way for modern food welfare policies—Hampton spearheaded the Rainbow Coalition, a boundary-crossing alliance between the Panthers, the Latino Young Lords, and the Young Patriots, a group of working-class white Southerners. He also brokered peace between rival Chicago gangs, encouraging them “to focus instead on the true enemy—the government and the police,” whom the Panthers referred to as “pigs,” according to the Village Free Press.

Fred Hampton raises his right hand at an October 11, 1969, rally in Chicago.

(Photo by David Fenton / Getty Images)

Speaking with Craig Phillips of PBS’ “Independent Lens” last year, historian Lilia Fernandez, author of Brown in the Windy City: Mexicans and Puerto Ricans in Postwar Chicago, explained, “The Rainbow Coalition presented a possibility. It gave us a vision for what could be in terms of interracial politics among the urban poor.”

Meanwhile, O’Neal was balancing his duties as an informant with his rising stature within the party. Prone to dramatic tendencies, he once built a fake electric chair intended, ironically, to scare informers. He also pushed the Panthers to take increasingly aggressive steps against the establishment—actions that led “more people, and Fred in particular, [to become] dubious of him,” says Haas.

The months leading up to the December 1969 raid found Hampton embroiled in legal troubles as tensions mounted between police and the Panthers. Falsely accused of theft and assault for the July 1968 ice cream truck robbery, he was denied bail until the People’s Law Office intervened, securing his release in August 1969. Between July and November of that year, authorities repeatedly clashed with the Panthers, engaging in shootouts that resulted in the deaths of multiple party members and police officers.

Daniel Kaluuya as Fred Hampton (far left) and LaKeith Stanfield as William O’Neal (far right)

(Glen Wilson / Warner Bros.)

By late November, the FBI, working off O’Neal’s intel, had convinced Cook County State’s Attorney Edward Hanrahan and the Chicago Police Department to raid Hampton’s home as he and his fiancée Johnson, who was nine months pregnant, slept. Around 4:30 a.m. on December 4, a heavily armed, 14-person raiding party burst into the apartment, firing upward of 90 bullets at the nine Panthers inside. One of the rounds struck and killed Mark Clark, a 22-year-old Panther stationed just past the front door. Though law enforcement later claimed otherwise, the physical evidence suggests that just one shot originated within the apartment.

Johnson and two other men tried to rouse the unconscious 21-year-old Hampton, who’d allegedly been drugged earlier that night—possibly by O’Neal, according to Haas. (O’Neal had also provided the cops with a detailed blueprint of the apartment.) Forced out of the bedroom and into the kitchen, Johnson heard a cop say, “He’s barely alive. He’ll barely make it.” Two shots rang out before she heard another officer declare, “He’s good and dead now.”

What happened after Hampton’s assassination?

Judas and the Black Messiah draws to a close shortly after the raid. In the film’s final scene, a conflicted O’Neal accepts an envelope filled with cash and agrees to continue informing on the Panthers. Superimposed text states that O’Neal remained with the party until the early 1970s, ultimately earning more than $200,000 when adjusted for inflation. After he was identified as the Illinois chapter’s mole in 1973, O’Neal received a new identity through the federal witness protection program. In January 1990, the 40-year-old, who’d by then secretly returned to Chicago, ran into traffic and was struck by a car. Investigators deemed his death a suicide.

“I think he was sorry he did what he did,” O’Neal’s uncle, Ben Heard, told the Chicago Reader after his nephew’s death. “He thought the FBI was only going to raid the house. But the FBI gave [the operation] over to the state’s attorney and that was all Hanrahan wanted. They shot Fred Hampton and made sure he was dead.”

The attempt to uncover the truth about Hampton and Clark’s deaths began on the morning of December 4 and continues to this day. While one of Haas’ law partners went to the morgue to identify Hampton’s body, another took stock of the apartment, which the police had left unsecured. Haas, meanwhile, went to interview the seven survivors, four of whom had been seriously injured.

A floor plan of Fred Hampton’s apartment provided to the FBI by William O’Neal

(People’s Law Office)

Hanrahan claimed that the Panthers had opened fire on the police. But survivor testimony and physical evidence contradicted this version of events. “Bullet holes” ostensibly left by the Panthers’ shots were later identified as nail heads; blood stains found in the apartment suggested that Hampton was dragged out into the hallway after being shot in his bed at point-blank range.

Public outrage over the killings, particularly within the black community, grew as evidence discounting the authorities’ narrative mounted. As one elderly woman who stopped by the apartment to see the crime scene for herself observed, the attack “was nothing but a Northern lynching.”

Following the raid, Hanrahan charged the survivors with attempted murder. Haas and his colleagues secured Johnson’s release early enough to ensure she didn’t give birth to her son, Fred Hampton Jr., in jail, and the criminal charges were eventually dropped. But the attorneys, “not content with getting people off, decided we needed to file a civil suit” alleging a conspiracy to not only murder Hampton, but cover up the circumstances of his death, says Haas.

Over the next 12 years, Haas and his colleagues navigated challenges ranging from racist judges to defendants’ stonewalling, backroom deals between the FBI and local authorities, and even contempt charges brought against the attorneys themselves. Working from limited information, including leaked COINTELPRO documents, the team slowly pieced together the events surrounding the raid, presenting compelling evidence of the FBI’s involvement in the conspiracy.

Hampton’s fiancée, Deborah Johnson (sitting in middle, as portrayed by Dominique Fishback), gave birth to their son, Fred Hampton Jr., 25 days after the raid.

(Glen Wilson / Warner Bros.)

Though a judge dismissed the original case in 1977 following an 18-month trial, Haas and the rest of the team successfully appealed for a new hearing. In 1982, after more than a decade of protracted litigation, the defendants agreed to pay a settlement of $1.85 million to the nine plaintiffs, including Clark’s mother and Hampton’s mother, Iberia.

“I used to describe being in court like going to a dog fight every day,” says Haas. “Everything we would say would be challenged. The [defendants’ lawyers] would tell the jury everything the Panthers had ever been accused of in Chicago and elsewhere, and [the judge] would let them do that, but he wouldn’t let us really cross examine the defendants.”

Hampton’s death dealt a significant blow to the Illinois chapter of the Black Panther Party, frightening members with its demonstration of law enforcement’s reach and depriving the movement of a natural leader.

According to Pretzer, “What comes out is that the the assassination of Hampton is a classic example of law enforcement’s malfeasance and overreach and … provoking of violence.”

Today, says Haas, Hampton “stands as a symbol of young energy, struggle and revolution.”

The chairman, for his part, was keenly aware of how his life would likely end.

As he once predicted in a speech, “I don’t believe I’m going to die slipping on a piece of ice; I don’t believe I’m going to die because I got a bad heart; I don’t believe I’m going to die because of lung cancer. I believe that I’m going to be able to die doing the things I was born for. … I believe that I will be able to die as a revolutionary in the international revolutionary proletarian struggle.”

#History

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2020law486 · 4 years ago

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SESSION 10. PDPC: Data Protection Management Programme, Data Governance and Data Protection in Practice

In the world of data protection, the substantive law (e.g. PDPA, GDPR) forms only part of the equation and the ability to operationalise the law as a lawyer, in-house counsel or data protection officer to prevent data breaches, evince accountability to the regulators that the appropriate measures have been embedded into the practice of the company, and to manage data breaches brings equilibrium to the scale. In this regard, it is imperative that law students appreciate their importance and understand their functions if they wish to pursue data protection law as one of their specialisations in the future.

The above-mentioned will be covered in sessions 10, 11 and 12.

Data Protection Management Programme (“DPMP”)

A DPMP is a systematic framework to help organisations establish a robust data protection infrastructure. It covers management policies and processes for the handling of personal data as well as defines roles and responsibilities of the people in the organisation in relation to personal data protection (para 1.1 of the Guide to Develop a DPMP). As the PDPC is shifting its approach from compliance to accountability, DPMP became an imperative tool for organisation to adopt so as to prevent data breach or evince to the regulator that reasonable measures have been taken to prevent the data breach.

There are many components when comes to DPMP and this seminar will focus on how to comply with the openness obligations of the PDPA and also certain aspect of the protection obligation in relation to managing data intermediary risk.

New Development: Assessments for relying on deemed consent by notification and legitimate interests exception (very briefly, as have been covered in earlier sessions).

Data Protection Officer (“DPO”)

A DPO is the key to implementing and administering the law into practice, and is a common accountability measure. This position in fact is the most critical within an organisation as it often entails devising the privacy policy and notice, and data protection management programme. Its essentiality is demonstrated by the fact that both PDPA and GDPR (if certain conditions are met) made it mandatory for an organisation to appoint a DPO.

The Guide to Developing a Data Protection Management Programme states that the DPO should be appointed from the senior management and the role can and is usually assumed by a compliance officer, lawyer or in-house counsel.

New Development: Accountable for Serious Mishandling of Personal Data.

PDPA imposes a statutory obligation for organisations to develop and implement policies and practices that are necessary for the organisation to meet its obligations under the PDPA. However, the actual obligation goes beyond simply devising and implementing the privacy policy. In this regard, the Commission has held that the implementation of policies and practices are intended to give a clear understanding within the organisation of its obligations under the PDPA and the standards on handling the personal data, customised to suit the need of the organisation and implemented properly via training or other awareness effort. Therefore, it is essential from the practical enforcement viewpoint for students to examine the decision of the Commission and understand how to comply with this provision through accountability.

New Development: Accountability.

Managing Risk – Data Intermediary

Most often than not, the data intermediary proves to be the Achilles’ heel in the data protection process. The most famous example will be the Facebook/Cambridge Analytic incident where Facebook faced investigation worldwide for the action committed by Cambridge Analytic and was fined the maximum £500,000 by the Information Commissioner’s Office this year. In gist, poor management of the data intermediary will result in the organisation being found in breach of the protection obligation under the PDPA. However, good management will exonerate the organisation from the data breach. That said, if both organisation and DI are equally culpable, then the PDPC will take both to task. Therefore, it is pivotal that organisation is cognisant of the risk and manage the risk when comes to DI.

New Developments: Mandatory Breach Notification and Exclusion of Public Agency.

Strategic Management

A brief explanation will be provided to serve as the platform for students who wish to take the Certified Information Privacy Manager Certificate in the future. Strategic Management is a different model but shares many similarities with DPMP. It is the first high-level task necessary to implement proactive privacy management through three subtasks: privacy vision and privacy mission statement, develop privacy strategy and structure privacy team. Thereafter, one needs to devise a privacy programme framework to guide the privacy team to ensure accountability.

Preparatory Instructions:

1. What is a Data Protection Management Programme (“DPMP”)?

2. What are the key elements of DPMP and how are they relevant to PDPA?

3. Can a group company engage a single DPO or can a company hire an external vendor to take on the role of a DPO? The advantages and disadvantages of doing either?

4. What are the expertise required from a DPO?

5. What are the responsibilities of a DPO and power required of a DPO? How can the PDPA be interpreted with reference to or learnt from the GDPR?

6. What are the differences and similarities between privacy policy and privacy notice?

7. Is it reasonable just to have a privacy policy or should the organisation undertake other measures to implement the privacy policy?

8. Look at Carousell’s privacy policy and assess whether it is reasonable or too much details.

9. How could an organisation or data intermediary manage the risk of a data breach?

10. What is Strategic Management under Privacy Management Programme? Is it similar to DPMP?

Primary Materials: (For Reference in Class Only)

Personal Data Protection Act (No. 26 of 2012)

EU General Data Protection Regulation (Regulation (EU) 2016/679)

Cases: (From PDP Digests / PDPC Website)

K Box Entertainment Group Pte Ltd and Finantech Holding Pte Ltd [2016] SGPDPC 1

Re M Stars Movers & Logistics Specialist Pte Ltd [2017] SGPDPC 17

Re Aviva Ltd [2017] SGPDPC 14 (briefly to understand the rationale of having privacy policy and practices)

Re Tiger Airways Singapore Pte Ltd & Others [2017] SGPDPC 6

Re Actxa Pte Ltd [2018] SGPDPC 5

Habitat for Humanity Singapore Ltd [2018] SGPDPC 9

Re National University of Singapore [2017] SGPDPC 5

Re Fei Fah Medical Manufacturing Pte Ltd [2016] SGPDPC 3

Re Fu Kwee Kitchen Catering Services and Pixart Pte Ltd [2016] SGPDPC 14

Re the Institution of Engineers Singapore [2016] SGPDPC 2

Re Singapore Telecommunications Limited and Tech Mahindra [2017] SGPDPC 4

Re Central Depository (Pte) Limited & Toh-Shi Printing Singapore Pte Ltd [2016] SGPDPC 11

Re Aviva Ltd & Toh-Shi Printing Singapore Pte Ltd [2016] SGPDPC 15

Re Ang Rui Siong [2017] SGPDPC 13

Re Social Metric Pte Ltd [2017] SGPDPC 17

Re Singapore Health Services Pte. Ltd and Integrated Health Information Systems Pte. Ltd [2019] SGPDPC 3

Re Advanced Home Tutors [2019] SGPDPC 35

Zero1 Pte. Ltd. and XDEL Singapore Pte Ltd [2019] SGPDPC 37

German European School Singapore [2019] SGPDPC 8

Required Readings: (Guidelines available from PDPC website)

Chapter 11 – From Compliance to Accountability by Yeong Zee Kin in Chesterman ed., Data Protection Law in Singapore – Privacy and Sovereignty in an Interconnected World (2ed Academy Publishing, 2018) [available in Course Reserves] [focus on pages 344-368]

Chapter 7 – Data Intermediaries and Data Breaches by Daniel Seng in Chesterman ed., Data Protection Law in Singapore – Privacy and Sovereignty in an Interconnected World (2ed Academy Publishing, 2018) [available in Course Reserves] [briefly to understand the relationship between organisation and data intermediary]

Lanx Goh, Data Protection Officer’s Role in Accountability, in the PDP Digest 2017 at 304

Personal Data Protection Commission, Guide to Developing a Data Protection Management Programme (issued 1 November 2017)

Personal Data Protection Commission, Advisory Guidelines on Key Concepts in the Personal Data Protection Act (rev. 27 July 2017) (paras 14.17-14.18 and 20.2)

NEW: Personal Data Protection Commission, Public Consultation on the PDPA Amendment Bill (pp 2-13)

NEW: Personal Data Protection Commission, PDPA Amendment Bill 2020 (Part 3, Clause 3A, Clause 4, Clause 15A, PART VIIIA, Clause 29)

Carousell’s privacy policy available at https://support.carousell.com/hc/en-us/articles/115006700307-Privacy-Policy (briefly)

Chapters 1 and 2 – Strategic Management, and Develop and Implement a Framework - Russell R. Densmore (ed), Privacy Program Management – Tools for Managing Privacy within Your Organization (2013, IAPP) [available in Course Reserves] [pages 4-63] (briefly as non-examinable).

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mergersacquisitionsadvisory · 4 years ago

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10 Biggest Middle Market Investment Banks In The World

As you'll be able to imagine, funding banking wasn’t exactly a popular selection back then. Pursuing an investment banking career is a good way to earn a very decent revenue early on in a single’s life. It can even allow you to get off to a operating start on a journey to monetary independence. The Bulge Bracket is a time period in the financial world for a few of the world’s largest and most profitable investment banks go here.

Financial Analyst Certification

This establishment supplies bank cards and loans, financing for companies, and money management services for companies and excessive net value individuals. Yet, despite their collective financial might, individual middle market companies face daunting challenges, together with difficulties in hiring and retaining talent, controlling prices, and heading off competitors from larger entities. In addition, on a strategic level middle market investment bank, middle market businesses often need help to determine tips on how to preserve profitable development while preserving pace with changing market conditions and customer demands. JPMorgan has diversified revenues streams with funding banking enterprise contributing almost 7% of total revenues over the past decade.

<h3>Advantages Of Working In Investment Banking At The Elite Boutiques:</h3>

On the opposite hand, Goldman Sachs is more dependent on funding banking enterprise which accounted for greater than 18% of its revenues. This implies that Goldman Sachs is heavily dependent on the funding banking enterprise, as in comparison with its peer, which has a way more diversified enterprise mannequin with a huge shopper as well as custody banking presence. Tier three capital is tertiary capital, which many banks maintain to help their market threat, commodities risk, and international foreign money risk, derived from buying and selling actions.

Banks are financial institutions providing a breadth of products and services, together with managing deposits, lending, wealth management, foreign money exchange, and investment banking.

Middle market firms are mid-size businesses having annual revenues from $10 million as much as $500 million and 100 to 2,000 staff.

Are financial establishments or intermediaries that deal largely with mid-market firms, specifically for raising debt or equity capital as well as mergers and acquisitions.

Some of essentially the most well-identified center-market funding banks are Robert W. Baird, Piper Jaffray & Co, Needham & Co, and Stifel Financial Corp.

The definition of a commercial bank has advanced dramatically in the past a number of many years.

These banks' customers include particular person consumers, companies, and many other kinds of institutional shoppers.

Canadian excessive-progress firms are current in each financial sector and usually are not simply concentrated in knowledge-primarily based industries. Nonetheless, they had been answerable for $a hundred and fifty billion, or about forty one.zero percent, of Canada's whole value of exports. As you’d likely think about, funding bankers at bulge-brackets – or tier one banks – earn extra money than their U.S. friends at other giant companies. But what actually stands out is the differences in pay as you progress up the ladder toward administration.

This list is proscribed to corporations which are publicly traded within the U.S. or Canada, both directly or through ADRs. Some corporations outside the U.S. report profits semi-annually as a substitute of quarterly, so the 12-month trailing information may be older than it is for firms that report quarterly.

The abbreviation "SME" is utilized by international organizations such because the World Bank, the European Union, the United Nations and the World Trade Organization . Goldman Sachs has been named probably the most prestigious investment financial institution in Vault's Guide to the Top 50 Banking Employersfor the tenth consecutive yr.

Other Notable Advisory And Capital Markets Firms

According to the regulations, banks should preserve a certain amount of money and/or different forms of liquid belongings available in order to meet their obligations. No greater than 25% of a financial institution's capital requirements could be comprised of Tier 2 capital.

While some authorities look to revenue generated by corporations to define the center market, other sources regard either asset size or number of employees as a greater metric for comparing firm sizes. It operates all over the world with main centers in Hong Kong, London, and New York. Bank of America is the second greatest US financial institution with $2.3 trillion in assets.

These monetary corporations may be a part of a bigger firm that additionally presents business banking services, however they take a unique position in the monetary system that influences the complete economy. Robert W. Baird & Co. – An employee-owned funding banking agency with 3,a hundred professionals. Offers its providers to quite a lot of firms within the healthcare, actual property, know-how, shopper, power distribution, and power and industrial know-how sectors. Dena Jalbert is founder and CEO of Align Business Advisory Services, a mergers and acquisitions (M&A) and enterprise advisory agency.

Lower-level Tier 2 capital consists of subordinated debt and is mostly inexpensive for a financial institution to issue. Bank capital is divided into two layers—Tier 1 or core capital and Tier 2 or supplementary capital. A financial institution's capital ratio is calculated by dividing its capital by its complete threat-based mostly property. The minimal capital ratio reserve requirement for a bank is set at eight%—6% of which should be supplied by Tier 1 capital. Along with Tier 1 capital, it supplies a bank with a financial cushion in case it needs to liquidate its assets.

You Are Probably Not Working For A Top Tier Investment Bank

ACG encourages the expansion and growth of middle-market companies by supporting insurance policies that foster and incentivize non-public capital funding. Combined, the middle market within the four European international locations contributes €1.11 trillion ($1.forty eight trillion) to the EU-4 GDP. This makes the center market within the EU-four one of many prime 10 economies on the planet, ahead of India and Russia. The almost one hundred fifty-year-old institution is a public firm with $917 billion in property as of 2017. Multiple excessive-rating government officers hung out at Goldman, together with U.S. Treasury secretaries, White House advisors, and management roles in central banks and governments all over the world.

The lower middle market is classified as companies with annual revenues between $5 million and $100 million. The lower revenue valuations for the decrease middle market are balanced against the exponentially larger volume of alternatives.

This decline of seven% in Goldman’s investment banking revenues would have been driven by decrease fairness underwriting deal volume and negative development in debt origination deal volume. Analysts at banks on each lists earned across the same last 12 months ($151k vs. $147k in total compensation – base plus bonus). However, the difference in pay grew to nearly 9%, on common, for associates. At the vp level, funding bankers at tier 1 companies made 18% more than friends at tier 2 banks, resulting in an almost $100k variance in take-house pay. While offers for junior bankers don’t range much agency to firm, the bigger-name banks appear rather more beneficiant with experienced employees.

National full-service middle market firms – Expand their companies to combine funding banking, wealth administration, fairness research, and brokerage and private fairness providers. Some main companies and divisions embrace monetary advisory and underwriting, its own investing and lending portfolios, institutional investor services, funding administration, and personal equity.

It turned itself round after 2008 and today lives as much as the lengthy historical past as a leader in company buyouts. William Blair & Co. – Provides a variety of monetary services corresponding to equity research and brokerage services, asset management, personal fairness, and investment banking. Focus is unfold across numerous market sectors, such as financial services, technology, healthcare, energy, and retail. An investment partner ought to convey a variety of experience to the desk including a very sturdy observe record of professionals who've efficiently built middle market corporations across a range of industries.

This capital helps a financial institution take in any losses so it can proceed its day-to-day operations. Because this degree is composed of a financial institution's core capital, Tier 1 is an excellent indicator of its financial health. The assets that fall into this class are additionally a lot easier to liquidate. The repeal of the 1933 Glass-Steagall Act that saved investment banks and business banks separate led to significant consolidation.

Since the monetary crisis in 2008, banks are sometimes called belonging to either Tier One, Tier Two or Tier Three. Tier One (J.P. Morgan, Bank of America Merrill Lynch, Goldman Sachs, Citi and Morgan Stanley) and Tier Two are the equal of the Bulge Bracket. The Bulge Bracket includes the world's most influential funding banks.

Don’t get me incorrect – there may be completely nothing incorrect with NOT being an investment banker. I would simply favor that this determination was based mostly on facts and never influenced by the picture painted in well-liked culture and the reputational bashing that persists more than a decade after the monetary crisis.

The History Of The Bulge Bracket

Jalbert holds a Master of Business Administration from Florida State University and a Bachelor of Arts in public accounting from Illinois Wesleyan University. The 10-12 months common purchase price multiple for leveraged buyouts of companies with enterprise values below $250 million is presently 7.3 occasions EBITDA, the highest it’s ever been. While it is increasingly competitive as a purchaser, new firms are born day by day, growing up, and are prepared for funding. In turn, traders are finding elevated value in decrease middle market portfolios, attracted to them for their returns, as these platforms can generate upwards of 50 % invested capital return.

Many of the largest investment banks are thought of among the "bulge bracket banks" and as such underwrite the vast majority of monetary transactions on the planet. Additionally, banks in search of more deal flow with smaller-sized deals with comparable profitability are known as "center market investment banks" .

Both of these market dynamics imply that deal move and valuations will remain sturdy. Policy makers and educational researchers can actually do a greater job of understanding the vital role of center market companies. Evercore Partners was based in 1996 by Roger Altman and has a broader funding banking enterprise than most independent firms, together with equity research and underwriting companies. Like other investment banks, the advisory services of Bank of America Merrill Lynch are important for corporations seeking to increase funds in public markets.

It is estimated that approximately 28% of New Zealand's gross home product is produced by corporations with fewer than 20 staff. Microbusinesses have 1–four workers, small businesses 5–19, medium companies 20–199, and huge businesses 200+. Australian SMEs make up 98% of all Australian businesses, produced one third of whole GDP, and make use of four.7 million folks. SMEs represent ninety per cent of all items exporters and over 60% of providers exporters.

Tier 3 capital features a greater variety of debt than tier 1 and tier 2 capital however is of a a lot lower quality than both of the two. Under the Basel III accords, tier three capital is being fully abolished. Unlike Tier 2 capital, Tier 1 capital is a financial institution's core capital or the first source of funding for a bank. As such, it consists of almost all of an establishment's funds together with all of its disclosed reserves and any fairness capital like frequent stock.

Single-trade specialists – Focus their services on middle market firms within a single business, such as actual property management companies or retail stores. Lower center-market companies operate in highly fragmented and really profitable industries, making them prime targets for acquisition and consolidation.

#middle market investment bank

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friendship-korea-japan · 4 years ago

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7.15. Summary on the modernization of Korea and the moves against it

Question 7: Modernization of Korea and its obstruction › 15. Summary on the modernization of Korea and the moves against it

Click here for table of contents

7.15. Summary on the modernization of Korea and the moves against it

(1) After Daewongun took control of the government, he refused the demands by Western powers to open the country, repelled French and American forces, and built anti-appeasement steles in various parts of Korea to show its intention to resist opening.

(2) Daewongun was expelled by his son, King Gojong. The Min administration started and concluded the Japan-Korea Treaty of Amity (the Treaty of Ganghwa).

(3) Regarding the Japan-Korea Treaty of Amity, Korean History Textbook for Elementary School points out that it was an unequal treaty concluded to make Korea defenseless against future invasions, arguing as follows:

(i) Japan separated Korea from China as an independent state to make Korea defenseless and to invade it.

(ii) It was unequal that Japan had jurisdiction over Japanese people in Korea.

(iii) It was also unequal that while the number of Korean ports to be opened was stipulated, there was no corresponding disposition on Japan.

(iv) Japan obtained the right to conduct geographical survey on Korean coastlines because it had the intention to make Korea defenseless and invade it.

(4) While A Stratagem for Korea, brought back from Japan by Kim Hong-jip, member of the Second Joseon Susinsa mission, considerably affected the promotion of the enlightenment policy by the government, it also prompted the development of the Wijeongcheoksa movement.

(5) In History Textbook of Korea, there is an article entitled “Read the material: Five reasons against the opening of ports”. While we could say that this was an erroneous opinion proposed due to the lack of understanding and judgment of the circumstances of the day, the textbook refers to it in a positive manner.

(6) The angered soldiers of the conventional army, who lost their jobs, had difficulty making a living and found their delayed salary in rice to contain rice husks and sand, finally rose in rebellion on June 9, 1882 (Imo Incident).

Queen Min requested that Qing should immediately dispatch its troops, and in August, Li Hongzhang dispatched 4,000 soldiers to Seoul, punished those involved in the rebellion that had already ended, and abducted Daewongun to China.

(7) On December 4, 1884, Kim Ok-gyun and others started a coup by obtaining the secret royal order and published the Innovation Policy of 14 Articles in three days. However, Queen Min secretly asked the Qing army to crush Kim’s group and put an end to the reform. Some of the ministers were killed, while Kim and others fled to Japan. Eleven years later, Kim was lured into China where he was assassinated.

(8) After that event, Qing dispatched Yuan Shikai and intensified political interference and economic penetration in Korea. He strengthened political and military interference so much that he was called “governor of Korea” by diplomats who were in Seoul at that time.

(9) In February 1885, under the proposal of an American doctor named Allen, the first Western-style medical institution was established in Hanseong, marking the start of modern medical education.

In 1887, the General Directorate for Telegraph was set up.

The Korean government constructed on its own the Hanseong-Busan telegraph line in 1888 and Hanseong-Wonsan telegraph line in 1891. In August 1886, the Royal English College (Yukyeonggongwon), where education in English was conducted by invited American professors, was established.

In December 1887, the Dongmugongwon was established as the military academy. In 1888, an American took up the post of military instructor.

In May 1884, the Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Russia and Korea was concluded.

In March 1885, the British Eastern Fleet suddenly occupied Geomun-do Island.

Korea concluded the Treaty of Amity with Italy in May 1884 and with France in 1886.

(10) Regretting that Japan could not protect the Kim Ok-gyun administration, it concluded the Treaty of Tianjin on March 4, 1885. According to this treaty, Japan and Qing had the obligation to notify the other in advance when dispatching soldiers in Korea.

(11) In February 1894, under the leadership of the leaders of the Donghak movement, a popular uprising against extreme misgovernment started. The farmers occupied the county office, ousted the magistrate, and recovered the rice embezzled by him, and then they disbanded themselves. However, as the officials who had been dispatched as inspectors proceeded to search for participants in the uprising and committed looting, the farmers resumed actions in late April. They defeated the forces of the governor of Gobu County on May 1, and beat part of the forces of the central government on May 27, 1894.

(12) History Textbook of Korea states that the peasant forces proposed the 12-point Reform Plan and demanded improvement on each of the points. However, it is likely that this plan, which perfectly pointed out the political and social problems of Korea at that time, did not actually exist, but was just described in a history novel at a later date.

(13) After defeating the Qing forces stationed in Korea in a naval battle and a land battle respectively on July 25 and 28, 1894, Japan declared war on Qing on April 1, 1894. The Sino-Japanese War ended with the conclusion of the Treaty of Shimonoseki on April 17, 1895. Qing approved the abolition of suzerainty over Korea, and Korea’s independence from Qing became definitive.

(14) On January 8, 1895, King Gojong announced the Fourteen Clauses of the Charter for the reform of internal administration. This was an important step for modernization, as it could be considered the first basic legislation of Korea. However, the Kim Hong-jip administration was overthrown by King Gojong and the prime minister and his ministers were massacred. That was how efforts for the modernization of Korea were again crushed by King Gojong.

(15) From the reign of Alexander III, Russia intended to bring the Far East under its control. In 1860, it built a military base in the Japan Sea. Russia monopolized the mining and logging rights of Korea, interfered in Korea’s internal affairs by dispatching military instructors and financial counselors, and leased Jeolyoungdo Island in Busan.

Then, Russia leased Lushun and Dalian on the Liaodong Peninsula, built a solid and large-scale fortress on Lushun Port and deployed nearly 50,000 forces. As of 1904, Russia had deployed as many as 320,000 soldiers in the southern part of Manchuria and the Liaodong Peninsula.

Being wary of Russia, which had expanded its sphere of influence to the southernmost edge of the Korean Peninsula, Japan concluded an alliance with the United Kingdom, which shared the same sense of crisis, and with support from the United States, it fought against Russia by raising funds for the war from outside Japan equivalent to several times as much as the national budget and succeeded in removing Russia from Korea and Manchuria. A total of 88,429 were killed and 153,584 were wounded in the fighting.

(16) In 1896, the Korean government invited Seo Jae-pil, who had been in exile in the United States, as the counselor of the Privy Council to promote reform. With the goal of establishing an autonomous and independent state, he founded the Independence Association, with the participation of governmental officials.

The Independent Association adopted the Six Articles of the Charter, which focused on political reforms, and obtained approval from King Gojong.

The conservative forces, critical of such a move, worked out a plot. King Gojong arrested the leaders of the Independent Association and ordered its dissolution. He believed the false charges from the conservatives and lost a third chance for the modernization of Korea. King Gojong’s unflagging resolution to execute the Fourteen Clauses of the Charter, which he swore before the souls of his predecessors, was false.

(17) In 1899, the Korean government announced the Constitution of the Korean Empire, the first Constitution of the Korean state. The constitution stated that the Korean Empire was an autocratic state in which the Emperor held control over legislative, administrative, judicial and military affairs, and allowed the Emperor to directly control the military authority through the establishment of the Supreme Military Council.

Under the Constitution of the Korean Empire, the Emperor monopolized all the power, thereby completely denying the Fourteen Clauses of the Great Charter and the Six Articles of the Charter, which could be considered constitutions for the modernization of Korea.

The Constitution of the Korean Empire completely blocked Korea’s path to modernization. So long as the Korean Empire subsisted, reforms for modernization became institutionally impossible. Moreover, so many talented people who understood the world situation well were either killed or forced to seek refuge abroad.

The Emperor and people of the conservative ruling class must have felt relieved to see this result. However, by making it impossible to conduct autonomous reforms for enlightenment and modernization amidst the rapidly-changing circumstances of Asia in the early 20th century, we believe that the Korean Empire committed a great mistake.

Now, the only way to transform Korea into a modern state was to defeat the Constitution of the Korean Empire. However, it was impossible to move to defeat the Constitution from inside Korea, as people involved would be executed for high treason against the Emperor. In addition, there was the conservative Yangban class, which accounted for more than half of the population and was against the reform. The Korean Empire, placed under the despotic authority of the Emperor in all aspects and maintaining the class system, customs and systems that were the root of all troubles, completely denied the freedom of the people. In these circumstances, it was impossible for Korea to implement reforms for modernization and extricate itself from its undeveloped and miserable condition.

The items 1 to 15 above describe the reality of “rule of the Korean race by the Korean race” towards the end of the Joseon era.

We would like to ask people in the world how Korea could have survived under these circumstances.

#Joseon #korean empire #history of korea #about south korea #korea-japan

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