#al hakam i of córdoba

[docpiplup]

Fifth part of the bookscans of Al Andalus. Historical Figures, here's the previous part

expelled from their homes, since they had not surrendered peacefully, but had fought.

Charlemagne, chastened, realized that the pacts signed with the Muslim lords of northern Spain deserved no trust. He would never set foot on the Peninsula again, and subsequently dedicated itself to strengthening its borders with Hispanic Islam. For this he created the kingdom of Aquitaine, whose mission consisted of not taking our eyes off the activity of the Muslims of the places bordering Gaul.

From the disaster suffered by Charlemagne in Roncesvalles we have remains what some consider the most beautiful song of deeds of literature, La Chanson de Roland, an authentic gem of the epic poetry. Within the Spanish Ballads we find two romances that have this fact as their theme: Of the battle of Roncesvalles and the Romance of Doña Alda. The Basques also preserve a song dedicated to Roncesvalles, the Altabizaren cantua, which according to the Irishman Macnab, was written in the same century in which this event took place. But Ibn al-Arabí, who had been the originator of this whole story, was not reflected in any of these beautiful romances!

Amrus ben Yusuf: the muladí of Huesca

Muladí comes from an Arabic word that translates as "mixed race or foreigner", and was applied to those Christians who converted to Islam and continued living among the Muslims. There were many who decided to abandon Christianity, possibly for practical reasons, including stopping paying taxes, or reaching a position of social relevance among the new owners of the country and there were not a few who achieved it. There was also sincere converts, since in those centuries the roots of the Christianity was not as deep as it may seem.

This was the case of our character, Amrus ben Yusuf, whom the Christian chronicles will know him as Amorroz, born in Huesca and one of the staunchest defenders of the policies of al-Hakam I. After the death of Abd al-Rahman I, his son Hisham, a very pious emir, introducer of the Maliki doctrine in Spain, and who Driven by his religious fervor, he dedicated himself to waging war on the Northern Christians. Al-Andalus remained at peace and therefore the new emir was able to dedicate himself

to harass the Asturian monarchy. But his reign was to be very short, just seven years, and was succeeded by his second son, al-Hakam I.

But the arrival of the new emir was greeted with rebellions in all the border marches. In the most remote areas of Córdoba, the authority of the emir hardly represented anything and the governors lived in a regime of almost total independence. The insurrections against the power of the emirate were more than frequent and al-Hakam had the unfortunate luck to have to face them all. In this hard task, he will have a paladin who will always be at his side: Amrus, who will not hesitate to take radical measures when the matter is serious. This muladí would become famous on what was known as the “day of the pit.”

In the year 797, the always restless Toledo, inhabited mostly by muladíes, rose up against the Umayyad power to recognize a rebel Ubayd Allah ben Jamir, who together with a poet of Toledo, Girbib ben Abd Allah, dissatisfied with the emir, had in charge of calming down the spirits. It wasn't the first time this happen, nor would it be the last, and al-Hakam's predecessors had already had to work hard to put a stop to the rebels of Toledo.

Amrus, who at that time ruled the stronghold of Huesca, was commissioned by the emir to subdue that uprising by the means that it considers opportune. And there went Amrus willing not to disappoint his lord.

He began by eliminating the leader of the rebellion, Ubayd Allah ben Jamir, who fell into a trap prepared by him and then decided to give a lesson to the people of Toledo that they would find difficult to forget.

Amrus, according to him to avoid friction with the population, said that the best would be that, along with his troops, he would settle on a mound near the city. Towards the northwest, near the bridge over the Tagus River, rose a small fortress, possibly on the site now occupied by the Alcazar. When the enclosure was more or less finished, the emir, in agreement with Amrus, he sent an army under the command of his son, the prince Abd al-Rahman, pretending that he was going on an expedition against the Christians and that "coincidentally" had to pass near Toledo. It was a good occasion to invite the prince to visit Toledo, and Amrus, accompanied by the most important people of the city, they came out to receive him and begged him to honor them with his presence.

Abd al-Rahman seemed somewhat reluctant to accept the invitation, but In the end he agreed to it and to celebrate it the most influential mula-díes of Toledo were invited to the new fortress to celebrate a banquet in honor of the emir's son. Until then everything was more or less normal, but as the guests arrived, they became enter through a narrow passage, at the very edge of a large ditch, and the Amrus's executioners cut off their heads, while their bodies was thrown into the pit. That was the " castle of you will go and no you will come back"!

The number of those beheaded was very large. Maybe not as much as 5,000, according to some chroniclers; maybe about 700

being a very high number. What the leading class of Toledo was thus beheaded and the terrible impression produced by this event remained, for a long time, both among the Muslims and among the muladies of Toledo and from other cities.

Dozy narrates that terrible day like this: "At daybreak, a doctor that had not seen anyone leave through either of the two door, became suspicious and asked the people gathered near the entrance of the castle what had happened to the guests who had arrived early. "They must have gone out through the other door," they answered- It's strange!-the doctor then objected -; I have been for some time at the other door and I haven't seen anyone leave. After watching the steam rising above the walls, exclaimed:

Unfortunates! I swear to you that this vapor is not the smoke of a feast, but the vapor of the shed blood of your brothers, beheaded"

When things got really bad, al-Hakam knew that he could count on Amrus and so he also entrusted him with the submission of Zaragoza, the capital of the Upper March, as seditious as Toledo.

After the advent of al-Hakam, the two best generals of his father, Abd al-Karim ben Mugith and his brother, Abd al-Malik, in those moments at enmity with the new emir, they tried to evict the Aragonese chief Bahlul ben Marzuq from Zaragoza, to They settled in the city, but they did not succeed. He got a Cordoban army, and

Bahlul fled towards upper Aragon. Later this Bahlul, would take over Huesca, while other small rebellions by the Banu Qasi took place, who were descendants, it seems, of Musa ben Fortún, that Aragonese count who converted to Islam in the first moments of the conquest.

Given this panorama, it was evident that the action of Amrus who, also with full powers of the emir, came to Zaragoza in 802. Its activity was frenetic. Persecuted and killed Bahlul; took over the fiefdom of the Banu Qasi, and harshly punished to the muladíes of Huesca for their rebellious attitude. In that same year he ordered the construction of the stronghold of Tudela, between Zaragoza and Pamplona, an intermediate point that would serve as support in that always upheaval area. In this stronghold there was his son, Yusuf, commanding a strong garrison. He reinforced the walls of Huesca and put one of his cousins in charge of this city. Al-Hakam could sleep peacefully when it came to the Upper March... but even the most faithful soul is tempted in some occasions.

Installed on the banks of the Ebro, Amrus lived like a prince, enjoying your well-earned peace of mind. He had everything, or almost everything he could want, but he began to think that he too, which had garnered so much success for the emir of Cordoba, could become independent of his tutelage. It seems that he came to engage conversations with the Frankish monarch, Louis the Pious, so that supported their independence intentions and all these maneuvers reached al-Hakam's ears. The emir acted intelligent, and instead of openly declaring war on that subject that now

showed to be unfaithful, but that he had served him so many times with loyalty, he sent troops to the border, under the command of General Abd al-Karim ben Mugith, urging him not to act with the weapons until seeing Amrus's reaction to the message that the emir gave him.

This message from al-Hakam was written in the most praiseworthy and affectionate towards the muladí that you can imagine and Amrus, after reading it, was ashamed of his thoughts. He left Zaragoza and marched towards Córdoba to, once again, bear witness the emir his fidelity. Al-Hakam showered him with attention and gifts and confirmed him in the government of the Upper March. Amrus, after of this trip, he only lived two years and at his death the son of the emir, Abd al-Rahman, took charge of this March, for some time, to later pass to the son of Amrus, such was the good memory that his father had left in the emirate of Cordoba.

The "Rabadis": adventurous spirits

Most historians consider the emir al-Ha-kam I despotic and cruel. There is no doubt that his character was too impulsive and his justice extremely summary, but it is also true that his reign was affected by a series of rebellions and serious events that he had to repress as best he could. He never enjoyed the appreciation of his subjects who considered him inflexible, little inclined to piety, although it was not like that, abusive with taxes and little given to listening advice from no one. However, Dozy believes that he also had humanitarian feelings, like any other man, and that, despite of his cruel actions, his bad reputation was due, especially, to the wrath of the rebellious alfaquis, whom this emir never appreciated. And in this context, the terrible events of the suburb, rabad in Arabic, took place.

The emiral city of Córdoba had grown a lot. From Africa and from the East any Arabs and Berbers from the Maghreb continually arrived attracted by the prosperity of al-Andalus. The mosque had to be expanded larger to accommodate the number of believers who came to pray to it, and

The city was expanding beyond its walls. After the Roman bridge over the Guadalquivir was restored, there was no longer a problem for the population to settle in a suburb on the left bank of the river, which reached the vicinity from a village, Shaqunda, ancient Roman Secunda.

The inhabitants of this suburb were of very diverse origins and they carried out a multitude of diverse jobs. Besides of what could be considered the Cordoba plebs, there were many small Mullawad and Christian artisans and merchants, but due to its proximity to the main mosque and the emiral palace, many Cordobans who were employed, either in the mosque or in the palace, they settled there. Among this diverse population, also found the alfaquíes, religious leaders of the doctrine Malikí, who had reached a very prominent position and a very notable influence at court, especially with the emir Hisham, father of al-Hakam I.

This suburb will soon become a focus of discontent towards the emir's policy, promoted by the same alfaquies who with al-Hakam had neither the appreciation nor the influence that they achieved with his predecessor. On the other hand, in the city al-Hakam did not enjoy of many sympathies so it was only a matter of time before the situation exploded.

And it happened that one day a rumor spread through the city that seventy-two leading citizens had been executed and that their corpses were going to be exposed, crucified, on the right bank of the Guadalquivir. The mood be-

gan to exalt, without knowing or without asking themselves the reason for these executions. What happened was that a plot had been hatched to overthrow the emir and put in his place one of his cousins, the Umayyad Muhammad ben al-Qasim. Many notable people from the Córdoba of that time were involved in this conspiracy. Al-Hakam's cousin pretended to accept the proposal, but was immediately to tell the emir, also providing him with the list of the conspirators. Inthat same day, the emir ordered them to be arrested and executed, taking advantage of the occasion to order the murder of two of his uncles, sons of Abd al-Rahman I, who had been imprisoned since his ascension to the throne, possibly to prevent them from rebelling against him or challenging him for power. Between the crucified were figures of great social relevance, such as the son of a cadi, a palace eunuch, a market inspector and even a alfaqui. The impression that this action produced in Córdoba could not be more negative towards the emir, and the discontent, already notable, increased.

There was a plotting everywhere, at any time of the day. In the mosques, in the markets, in the streets discontent was chewed, while everyone distrusted everyone, believing they saw spies and confidants of the emir throughout the entire city.

Al-Hakam, aware of the mood, equipped himself withweapons, restored the walls, surrounded himself with a strong personal guard under the command of a Christian, Count Rabí, and prepared himself for the worst.

[jartita-me-teneis]

ABBAS IBN FIRNÁS, EL PRIMER HOMBRE QUE VOLÓ Y LO CONTÓ

A lo largo de la historia de la humanidad ha habido personas memorables cuya contribución a la ciencia se puede considerar como algo excepcional. Conocemos a muchos de ellos y, concretamente en el contexto de la aeronáutica, pero hay otros nombres que, sin embargo, han pasado de forma más discreta a la historia a pesar de que su contribución ha sido ciertamente notable. Tal es el caso de un científico, historiador, poeta, inventor y, desde luego, pionero aeronáutico, como fue Abbas Ibn Firnas.

Muchos se sorprenden al conocer que este hombre fue el primero capaz de volar con un artefacto más pesado que el aire, manteniéndose en vuelo alrededor de diez minutos. Y lo hizo, además, más de mil años antes que los hermanos Wright, concretamente en el año 875. Pero, ¿quién fue Abbas Ibn Firnas?

Su nombre de nacimiento fue Abu al-Qāsim Abbās ibn Firnās y vino al mundo en el año 810 en los alrededores de la ciudad de Ronda (Málaga, España). Se sabe relativamente poco de su infancia, salvo que adquirió una extensa cultura y empezó a destacar en diversas disciplinas, lo que le condujo inexorablemente a la que en aquel momento era la ciudad más rica e influyente de Al-Andalus, Córdoba. Allí destacó como científico, inventor, poeta, filósofo, alquimista, músico y astrólogo hasta tal punto que recibió el sobrenombre de Hakim Al Andalus (el sabio de Al Andalus).

Una vez en Córdoba desarrolló extensamente sus facetas de conocimiento contribuyendo de forma significativa en el avance de las ciencias y las artes en las cortes de los emires al-Hakam (796-822), Abderramán II (822-852) y Muhammad I (852-886).

En el campo científico fue el primero en utilizar en toda la Península Ibérica, y probablemente en Europa, las tablas astronómicas de Sinhind, de origen hindú, que más tarde resultarían básicas en el desarrollo de la ciencia europea y se estudiarían en las universidades medievales como asignatura del Quadrivium (donde se integraban la música, la aritmética, la geometría y la astronomía).

Introdujo en el mundo occidental la técnica para tallar el cristal de roca e incluso desarrolló procedimientos de alquimia para crear cristales a partir de diferentes minerales.

Construyó para el emir de Córdoba una clepsidra (en árabe Al-Maqata-Maqata), un reloj complejo que utiliza agua como energía, a la que cierran o abren el paso una serie de válvulas y sirve para dar las horas en cualquier momento del día o de la noche, algo poco corriente en su época.

También desarrolló la primera esfera armilar (o astrolabio esférico) de Europa, utilizada para realizar cálculos y observaciones astronómicas aproximadas, orientando los círculos del instrumento según el plano de los círculos celestes.

Como ejemplo de su avanzado conocimiento astronómico, construyó en su residencia de Córdoba un planetario, articulado mecánicamente, que representaba la bóveda celeste. Incluso lo ambientó con efectos sonoros y visuales que simulaban los distintos meteoros: la tormenta, el rayo y el trueno.

En el contexto de la aeronáutica, Abbas Ibn Firnás es un referente extraordinario como precursor del paracaídas y por ser la primera persona que diseñó, construyó y probó con éxito artefactos que se podían mantener en el aire. Lo hizo seiscientos años antes de que Leonardo da Vinci desarrollara sus diseños de máquinas voladoras y más de mil años antes de que los hermanos Wright hicieran su famoso vuelo.

Su primer hito aeronáutico fue en el año 852, en el que saltó al vacío desde el alminar de la Mezquita de Córdoba utilizando una lona a modo de innovador paracaídas. Nunca se había intentado algo así. O, al menos, nadie pudo contarlo hasta aquella fecha. El resultado fue un descenso relativamente rápido, con un aterrizaje tosco y varios huesos rotos, pero con la firme convicción de que aquello podía funcionar. Este hecho se considera de forma generalizada como el uso del primer paracaídas de la historia.

Años más tarde, en 875, diseñó un planeador a base de madera y tela de seda (adornada con plumas de diversas aves) con el que se lanzó desde las colinas de la Ruzafa, cercanas a Córdoba. Seguro de que aquel ingenio funcionaría, había convocado a centenares de personas a lo largo del recorrido. También estaban presentes muchos miembros de la corte de Muhammad I, emir del califato andalusí. El resultado fue un vuelo sostenido aprovechando las corrientes de aire que duró entre dos y diez minutos (dependiendo de las crónicas que se tomen como referencia). Según parece, el control del artilugio fue bastante deficiente y fue posiblemente la causa del accidentado aterrizaje en el que se lastimó seriamente ambas piernas. Posteriormente atribuyó el problema a la necesidad de incorporar una cola al diseño de la aeronave. Con 65 años, muchos para su época, ya no volvió a intentarlo, pero se convirtió en el primer hombre en la historia que volaba con un artefacto más pesado que el aire… y podía contarlo.

Fuente https://aertecsolutions.com/

[brookstonalmanac]

Events 11.1 (before 1900)

365 – The Alemanni cross the Rhine and invade Gaul. Emperor Valentinian I moves to Paris to command the army and defend the Gallic cities. 996 – Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk, Bishop of Freising, which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi (Austria in Old High German). 1009 – Berber forces led by Sulayman ibn al-Hakam defeat the Umayyad caliph Muhammad II of Córdoba in the battle of Alcolea. 1141 – Empress Matilda's reign as 'Lady of the English' ends with Stephen of Blois regaining the title of 'King of England'. 1179 – Philip II is crowned as 'King of France'. 1214 – The port city of Sinope surrenders to the Seljuq Turks. 1348 – The anti-royalist Union of Valencia attacks the Jews of Murviedro on the pretext that they are serfs of the King of Valencia and thus "royalists". 1503 – Pope Julius II is elected. 1512 – The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, painted by Michelangelo, is exhibited to the public for the first time. 1520 – The Strait of Magellan, the passage immediately south of mainland South America connecting the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans, is first discovered and navigated by European explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the first recorded circumnavigation voyage. 1555 – French Huguenots establish the France Antarctique colony in present-day Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 1570 – The All Saints' Flood devastates the Dutch coast. 1601–1900 1604 – William Shakespeare's tragedy Othello is performed for the first time, at Whitehall Palace in London. 1611 – Shakespeare's play The Tempest is performed for the first time, at Whitehall Palace in London. 1612 – During the Time of Troubles, Polish troops are expelled from Moscow's Kitay-gorod by Russian troops under the command of Dmitry Pozharsky (22 October O.S.). 1683 – The British Crown colony of New York is subdivided into 12 counties. 1688 – William III of Orange sets out a second time from Hellevoetsluis in the Netherlands to seize the crowns of England, Scotland and Ireland from King James II of England during the Glorious Revolution. 1755 – In Portugal, Lisbon is totally devastated by a massive earthquake and tsunami, killing an estimated 40,000 to 60,000 people. 1765 – The British Parliament enacts the Stamp Act on the Thirteen Colonies in order to help pay for British military operations in North America. 1790 – Edmund Burke publishes Reflections on the Revolution in France, in which he predicts that the French Revolution will end in a disaster. 1800 – John Adams becomes the first President of the United States to live in the Executive Mansion (later renamed the White House). 1805 – Napoleon Bonaparte invades Austria during the War of the Third Coalition. 1814 – Congress of Vienna opens to re-draw the European political map after the defeat of France in the Napoleonic Wars. 1848 – In Boston, Massachusetts, the first medical school for women, Boston Female Medical School (which later merged with the Boston University School of Medicine), opens. 1861 – American Civil War: U.S. President Abraham Lincoln appoints George B. McClellan as the commander of the Union Army, replacing General Winfield Scott. 1870 – In the United States, the Weather Bureau (later renamed the National Weather Service) makes its first official meteorological forecast. 1893 – The Battle of Bembezi took place and was the most decisive battle won by the British in the First Matabele War of 1893. 1894 – Nicholas II becomes the new (and last) Tsar of Russia after his father, Alexander III, dies. 1894 – Buffalo Bill, 15 of his Native Americans, and Annie Oakley were filmed by Thomas Edison in his Black Maria Studio in West Orange, New Jersey. 1896 – A picture showing the bare breasts of a woman appears in National Geographic magazine for the first time. 1897 – The first Library of Congress building opens its doors to the public; the library had previously been housed in the Congressional Reading Room in the U.S. Capitol. 1897 – Italian Sport-Club Juventus is founded by a group of students of Liceo Classico Massimo d'Azeglio.

[butternuggets-blog]

FOR WANT OF A NAIL

@baldwin-montclair @adowobsessed @sylverdeclermont @nicki-mac-me @thereadersmuse @kynthiamoon @adowbaldwin @profoundme444 @beautifulsoulsublime @lady-lazarus-declermont

Part Twenty-One

Summary: Baldwin Montclair had a string of ex girlfriends, a single child, and a lifetime longer than most people could dream of to make all kinds of mistakes. His family knew one which kept coming out of the woodwork to irritate him every other century.

Also on Ao3

Baldwin glanced quickly around the room and felt his heart sink into his boots. When the small child had approached him at the harbour as the ship finished docking that morning, clutching a neatly-folded invitation to the alcázar in the heart of Qādis, a part of him had still been clinging to the hope that Hugh- and Fernando, and Matthew- would be waiting there for him.

Godfrey gently nudged him to the side so he could get in as well; Phillipe was in front of them both, and already inclining his head towards an impassive Merula. Her husband and wife were lounging on a pile of pillows behind her, and Martin was sitting beside them, drinking from a glass goblet.

'A gift for you' Phillipe removed two illuminated manuscripts from beneath his cloak and handed them to Merula. She took it with a graceful nod, and handed one to her husband, and the other to her wife, to examine.

'Archimedes' On Floating Bodies' Philippe smiled as Shadrach made an appreciative noise.

'You know my husband's work'

'And the good it does the city' Philippe reached into his cloak again and removed a carved wooden box. He opened it.

'Spices, from your home'

'Jerusalem is far from here, I thank you for your thoughtfulness' Merula passed the spices to an excited Ishtar, who began carefully examining each vial and pouch while Martin leaned over her shoulder.

'My brother is here to drink wine and look pretty. You are here to negotiate with me.'

'Of course' Philippe sat down where Merula gestured for him to do so, his sons following suit.

'I understand you have been following behind Martin for some time.'

They had found Godfrey in an inn outside of Lyon. He had been clear on his brother's movements up to a few days before, and when Philippe pressed him for their final destination he just gave a baffled shake of his head.

Magic was clearly involved.

Philippe was incensed by this point. He ordered them to turn the horses round, and they were going back to Beaune to have a talk with Martin when suddenly an out-of-breath milliner- one of Philippe's spies- approached and told them that Martin had left home weeks ago and was headed for Qādis to visit his sister.

‘We pressed on to the port at Marseille, and now we are here’ Philippe finished. ‘We thought-’

Merula was already shaking her head.

‘My brother had been planning this visit for some time. I am afraid his leaving right after your seeing him was a complete accident.’

Baldwin winced. He could feel the last thread of Philippe's patience snapping.

You mean our brothers are not in the city?' Godfrey flinched at a sudden thought.

'They may not even be in this country?!'

Baldwin let his weariness seep into his expression. His shoulders slumped, and he gazed across at Martin.

'Where is my brother?'

'...Córdoba'

'Thank you'

________________________________________________________________

In exchange for not beating the ever-loving hell out of her brother, Merula forced Martin to pay all expenses for their voyage to Córdoba, as well as accompanying them to help keep a lookout for any trouble.

They weren't expecting any trouble, but it paid to be cautious. After the Muslims marched across the Strait of Gibraltar, the Ummayyad Caliphate rose from the ashes of the Visigothic Kingdom. Under emir Abd al-Rahmān III, then his son Al-Hakam II, Córdoba had become a hub of scholarly pursuit, and international trade.

Although the majority of the population followed Sunni Islam, there was still a significant minority of Christians and Jews in the country. They were treated well, despite legally being second-class citizens, and could even obtain positions of power within the aristocracy, and even the royal court, if they were lucky enough.

Baldwin's respect for Martin grew a little as they headed north. He was by far the best rider out of his brothers, but Martin had been mucking around on horseback longer than he had and his skill was obvious. He was also better at setting snares, having a near-instinctive sense of where to set them to catch rabbits.

At night he and Godfrey debated the sciences; Martin's understanding was a little better than Baldwin's, but neither of them had the technical grasp that Godfrey had. Even Philippe sometimes had trouble keeping up with his son's enthusiastic explanations of the discoveries that were currently circulating the scientific community.

'I should introduce you to Miriam when we reach Ḥimṣ al-Andalus' Martin said, stoking the campfire. They were set up a few metres from the road, hidden by a thicket, watching stars blink in the inky black night sky.

'I believe that you two would get along quite well'

'Mmm?' Godfrey took a swig from his wineskin.

'An alchemist and a philosopher. Zosimos mentioned her in his works, but I believe he misnamed her "Mary"'

Baldwin reared back in disgust as Godfrey spraid wine across his brother's tunic.

'Look out!'

'So-wheeze-sorry' Godfrey choked out an apology around a hacking cough as the rest of the wine slid down the wrong way.

When he could breathe properly again, he turned to Martin.

'Mary the Jewess?! She is one of us??!'

Martin nodded. Next to them, muttering darkly to himself under his breath, Baldwin peeled off his sodden tunic, crumpled it up, and started mopping the wine off his chest.

'She has a laboratory close to the industrial district'

'I shall have to leave this to soak overnight' Baldwin interjected, waving his wet shirt at his brother, 'And I have none spare!'

Martin rolled his eyes and threw his own dry, second tunic at Baldwin's head.

Author’s Notes

Alcázar - a type of Islamic castle or palace in the Iberian Peninsula built during Muslim rule between the 8th and 15th centuries.

Qādis - Cádiz, Spain. It is one of the oldest continuously-inhabited city in Europe.

Archimedes' On Floating Bodies is the first known work on hydrostatics, a branch of fluid mechanics that focusses on the conditions at which fluids are at rest, as opposed to when they are in motion. Written circa 250BC, it survives partially in Greek, and partially in a Medieval Latin translation of the original Greek text.

The Ummayyad Caliphate was one of four major caliphates founded after the death of Muhammed. It was one of the largest empires in history, in terms of land area, and was estimated to contain about 30% of the world’s population during its peak.

Let me be clear, Jews and Christians were treated relatively well at the time this chapter is set. Clashes between Christian, Jewish and Islamic forces happened infrequently over the course of the Ummayyad Caliphate, with religious tolerance rising and falling depending on the current ruler.

Ḥimṣ al-Andalus - Seville

I don't know which member/s of the fandom put forward the idea that Miriam is Mary the Jewess, but I have taken on board that headcanon so thank you!

Zosimos of Panopolis wrote the oldest known books on alchemy, which he called "Cheirokmeta," using the Greek word for "things made by hand." Translations of partial fragmented bits of his works survive today, and he is the primary source for information on Mary the Jewess.

Mary, or Maria, the Jewess, also Mary the Prophetess or Maria the Copt, is considered to be the first true alchemist of the Western world. She is credited with inventing the tribikos, the kerotakis, and the bain-marie, although this is highly debated.

Oh, Martin noticed. 😆

[admelioraii]

Al Andalus III: One of the world's greatest civilizations; The downfall and end, Part 1.

Previous parts:

Al Andalus I: The dawn of one of the world’s greatest civilizations.

Al Andalus II: One of the world’s greatest civilizations; Times of Glory, Part 1.

Al Andalus II: One of the world’s greatest civilizations; Times of Glory, Part 2.

Al Andalus III: One of the world’s greatest civilizations; The Downfall and end, Part 1.

Al Andalus III: One of the world’s greatest civilizations; The Downfall and end, Part 2.

Córdoba, Spain

I. Abd al Rahman “the victorious “ aftermath.

The mistake of his life:

Hakam II was a great ruler, as we said before, even though he lived in the shadows of his father. Busy with reading, studying and discussing sciences and new inventions he married very late. He was over 40 years old when he finally became father for the first time, father to twins. His two sons were called Abd al Rahman and Hisham. The first born died prematurely, left was only Hisham the youngest one.

When Hisham was 12 years old Al Hakam II got paralized. In spite of being a good ruler until now Al Hakam II made the mistake of his life, a mistake that came to change the country forever. Ill and weak he had to plan for the future, better said the time after his death. He decided to put up a three people strong interim government.

These people were; 1 The prime minister: Jafar ibn Othman al Mushafi. 2 The minister of interior : Muhammad ibn abi Amer. 3 Subh. (The mother of Hisham). Muhammad ibn abi Amer was desperate for power and with Al Hakam II taking his last breath, the minister of interior started making plans. For to gain power he had to get rid of the other two interims. He started with jailing the Prime minister and when the time was right , he killed him. Subh, the mother of Hisham was easier to handle, some threats and persuasions and she was no longer a threat.

Al Mansour

Muhammad ibn abi Amer, later known as al Mansour was, to explain his personality in a simple way, contradictory! He became the most feared person in the history of al Andalus. By now he had got rid of the other two joint rulers on the list, his plan continued.

He started to rule as the only supervisor to Hisham II.Muhammad ibn abi Amer married the daughter of the general of the army in al Andalus, after using him , he later killed his father in law as well. Partly because his father in law discovered his plans. Again in need of military support this time he turned to the general of the arm stationed in Morocco, Jafar ibn Ali Hamdun, he was killed as well after being used by abi Amer.In his stead he put someone loyal to him. Just as he did with his two prior victims.

With time he succeeded at convincing Hisham that there was a conspiracy going on and to protect Hisham he needed full authority, which he got.He declared himself “Interim al Mansour”(the victorious interim). As time passed Hisham grew but he still didn’t get to rule the country.

Córdoba, Spain

The real face of al Mansour:

Al Mansour fought a total of 54 battles with the Christians northern provinces and he won all of them. To better understand his contradictory personality we have chosen two real stories. The first one is that he was told there were three Muslim women kept hostages by the Christians in León. The Christians denied the accusations and said they knew nothing of the existence of such women. The Christians blocked the.way he passed and entered the city, looked for the women in a nearby monastery but never found them. Infuriated he killed anyone who crossed his path and confiscated their possessions amidst the Christians insisting on innocence. The post war declaration with Abd al Rahman the victorious ordered the Christians to pay gisia and forbid them to harm any Muslim in their country.

The second story is about when al Mansour was extending the mosque of Córdoba to double its size. To complete the construction it was essential to purchase the surrounding buildings. During the process of purchase they came across a woman who owned a house with a garden included. In the garden grew a special palm tree, she insisted not to move unless they provided her with another house with an exact same palm tree in its garden. Al Mansour searched and found such a house with an exact same palm tree; the only problem was that the house cost five times the price of the lady’s original house. Al Mansour paid from his own money without any problems. Here we have al Mansours contradictory personality in an eggshell. Cruel and ruthless yet kind and generous.

The people of al Andalus were not particularly hostile to him. As a ruler he was fair, there was no injustice in al Andalus and there were no poor people, not yet.

By constantly terrorising Hisham about conspiracies and threatening him,al Mansour finally got his way. After years of menaces Hisham gave after and al Mansours position became inhederatory in favour of his children. By now he called himself The generous King. When he died in 1002 A.C. His position was automatically handed down to his son Abd al Malik Mansour.

The Anarchy:

After the rule of al Mansour the country fell into a complete anarchy, a total lawlessness. A disorder that lasted a very long time. During this period al Andalus was divided into 7 different pieces, every piece was a country of its own, with its independent government, police system, military and so on.

The upcoming 400 years of Andalusian history was dominated by conspiracies, killing, treason and a constant change of rulers. This ongoing disarray gradually weakened the country. At the same time the Christian northern provinces, being aware of the situation, united either by marriage like Castilla and León or by mutual agreements or interests. Little by little they grew stronger. We have chosen not to tell this period of the history of al Andalus in a detailed manner, as it would first of all be too time consuming and prolong the article unnecessary. Secondly because this time period in history is extremely confusing, complicated and complex. Instead of following 7 countries parallely, we have chosen to tell the story of one of these countries, Granada and the Nasaries.

Madinat al Zahra

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10th Century, 901 to 1000

901  In middle Mexico, the Toltecs have established themselves at Tula. (map)

904  Recent emperors in China have been incompetent and the puppets of palace eunuchs. Many in China believe that these emperors have lost the Mandate of Heaven.

905  China's emperor loses control over Annam (northern Vietnam). There a village notable, Khuc Thua Du, has led a rebellion. The Chinese garrison at Tong Binh (Hanoi) is vanquished. Khuc Thua Du declares Annam autonomous.

911  The King of France, Charles III, gives Normandy to Vikings in return for the Viking leader, Rollo, a Norwegian, pledging his allegiance to him – the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. Rollo and his Vikings (mostly Danes) are to defend his part of the coast of France from attacks by other Vikings.

912  Rollo and his Vikings become Christian.

924  Bulgarians overrun the lands of Prince Caslav Klonimirovic in what today is Serbia.

927  Prince Caslov drives away the Bulgarians and expands his kingdom, uniting what today is Serbia, Montenegro, East Herzegovina (Hercegovina) and Bosnia, then called Raska, Duklja, Travunija and Bosnia. This is said by Serbians to be the founding of Serbia. Orthodox Christianity is the state religion.

929  At Cordoba Spain, Abd-ar-Rahman, of the Umayyad dynasty, elevates himself from an emir to caliph, putting himself in rivalry with the Abbasid caliph at Baghdad.

950  Women in a Chinese harem invent playing cards.

960  In China, palace guards surround their commander and demand that he become emperor. The commander agrees but only if they vow to obey him and not plunder, not harm citizens and not harm the ruling family they are overthrowing. The troops agree. The new emperor is Taizu, who will begin the Song Dynasty.

970  Córdoba, on the Iberian Peninsula, is Europe's intellectual center and the world's most populous city. Constantinople is the only other European city in the top ten of the world's most populous cities. Córdoba is a Muslim city. Caliph al Hakam II has been in power since 961 and is contributing to the building of Cordoba's libraries. Córdoba has Europe's best university, with a spirit of free inquiry. It has medical schools. Work is being done also in math and astronomy. The city is tolerant toward its Jewish and Christian minority.

970  In China, paper money, invented there around 100 C.E., now dominates as the monatery unit.

970  Around this year in China, a ruler's consort who has bound her feet with strips of silk cloth performs a dance that impresses the aristocrat artsy crowd. Other court females adopt the practice. The binding of feet becomes a part of aristocratic culture for women expected to be playthings and entertainers rather than having the mobility needed for labor among common women.

975  Europeans begin to use Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, et cetera), which are more convenient in arithmetic than Roman numerals.

980  Wealthy landowners in Japan have freed themselves from paying taxes. The government has little in revenues and has stopped supporting a national army. The wealthy landowners have been consolidating their various lands into single administrative units and creating their own armies. The men hired for these armies are to be known as samurai (men who serve), or bushi (warriors).

982  Erik the Red has been expelled from Iceland. He leads a group in the exploration of Greenland.

985  Erik the Red has returned to Iceland. With 25 ships filled with people and their belongings he heads back to Greenland. Many are lost at sea. With the 350 persons who arrive in Greenland, he establishes a settlement.

988  In Kiev, Prince Vladimir I adopts the religion of the Byzantine Empire as the state religion.

990  Between Timbuktu and the Atlantic coast, authoritarian kings have enriched themselves by forcing tradesmen to give them a cut in the gold that has been passing through their territory from mines to their south on their way northward. Their kingdom is called Ghana. Ghana extends its empire by conquering the Berber-dominated town of Awdaghost, to the northwest of Ghana, and Ghana is now at the peak of its power.

1000  Northern Maya cities begin to be abandoned. The Toltecs have arrived from central Mexico, and at what had been a Maya city, Chichen Itza, they build their own monuments.

1000  A few Turks are in Iran employed as soldiers. Now tribes of Turks start moving into Iran.  

1000  Muslims looking forward to the future are expanding southward along the Somali coast in eastern Africa. The town of Mogadishu is founded, where Muslim merchants are to trade in gold dust from the south.  

1000  For centuries Christians have been expecting the Second Coming of Jesus – the Day of Judgment. Giving importance to a round figure such as 1000, and assuming that Jesus was born exactly one thousand years earlier, many believe this is the year that it will happen. The passing of the year leaves believers thanking God for the postponement of Armageddon.

1000  Per capita world Gross Domestic Product (according to today's economic historian Angus Maddison) is $435, measured in 1990 dollars. This (according to Maddison) is down from $444 in the year 1. And (according to Maddison) income levels in Europe are below those of Asia and North Africa.

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El obispo Recemundo de Ilíberis

El fascinante obispo mozárabe Recemundo de Ilíberis. Embajador en la corte de Otón I (955-956), en Constantinopla y Jerusalén y autor del Calendario de Córdoba

[Córdoba, c. 908 – Córdoba, 980] En latín Recemundus y en árabe conocido como Rabí ben Zayd al-U(s)quf al-Qurtubi (رثموندو) Obispo mozárabe de Iliberris (Granada). Astrónomo, matemático y filósofo Recemundo fue uno de los mozárabes (cristianos que vivían en al-Andalus) más influyentes en las corte de los califas ‘Abd al-Rahmán III y al-Hakam II. Tuvo altos cargos en el gobierno cordobés y era…

[jaimeariansencespedes]

JULIO 6 – UN DIA COMO HOY – AÑO 985 – EN BARCELONA, ALMANZOR ENTRA EN LA CIUDAD TRAS ASEDIARLA DURANTE OCHO DÍAS –

Almanzor nació en Torrox, actual España, en el año 938 y falleció en Medinaceli, en el año 1002. Descendiente de una familia árabe del Yemen establecida en la región de Algeciras desde la conquista musulmana de la península Ibérica, estudió en Córdoba y, durante el califato de al-Hakam II, ocupó importantes cargos administrativos, como los de director de la ceca (967) o intendente del ejército del general Galib (972).

En el año 976, la prematura muerte de al-Hakam II situó al frente del califato de Córdoba a Hisam II, un niño de tan sólo once años, circunstancia que aprovechó Almanzor, hombre decidido y ambicioso, para hacerse con las riendas del poder. Aquel mismo año fue designado tutor del joven califa, con la ayuda de la madre de éste, Subh, una cautiva vascona que probablemente era su amante.

Dos años más tarde, en el año 978, ya tras haber convertido a Hisam II en una marioneta política y postergado a personajes tan influyentes como al-Mushafí y Galib, Almanzor se hizo nombrar hayib, una especie de administrador de palacio o primer ministro, dignidad que le permitió ejercer una autoridad absoluta sobre todo el territorio hispanomusulmán.

Dotado de una personalidad carismática y de un gran talento militar, entre los años 977 y 1002 llevó a cabo un total de 56 campañas en tierras cristianas sin conocer la derrota, razón por la cual recibió el sobrenombre de al-Mansur (el Victorioso), con el que pasaría a la historia.

De hecho, se trataba de incursiones rápidas y devastadoras, realizadas durante los meses de primavera y verano, que tenían por objeto sembrar el terror entre los habitantes de los reinos cristianos del norte peninsular.

Así, por ejemplo, asoló Salamanca (977), venció a los ejércitos coligados de Ramiro III de León, García Fernández de Castilla y Sancho II de Navarra en las batallas de Gormaz, Langa y Estercuel (977) y en la de Rueda (978), saqueó Barcelona (el 6 de julio del año 985), arrasó Coímbra, León y Zamora (987 y 988), asaltó Osma (990) y castigó Astorga (997).

Por otro lado, La historia de Barcelona se extiende a lo largo de 4000 años, desde finales del Neolítico, con los primeros restos hallados en el territorio de la ciudad, hasta la actualidad.

Su territorio sirvió de asentamiento a pueblos iberos, romanos, judíos, visigodos, musulmanes y cristianos.

Como capital de Cataluña y segunda ciudad en importancia de España, la Ciudad Condal ha forjado su relevancia con el tiempo, desde ser una pequeña colonia romana hasta convertirse en una ciudad cosmopolita valorada internacionalmente por aspectos como su economía, su patrimonio artístico, su cultura, su deporte y su vida social.

Existen escasos vestigios anteriores a la fundación de la ciudad por los romanos en el siglo i a. C. El área del llano de Barcelona y zonas colindantes conserva restos de finales del Neolítico y principios del Calcolítico. Posteriormente se desarrolló la cultura de los layetanos, un pueblo íbero. La ciudad romana, fundada en tiempos de Augusto, fue una colonia próspera, aunque de escaso tamaño. A partir del siglo iii se introdujo el cristianismo y, entre los siglos v y viii, formó parte del reino visigodo. Tras una breve ocupación musulmana, Barcelona entró en la órbita del Imperio carolingio, hasta que se constituyó como condado y se independizó en el siglo x.

En época medieval, el Condado de Barcelona adquirió preeminencia sobre el resto de condados catalanes y, con la formación de la Corona de Aragón, la ciudad se convirtió en uno de los centros políticos, económicos, sociales, culturales y comerciales de un vasto territorio que se extendía por todo el Mediterráneo (Cataluña, Aragón, Valencia, Baleares, Rosellón, Cerdeña, Sicilia, Nápoles, Atenas y Neopatria). Historia del Mundo en Movimiento - jaimeariansen@outlook.com

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6th part of the bookscans of Al Andalus. Historical Figures, here's the previous part

The following year a very serious incident occurred in the suburb, and according to custom, al-Hakam acted summarily, executing all possible guilty suspects through the infamous crucifixion.

As if that were not enough, the mood of the population in general, an increase in the taxes that, on top of that, a Christian, the so-called Count Rabi, collected, ended up for exasperating everyone. And the spark of rebellion broke out over an apparently trivial matter, as happens on so many occasions. A soldier of the guard emir had his sword polished and it seemed to him that the swordsmith in the suburb did not attend to him with sufficient alacrity, so he killed him by piercing him with his sword in question. Al-Hakam was hunting outside Cordoba and upon returning, passing through the conflictive neighborhood, was booed. His guard arrested ten rioters and, without mercy, they were immediately crucified. The emir had barely arrived at his palace when the entire suburb was up in arms. Businesses were closed and the tents, and with sticks, stones, knives, and everything they had within their reach, artisans, merchants, and the general public headed to the doors of the Alcázar with threatening intentions and the design of demolishing them.

In those moments of anguish in the Alcázar, when his fate presented itself doubtful in the face of those angry mobs, only al-Hakam seemed to retain the calm. He asked his Christian page to fetch a jar of civet and with it he perfumed his hair and beard. The page asked him, astonished, how in those serious moments he could think of putting on perfume as if he were going to court a woman and the emir replied that he did it so that when the popu-

lace cut off his head to know that it was really the head of their prince and not that of any other. Measures were taken with all the speed that the committed moment required. The troops loyal to the emir ensured order in the city and the palace butler and his secretary gathered all the available forces to try to contain the rapidly advancing mobs that were leaving uniting more and more people. The emir's troops were beginning to falter in the face of what seemed an unstoppable force of the mutineers, until two of the generals from al-Hakam they managed to reach the first houses in the suburb. Then its inhabitants found themselves surrounded. The two exits of the neighborhood were taken by loyal to the emiral cause. The rout began... and the slaughter.

Al-Hakam gave orders that no mercy be shown to the rioters and for three the looting and massacre continued, and no one knows what it could had happened if the minister Ibn Mugith did not advise the emir to cease in that horrible carnage. The suburb was closed so that no one could leave there until al-Hakam passed sentence or thought about what to do with the rebel subjects. The solution was still terrible, as terrible as three hundred notables of the suburb would be crucified and the rest of the inhabitants who had survived would preserve their lives in exchange for immediately abandoning Córdoba. The suburb would be completely demolished, plowed and planted so that no one could build a house or a habitation there. None of al-Hakam's successors dared, until the end of the 10th century, to contravene that now distant prohibition dictated by the emir and the suburb remained, for

a long time, like a desolate and dead place in which it seemed impossible there would have been so much life.

The inhabitants of the suburb, "rabadis" as they would be known, had to abandon house, business and city in the first fortnight of April 818. Only the fuqahāʾ and their families were freed from this expulsion, much to the dismay of al-Hakam, knowing as he knew that if they had not been the direct instigators of the rebellion, they encouraged it and did nothing to calm things down. It is not well known how many people were banished from the suburb, it is believed that perhaps there were about 20,000, since it was a very populous neighborhood, although the figure may have been a bit exaggerated. And there begins the odyssey of the “rabadis”, who showed themselves to be accomplished adventurers, forced, no doubt, by the need.

Some went to take refuge in Toledo, a city always willing to welcome to all those who showed themselves against the central power. But they feared that the anger of that vengeful emir reached them, so they decided to flee further away, as far as to cross the sea. The Rabadis, with their families, left towards the Mediterranean coast, not without suffering the assault of the unscrupulous in their modest convoys in which they carried the few belongings they saved from the merciless looting to which they had already been subjected. Some went to North Africa and settled among the Berber tribes. In this region there were few cities and Prince Idris II was looking for inhabitants who could populate the city of Fez that their father had founded. It would not

take much time to increase this population with a new city, very close to the one that already existed and spread the word that everyone who came to populate both cities would be welcomed with open arms. Many Rabadis, with their families, moved there and very soon the new foundation of Idris II was known as Madinat al-Andalusiyyin, the “City of the Andalusians”. To this city they took the rabadis their knowledge of gardening and agriculture, crafts and architecture, as well as as their forms of citizen life. But this was not their greatest feat of those banished.

Part of them set out to sail the Mediterranean, dedicating themselves to privateering and piracy to survive. Although the Rabadis were not sailors, it is very possible that they they were accompanied by Valencian or Andalusian sailors, muladíes most likely, and that together they would undertake that adventure.

One day they docked in front of beautiful Alexandria, in those days subjected to fighting, that were taking place throughout Egypt, among the governors appointed by the caliph. The Rabadis became strong in the city and with the help of a faction Arab, the Lajmis, and the followers of a puritan Islam, created a kind of independent republic that they would maintain for more than ten years.

In vain the inhabitants of Alexandria tried, on more than one occasion, to get rid of these upstarts who had become masters of their city. Finally, in May 827, the governor Abd Allah ben Tahir, besieged them and after several days of siege, the Rabadides surrendered. They were allowed to go, but

they could not take any of their slaves and had to compromise that they would not dock in any port that was in Abbasid territory.

Thus they found themselves expelled from Egypt, as they had already been expelled from Córdoba, and they began the journey again, this time heading towards the island of Crete, which belonged to the Byzantine Empire. In command of that expedition that sought a place to settle, there was a man from Córdoba from Llano de los Pedroches, called Abu Hafs Umar al-Balluti. They landed on the island and occupied it in their whole. Abu Hafs al-Balluti founded a dynasty there that remained on the island for one hundred and thirty-four years, until the year 961.

They repelled incessant Byzantine attacks that wanted to recover Crete, until that the general Nikephoros Phocas managed to recapture the island for the Byzantine emperor Roman II.

Back at sea, those already distant Andalusians, for more than a century and medium, frightened the entire navigation of the central and eastern Mediterranean, also acting with great audacity in the Aegean islands.

Ziryab: the singer of Baghdad

A somewhat peculiar character from Muslim Spain was Ziryab, although he wasn't a politician, nor a religious person, nor a warrior, he was going to have a capital influence on the Andalusian society, creating fashions and implementing customs and ways of life that ended up adopting Moors and Christians, and that would remain until our days.

Ziryab was called that because he had very dark skin and he was given this nickname in reference to the black plumage of a bird, the blackbird, but its real name was Abu-l-Hasan Ali ben Nafi. He was born in Mesopotamia and was a freedman of the Abbasid caliph al-Mahdi. From a very young age he showed to be gifted, in a privileged way, for singing and was a disciple of another celebrity in the field of music, the singer of the Baghdad court, Ishaq al-Mawsilí. Very soon he became so famous that the Great Caliph Harun al-Rashid asked the teacher to bring his disciple to court to hear him sing.

There are many legends about this performance. One of the best known is the that Ziryab, before the caliph, very sure of himself, told him that he knew how to sing what other great singers knew but, who also sang, what no one knew sing. If the caliph so desired, he would put in his ears

a music and a song that no one had heard before. Harun al-Rashid was surprised and intrigued and wanted me to act for him, interpreting those unknown melodies.

It is said that Ziryab did not use the traditional lute as accompaniment, but who used an instrument of his invention. It was a kind of five-string guitar, the first, the third and the fifth were made with lion's guts; the second and fourth were made of red silk. To press them, instead of the typical pick of wood, he used the claw of an eagle.

Harun-al Rashid was fascinated by what he heard and told the singer that he returned the next day to perform, again, for him. But Ziryab didn't returned to the palace in Baghdad. What had happened for the musician to not coming back? Well, his master felt deep envy of the success of his disciple. He understood that he was going to take away his place as a favorite singer in the court and threatened to kill him. Ziryab, fearing for his life, decided to leave from Baghdad as soon as possible

The sad days of exile as a traveling musician began for him. For some time he lived in Cairo, crossed the deserts of Egypt and Libya and he settled in Qayrawan, a city that had nothing to do with the splendor of Baghdad or the refined Córdoba. But wherever he went, those who heard him singing could never forget the timbre of his voice and the harmony of his compositions. And so it was that through another musician, less jealous than his mas-

ter!, the Cordoban Jew Abu-l-Nasr Mansur, reached the ears of al-Hakam I the mastery of Ziryab and sent for him. Al-Hakam I, like all the emirs and, later, Andalusian caliphs, was a great lover of music and poetry and himself a notable poet. Ziryab embarked immediately to Algeciras. There, as soon as he disembarked, he received news that the emir had just died and became disheartened, thinking that his good luck was ending. But Abd al-Rahman II, son and successor of al-Hakam, let him know that he maintained the contract that his father had offered him and sent him gifts of such magnificence that the singer was clear that he would remain in al-Andalus forever. The emir received him with the greatest attention and not only that: he assigned him a fabulous pension for the time, 200 gold dinars a month, in addition to providing him with a house and servitude, giving him some land in the countryside of Córdoba, which was very productive, and complete his offering with two hundred sextars of barley and one hundred of wheat to maintain his house and his family. There was not in all Muslim world another poet, musician, singer or scholar who was better paid than Ziryab, and the splendid remunerations of which he was the object, extended, even further, his fame everywhere. In truth it must have been an exceptional being for the emir treated him with such kindness!

But to better understand the generosity of Abd al-Rahman II it is interesting to know something about what his life and his court were like, in which he adopted all the royal forms of the Court of the Abbasids. His father had left him the Treasury coffers completely packed, which allowed the new emir to dedicate

to acquire the most precious merchandise that arrived to Córdoba brought by Jewish, Slavic and Iraqi merchants.

Abd al-Rahman II was an unrepentant lover and admirer of women. Of all Europe and also from the East, beautiful young women will arrive, always virgins to the harem of the emir, who is said to have had forty-five male children and forty-two daughters. Some of his many concubines managed to reach just fame for her beauty, careful education and talent. Such is the case of the three young people known as the “Medinese”, not because they were natives of this city, what's more, one of them was Spanish, but all three had been educated in a perfect Arab culture. They were magnificent singers, versifiers and experts in Medinese music and entertained the leisure of their lord who appreciated them in such a way. So for them he had a special pavilion built inside the Alcázar.

A man like the emir, lover of all pleasures, both the sensual ones like intellectuals, it was not surprising that he appreciated moving art and only one of Ziryab, who arrived in al-Andalus in the year 822, with four children who, with over time, they would continue his work, and he stayed until his death in 857. In these thirty-five years the emir and he always maintained cordial relations and they appreciated and respected each other.

But Ziryab's activities were not only limited to music, but his genius manifested as a profound innovator of the Muslim society of the time. He created a conservatory... and a beauty institute, because Ziryab was a true and refined dandy.

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Nueva noticia publicada en LaFlecha

New Post has been published on https://laflecha.net/reconstruyen-el-sonido-del-pasado-islamico-de-la-mezquita-de-cordoba/

Reconstruyen el sonido del pasado islámico de la Mezquita de Córdoba

¿Cómo se escuchaban las palabras o el sonido de la lluvia en el interior de la Mezquita de Córdoba en la época de Abd al-Rahman I? Un equipo de la Universidad de Sevilla ha utilizado herramientas de simulación virtual para recrear los parámetros acústicos del pasado islámico del edificio, que se perdieron con las transformaciones a las que fue sometido.

Un equipo de la Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de la Universidad de Sevilla (US) ha realizado un estudio en el que determinan la variación de parámetros acústicos, como la reverberación, la claridad o la definición de la actual Mezquita Catedral de Córdoba. Para ello, han utilizado tecnologías de simulación virtual.

Frente a la homogeneidad visual del interior de la mezquita musulmana, los resultados obtenidos en este estudio acústico permiten confirmar que la percepción sonora varía según las zonas. Esta circunstancia se debe a las sucesivas ampliaciones que ha ido experimentando el templo a lo largo de su historia.

“La mezquita fundada por Abd al-Rahman I responde acústicamente a los requerimientos litúrgicos islámicos, proporcionando un espacio vivo que favorece su majestuosidad. Las posteriores ampliaciones dan una apariencia formal de superposición al espacio preexistente. Sin embargo, se producen notables diferencias sonoras en el espacio interior. Esto, unido al aumento de la profundidad que causó la ampliación de Abd al-Rahman II, supone una merma de la calidad acústica de las zonas más alejadas del muro de la qibla”, explica Juan José Sendra, catedrático de la US y uno de los autores.

Las ampliaciones y transformación han producido notables diferencias sonoras en el espacio interior

Con la ampliación de Al-Hakam II se obtienen dos mezquitas acústicamente yuxtapuestas. La última ampliación lateral de Al-Mansur, en la que incluso el mihrab está descentrado respecto al nuevo conjunto, se desvincula acústicamente del resto del conjunto, con una clara degradación del mensaje verbal.

Adecuación como catedral

Las transformaciones cristianas de la mezquita para su adecuación como catedral modifican sustancialmente el espacio musulmán. Así, los expertos señalan que en la actualidad el espacio de la mezquita catedral es “una unidad arquitectónica compleja”, con una multiplicidad de lugares sonoros, fruto de todas las transformaciones espaciales habidas y diferente al del correspondiente espacio arquetipo ya sea musulmán o cristiano.

El grupo investigador lleva más de una década trabajando en este campo de estudio. Destacan en los últimos años dos Proyectos del Plan Estatal I+D+i sobre catedrales españolas, principalmente las andaluzas. Son varios los artículos publicados, desde diferentes perspectivas, que evalúan el sonido de las catedrales de Sevilla, Granada, Málaga, Córdoba y Jaén.

Esta investigación ha contado con la colaboración del Cabildo Catedral de Córdoba y su arquitecto, Gabriel Rebollo.

  Fuente: SINC

[brookstonalmanac]

Events 11.1 (before 1900)

365 – The Alemanni cross the Rhine and invade Gaul. Emperor Valentinian I moves to Paris to command the army and defend the Gallic cities. 996 – Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk, Bishop of Freising, which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi (Austria in Old High German). 1009 – Berber forces led by Sulayman ibn al-Hakam defeat the Umayyad caliph Muhammad II of Córdoba in the battle of Alcolea. 1141 – Empress Matilda's reign as 'Lady of the English' ends with Stephen of Blois regaining the title of 'King of England'. 1179 – Philip II is crowned as 'King of France'. 1214 – The port city of Sinope surrenders to the Seljuq Turks. 1348 – The anti-royalist Union of Valencia attacks the Jews of Murviedro on the pretext that they are serfs of the King of Valencia and thus "royalists". 1503 – Pope Julius II is elected. 1512 – The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, painted by Michelangelo, is exhibited to the public for the first time. 1520 – The Strait of Magellan, the passage immediately south of mainland South America connecting the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans, is first discovered and navigated by European explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the first recorded circumnavigation voyage. 1555 – French Huguenots establish the France Antarctique colony in present-day Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 1570 – The All Saints' Flood devastates the Dutch coast. 1604 – William Shakespeare's tragedy Othello is performed for the first time, at Whitehall Palace in London. 1611 – Shakespeare's play The Tempest is performed for the first time, at Whitehall Palace in London. 1612 – During the Time of Troubles, Polish troops are expelled from Moscow's Kitay-gorod by Russian troops under the command of Dmitry Pozharsky (22 October O.S.). 1683 – The British Crown colony of New York is subdivided into 12 counties. 1688 – William III of Orange sets out a second time from Hellevoetsluis in the Netherlands to seize the crowns of England, Scotland and Ireland from King James II of England during the Glorious Revolution. 1755 – In Portugal, Lisbon is totally devastated by a massive earthquake and tsunami, killing an estimated 40,000 to 60,000 people. 1765 – The British Parliament enacts the Stamp Act on the Thirteen Colonies in order to help pay for British military operations in North America. 1790 – Edmund Burke publishes Reflections on the Revolution in France, in which he predicts that the French Revolution will end in a disaster. 1800 – John Adams becomes the first President of the United States to live in the Executive Mansion (later renamed the White House). 1805 – Napoleon Bonaparte invades Austria during the War of the Third Coalition. 1814 – Congress of Vienna opens to re-draw the European political map after the defeat of France in the Napoleonic Wars. 1848 – In Boston, Massachusetts, the first medical school for women, Boston Female Medical School (which later merged with the Boston University School of Medicine), opens. 1861 – American Civil War: U.S. President Abraham Lincoln appoints George B. McClellan as the commander of the Union Army, replacing General Winfield Scott. 1870 – In the United States, the Weather Bureau (later renamed the National Weather Service) makes its first official meteorological forecast. 1893 – The Battle of Bembezi took place and was the most decisive battle won by the British in the First Matabele War of 1893. 1894 – Nicholas II becomes the new (and last) Tsar of Russia after his father, Alexander III, dies. 1894 – Buffalo Bill, 15 of his Native Americans, and Annie Oakley were filmed by Thomas Edison in his Black Maria Studio in West Orange, New Jersey. 1896 – A picture showing the bare breasts of a woman appears in National Geographic magazine for the first time. 1897 – The first Library of Congress building opens its doors to the public; the library had previously been housed in the Congressional Reading Room in the U.S. Capitol. 1897 – Italian Sport-Club Juventus is founded by a group of students of Liceo Classico Massimo d'Azeglio.

[carloserikmalpicaflores]

Carlos Malpica Flores leyó: Madinat al-Zahra | La cámara del arte

La ciudad brillante alcanza el Patrimonio Mundial.

DE HISPANIA A AL-ANDALUS. LA LLEGADA MUSULMANA A LA PENÍNSULA

Representación de Mahoma.

Representación de Mahoma.

Para entender la complejidad y la importancia del yacimiento cordobés, hay que remontarse a la Península Arábiga del siglo VII. Será en esta época cuando se produzca uno de los acontecimientos más importantes para el mundo árabe: hacia el año 570, Mahoma es visitado por el Arcángel Gabriel, quien le revela los designios divinos, diciendo que será él quien unifique a las tribus árabes predicando una nueva doctrina cuya base será el culto a un solo dios, Alá. Mahoma comenzó a predicar en La Meca, su ciudad natal, pero debido a una serie de tensiones con algunas tribus, tuvo que huir hacia Medina en el año 622, lo que se conoce como hégira y que será el punto de partida de la cronología musulmana. A la muerte del profeta, sus sucesores (califas) iniciarán la expansión de sus enseñanzas. Esto llevará a la creación de un califato y a la lucha entre califas por alcanzar el poder. Una de las luchas más conocidas, y que compete directamente a la Península Ibérica, será la de Omeyas y Abbasíes, que finalizará con la victoria de los últimos tras masacrar a toda la familia Omeya y hacerse así con el poder. Pero hubo un superviviente de la familia Omeya, Abd al-Rahmann I, que llegó en el año 755 a la Península Ibérica, bajo dominio árabe desde el año 711. Cabe señalar que el proceso de ocupación peninsular a manos de los árabes fue muy rápido y sin apenas resistencia, llegando a conquistar casi todos los territorios, excepto la zona de astur-cántabra, dónde se gestará la Reconquista.

Mapa de Al-Ándalus

Abd al-Rahmann I creará en al-Andalus un Emirato independiente del Abbasí, que pasará a convertirse en Califato años después de la mano de Abd al-Rahmann III, siendo éste el momento de máximo apogeo del territorio andalusí a todos los niveles. Tras la caída del Califato, se sucederán diversas etapas políticas que no harán más que llevar a la floreciente al-Andalus al colapso:

1031-1085: Primeros Reinos Taifas

1085-1144: Imperio Almorávide

1144-1172: Segundos Reinos Taifas

1172-1212: Impero Almohade

1212-1238: Terceros Reinos Taifas

1238-1492: Reino Nazarí de Granada

El fin del predominio árabe en la Península se produjo un 2 de enero de 1492, cuando el ultimo rey nazarí, Muhámmad XII (conocido como Boabdil el Chico) entrega las llaves de Granada a los Reyes Católicos en señal de rendición, pasando a formar parte de la Corona de Castilla y poniendo fin a la Reconquista cristiana, iniciada por el mítico Don Pelayo en tierras asturianas hacia el año 722.

La rendición de Granada. Francisco Pradilla, 1882.

“Llora como mujer lo que no supiste defender como un hombre”

                           (Frase atribuida a la madre de Boabdil en el momento de la rendición)

LA CIUDAD BRILLANTE. NACIMIENTO Y CAÍDA DE MADINAT AL-ZAHRA

Vista aérea de Madinat al-Zahra.

Madinat al-Zahra o “la ciudad brillante” fue construida hacia el año 936 por orden del califa Abd al-Rahmann III.

Cuenta la leyenda que el califa decidió construir la ciudad en honor a su mujer favorita, al-Zahra. Tras su construcción, la ciudad se convirtió en una de las ciudades más bellas, pero la joven no era feliz. Lloraba a diario porque añoraba la nieve de Sierra Nevada. Para contentarla, el califa ordenó a sus jardineros que plantasen almendros por toda la ciudad, muy juntos entre sí. Así, en la época de floración, los jardines se cubrirían de blanco gracias a la flor del almendro y así recordarían a la joven las nieves de su añorada tierra.

Abd Al-Rahmann III.

Esto es solo una leyenda, pues en realidad se construyó como reflejo del poder del califa, manifestando así su independencia del Califato Abbasí de Bagdad y de los fatimíes. Se sitúa al oeste de Córdoba, en una zona con un amplísimo dominio visual, además de disponer de territorios fértiles y ricos en materias primas.

Aunque lo que hoy podemos ver es solo una minima parte de lo que fue (el resto aún no ha sido excavado) Madinat al-Zahra ocuparía unas 112 hectáreas intramuros, contando con una gran muralla de 2,60 metros de ancho y grandes torres cuadrangulares. Además de esta ciudad intramuros (dentro de la muralla) al exterior se intuyen, gracias a fotografías aéreas, restos de edificaciones que podrían ser pequeños enclaves defensivos. Además de la muralla, la ciudad contaba con una gran red de calzadas que comunicaban con Córdoba y otras zonas, un entramado de calles interiores que daban acceso a las diferentes zonas de la ciudad (pues se organizaba en terrazas) y un sistema hidráulico que aprovechaba los resto de un acuesto romano, distribuyendo el agua por la red hidráulica de la ciudad para así abastecer a las viviendas, jardines, fuentes…

Madinat alcanzó un gran esplendor e importancia en muy poco tiempo, llegando a dejar a Córdoba en un segundo plano. Pero si rápido fue su ascenso, más rápido fue su declive. En el año 976, con la muerte del califa Al-Hakam II (hijo de Abd al-Rahmann III) empezó el traslado de talleres y competencias de nuevo a Córdoba. Con Hisam II, el poder político y militar se concentró en manos del primer ministro (hayib) Almanzor, que fundó su propia ciudad muy cerca de allí (Madinat al-Zahira) instalándose en ella la corte y los servicios administrativos, apartando así a la ciudad brillante.

Lo que llevó al total abandono de la ciudad fueron las luchas internas que iniciaron la desintegración del Califato Omeya (1010-1013) comenzando el saqueo y destrucción de todos sus edificios. Con el paso del tiempo, el recuerdo de la ciudad se fue perdiendo hasta confundirse con la fundada por Almanzor.

No será hasta el siglo XVI cuando se vuelva poner la vista en Madinat al-Zahra gracias al monje Ambrosio de Morales, que hizo una interesante y completa descripción de los restos y monumentos más significativos, aunque confundió la ciudad califal con el asentamiento de la Córdoba romana.

A mediados del siglo XIX se inició un proceso de excavación, más por curiosidad que por interés científico, aunque esto daría pie, ya en el siglo XX a unas excavaciones y estudios más concienzudos y científicos que permitieron ir recuperando poco a poco la ciudad e intentar devolver el esplendor de antaño, trabajo que continúa hoy y que se extenderán aún años.

Primeras excavaciones.

Excavaciones actuales.

La ciudad se divide en tres terrazas: en la terraza superior se encuentra el palacio (Alcázar) casa civil y militar del califa; en la terraza intermedia estarían los jardines y huertos; y en la terraza inferior estaría la medina propiamente dicha, la ciudad donde se asentaba los ciudadanos de a pie.

La ciudad debió destacar no solo por su importancia política y su situación, sino también por la bellísima decoración de sus edificios y por sus formas constructivas. Debemos imaginar a los edificios más importantes, como el Alcazar, cubiertos de una riquísima decoración a base de escritura cúfica, atauriques (elementos vegetales estilizados) y lacería (repetición de elementos geométricos) todo ello rematado por grandes arcadas de arcos de herradura que alternan el rojo almagra y el blanco de la piedra, para enaltecer aún más el poder del califa ante sus súbditos y los diversos mandatarios que le visitarían.

Escritura cúfica.

Ataurique.

Lacería.

Capitel trepanado.

La zona que está a la vista se centra en la terraza superior, donde se encontraba el Alcázar, sede del palacio califal donde están las instituciones administrativas y políticas asociadas al gobierno. La separación entre esta zona y la medina (ciudad) es muy rígida y se manifiesta a través de gruesos muros de contención con contrafuertes, además de encontrarse entre la zona del Alcázar y la medina una terraza intermedia llena de jardines.

Ya dentro del Alcazar, destacan una serie de edificaciones y espacios que han dado personalidad al yacimiento y se han convertido en su seña de identidad. Uno de estos espacio es el Edificio Basilical Superior y sus arcos de herradura que se apoyan en capiteles de piedra que alternan el estilo de trépano (técnica escultórica y decorativa que usa profundas incisiones para dar efectos de relieve y claroscuro) con la talla simple. Estaría revestido con mortero de cal y arena y pintado en rojo y blanco. Esta alternancia de color se debió usar en las dovelas de los arcos para simular el ladrillo.

Edificio basilical superior.

Edificio basilical superior.

Otra de las zonas emblemáticas del conjunto es el Salón de Abd al-Rahmann III o Salón Rico, llamado así por la riqueza de su decoración. Es un edificio de planta basilical donde dos de sus tres naves principales rematan en arcos ciegos y la central remata en una especie de mirhab (nicho) donde se situaría el califa.

Salón Rico. 

Salón Rico. 

Abd Al-Rahmann III en el Salón Rico.

Junto a estos edificios, destaca el Jardín Alto, un jardín divido en cuatro por andenes perimetrales en donde el agua fluiría constantemente en un recordatorio del Paraíso musulmán recogido en El Corán. Para el mundo musulmán el agua es un elemento muy importante pues, además de servir de purificación mediante las abluciones antes de entrar a la oración en las mezquitas, el agua es el elemento fundamental dador de vida.

Jardín Alto.

Jardín Alto.

Por último, hay que hacer un breve apunte sobre la Mezquita Aljama, que seguiría el modelo típico de toda mezquita: patio; alminar o minarete desde donde el almuédano llamaría a la oración; sala de oración; maqsura, espacio próximo al mihrab reservado al soberano; mirhab, nicho situado en el muro de la quibla ante el que se situaba el imán para dirigir la oración; y el muro de la quibla, que marca la orientación a La Meca. Contaba con fuentes para las abluciones obligatorias antes de la oración, además de letrinas, situadas fuera del conjunto religioso.

Partes de una mezquita.

Según las fuentes literarias, la mezquita se comenzó en el año 941 y sólo llevo 48 días construirla. Desgraciadamente, debido al intenso expolio, es uno de los edificios más arruinados y desconocidos. Como curiosidad, esta mezquita sí que tenía bien orientado el muro de la quibla hacia La Meca, corrigiendo así al de la Mezquita de Córdoba.

Mezquita Aljama.

MADINAT AL-ZAHRA, PATRIMONIO DE LA HUMANIDAD

Desde el pasado 2 de julio, el yacimiento forma parte de la Lista de Patrimonio Mundial de la UNESCO, convirtiendo a Córdoba en una ciudad con cuatro lugares Patrimonio de la Humanidad (mezquita, centro histórico, los patios y ahora la ciudad califal) siendo así España el tercer país del mundo con más lugares Patrimonio de la Humanidad (cuenta con un total de 46).

¿Y por qué es tan importante ser patrimonio Mundial? En el caso de Madinat al-Zahra esta denominación le da más visibilidad al lugar, no muy bien comunicado con Córdoba y bastante desconocido para el gran público. Además de incrementarse las visitas, se dedicarán más fondos y esfuerzos en los estudios de la ciudad.

La decisión se siguió en directo desde el propio yacimiento por parte del equipo del conjunto arqueológico y desde Barein, hasta donde se desplazó una delegación de representantes.

Celebración desde Barein.

Celebración desde Madinat al-Zahra.

La candidatura ha contado con un gran apoyo ciudadano gracias a las campañas lanzadas desde el propio conjunto y, en las semanas previas a la decisión, con el hastag #EstoyConMedina en todas las redes sociales.

#EstoyConMedina

Lo que ha llevado al comité responsable de otorgar el titulo de Patrimonio Mundial a darle la distinción a la ciudad califal es que se trata de uno de los complejos monumentales más originales de la arquitectura hispanomusulmana y del arte islámico y esto se debe a que ni su estructura ni su ornamentación han sido alteradas en sobremanera, por lo que los restos excavados permiten tener una idea muy aproximada de cómo fue la ciudad brillante en su época. Además, a esto cabe añadir que desde los primeros momentos de excavaciones científicas se puso como objetivo el respeto de las estructuras originales, reconstruyendo la mayoría de su decoración y elementos arquitectónicos mediante anastilosis (reconstrucción de un edifico antiguo usando sus propios elementos arquitectónicos dispersos)

¿QUÉ ES Y QUE SIGNIFICA SER PATRIMONIO DE LA HUMANIDAD?

Logo Patrimonio Mundial.

El Patrimonio de la Humanidad o Patrimonio Mundial es una categoría creada por la ONU que distingue a los bienes con una relevancia excepcional, tanto cultural como natural, para la herencia común de la Humanidad. Estos bienes se inscriben en la Lista de Patrimonio Mundial, avalada por la Convención dedicada a la protección del patrimonio mundial cultural y natural.

En el año 1959 la presa de Asuán amenazaba con cubrir para siempre bajos sus aguas los monumentos de Nubia, entre ellos el templo de Ramses II o el templo de Debod (actualmente en Madrid). La UNESCO hizo un llamamiento mundial para salvar este antiguo legado tan importante e irrecuperable. Esta fecha ha quedado como el inicio del movimiento mundial a favor de la protección del patrimonio.

La clasificación de bienes Patrimonio de la Humanidad abarca un amplio abanico: monumentos, conjuntos, sitios, monumentos naturales, formaciones geológicas y fisiográficas y lugares naturales. Además de este patrimonio material, la UNESCO también cuenta con una Lista de Patrimonio Mundial Inmaterial, que recoge tradiciones milenarias que siguen en nuestros días y que, muchas veces, corren el riesgo de desaparecer. Un buen ejemplo de Patrimonio Mundial Inmaterial de nuestro país es el flamenco, que entró a formar parte de la lista el 16 de noviembre de 2010.

En este link está toda la información acerca de la Lista de Patrimonio de la Humanidad

“La arquitectura es el medio ideal para transmitir la cultura de un pueblo, por lo que es la más poderosa de todas las artes”

                                                                                                                      John Ruskin.

BORRÁS, Lorenzo M. y FATÁS, Guillermo, Diccionario de términos de Arte y elementos de Arqueología, Heráldica y Numismática

ALIANZA EDITORIAL (Madrid, 2006)

DE LA PEÑA GÓMEZ, María Pilar, Manual básico de Historia del Arte. Colección Manuales UEX

Universidad de Extremadura (2008)

MARTÍNEZ BUENAGA, Ignacio; MARTÍNEZ PRADES José Antonio; MARTÍNEZ VERÓN Jesús, Historia del Arte. Paterna (Valencia) 1998

VALLEJO TRIANO, Antonio, Madinat al-Zahra. Guía oficial del conjunto arqueológico

Junta de Andalucía. Consejería de Cultura.

VV.AA. Colección Historia del Arte. Tomo 8 “El Islam. India y el Extremo Oriente”

Editorial SALVAT y EL PAÍS (Madrid, 2008)

REVISTA CULTURAL BIBLIOTECA ISLÁMICA

MUSULMANES EN ANDALUCÍA

ARTE EN CÓRDOBA

DIARIO DE CÓRDOBA

EL PAÍS

EL DIARIO

Miriam Reyes

Ver fuente

Ver Fuente

[admelioraii]

Al Andalus II: One of the world’s greatest civilizations; Times of glory, Part 2.

Previous parts:

Al Andalus I: The dawn of one of the world’s greatest civilizations.

Al Andalus II: One of the world’s greatest civilizations; Times of Glory, Part 1.

Al Andalus II: One of the world’s greatest civilizations; Times of Glory, Part 2.

Al Andalus III: One of the world’s greatest civilizations; The Downfall and end, Part 1.

Al Andalus III: One of the world’s greatest civilizations; The Downfall and end, Part 2.

Córdoba

II. The following Two great Abd al Rahman

Repentant and apologetic, Al Hakam I, as said earlier, put his kindest and wisest son as a successor. This kind and wise son was Abd al Rahman II (the middle one)(822-852 AC.).

Garden in Spain

Abd al Rahman II (the middle one)(822-852 AC.)

He would prove to be the best gift Al Hakam II could ever give to the citizens of al Andalus. Abd al Rahman (the middle one) reorganised the country's economy and made sure that there were no poor people in al Andalus. As most of the Umayyad Emirs, he had a love for knowledge, he promoted scholars and academics, which is why we heard about scholars like Abbas ibn Firnas during his rule.

Abbas ibn Firnas; inventor of glass, the first airplane, devices to tell time, and the father of the predecessor of the pen.

Abd al Rahman II also fought a constant battle with the christian northern provinces. In his reign, Seville was attacked by Vikings, and as a result of this attack he ordered the construction of the so-called “Great wall of Seville”. This wall was built as extra protection to the already existing wall to safeguard the city and the “Guadalquivir” river and its outflow in the atlantic ocean.

Another accomplishment worth mentioning is the introduction of a new irrigation system which was a genius invention at the time. He was also responsible for paving all the streets in the country. After 30 years of successful rule, Abd el Rahman the “middle one” died, and with his death came a steep decline in the country.

* Muhammad I

(852-886 AC.)

* Al Mundir

(886-888 AC.) only ruled for two years

* Abd Allah

(888-912 AC.) Grandfather of Abd al Rahman III, as his son Muhammad II died before taking the throne.

Medina Azahara, Córdoba

Abd al Rahman III (the victorious)(912-961 AC., The first calipha)

Top of the glory:

After several weak rulers, and years of focus on side issues, the country was falling apart. Abd Allah had seen his son and successor Muhammad II die an early death, he then put all his hopes and energy in raising his grandson; Abd al Rahman the victorious.

In the history of al Andalus, there were three Emirs called Abd al Rahman, all of which were the greatest rulers of the country. It is difficult to compare one to another, all three were extremely good rulers, wise and kind. All of them brought great fortune, peace and prosperity to the county. Each and every one of them got a nickname, and were loved by the citizens. Nevertheless, the accomplishments of the last Abd al Rahman, the victorious, were something else altogether.

Rise to the throne:

When Abd al Rahmen III rose to the throne instead of his father, he was only 22 years old. As previously mentioned, he was educated by his grandfather, Abd Allah ibn Muhammed, who succeeded well in raising him. Abd al Rahman III was well educated, and had a lot of self-confidence.

The situation in the country, on the other hand, was in ruins. Very little remained of the great al Andalus, and many provinces had claimed independence from the rest of the country. It was time to reorganise and reunite al andalus.

Abd al Rahmen III started with substituting Córdobas corrupt officials. The second step was dealing with the governor of Seville, Omar ibn Hafsun, who had taken matters into his own hands, and confiscated part of the country’s army for himself. He had gone even further and became independent from the rest of the country, earning his living trading with Morocco and the christian northern provinces. Abd al Rahman’s army disconnected his roots to Morocco and the north, in an attempt to cut Omar off his supplies. After months of struggle, the negotiations started and Omar soon gave in.

Seville and Jaén once again joined al Andalus. The provinces north of Córdoba that also were independent, were having constand wars with León and Navarra (the christian provinces). As a clever way of winning their trust, Abd al Rahman, brought his army, and joined the fight on the Muslims side.

Together they fought off the enemy, and the northern provinces came to the realisation that they could not survive alone. Finally they understood who their real enemy was. Shortly after, they too joined the rest of al Andalus.

Great Achievements:

With the wise tactics, fights, and diplomacy, Abd al Rahman the victorious succeeded in reuniting the whole country back to its original size, as it was in the time of general Musa. Even Aragon (Barcelona, etc.), were won back (they were lost under Al Hakam I’s rule). The last surprise was when he brought his army to fight the “Northern Provinces”.

After 6 months of battle, Abd al Rahman's army achieved great victory, and the losing provinces now agreed on paying Gizia (explained in II: Part 1).

All of these achievements were accomplished before Abd al Rahman was 33 years of age.

What he had achieved so far was exceptional and significant, and it would be more than enough to make him a prominent illustrious ruler, but Abd al Rahman's accomplishments did not stop here. Córdoba under his rule would perhaps have been the second largest city in the world, with half a million inhabitants. Baghdad, the world's most populated city, counted 2 million.

He increased the cultivation of fruits, cotton, wheat, and more. Something peculiar is that he ordered that each article had its own market, thus, one market for meat, one for gold, one for flowers, etc.

The police system was reorganised and there was a special department for the day, and another for the night. A special one for businesses, and one for marine police.

The library of Córdoba was expanded from having 4,000 books, to possessing 400,000 books. Furthermore, he instructed the copying of books by scribers, to facilitate the obtention of books for scholars and others and in that way spreading knowledge.

The presence of researchers was a new phenomenon developed during the Abd al Rahman III era. He oversaw the construction of the city of Zahra, and its castles. The city was built for everyone; workers, scholars, and of course, the castle was for the Emir and his family.

The construction of mosques also saw its climax, and the city of cordoba alone counted 3,000 mosques in that time.

The rise of the Ottomas:

Back to the Abbasids, who took the power and assassinated the Umayyads, with time, they had become weak, and the Ottomans (turkey) took over, this time, Abd al Rahman saw his chance, and declared independence from the Ottoman empire, and became himself, Andalucías first Calipha. At the end of Abd al Rahman the victorious’s reign, he even added Septa and Tangier to the list of provinces he had won, and they became united with al Andalus.

He was satisfied and peaceful. When Abd al Rahman took his last breath, Córdoba was called “The diamond of the world”. Al Andalus had now, thanks to him, become the strongest country in the world.

Mezquita catedral de córdoba

Al Hakam II (961-976 AC.)

The son of Abd al Rahman the Victorious was, as many of his forefathers, extremely interested in knowledge, books and education. As many of his predecessors, he surrounded himself with scholars.

During his reign, the great library of Córdoba had as many books as the library of Baghdad. The whole western world came to al Andalus for knowledge. Most of the kings of european countries, sent their children to study at al Andaluz, all the different subjects were given in Arabic, as Arabic was the world’s leading language.

Another interesting detail, as the men were busy with work, the women were the ones that studied more, and were exceptionally well educated. Furthermore, there was no one in al Andalus that was illiterate, everyone could read and write.

In the time of Hakam II, all Morocco united with al Andalus, not as a result of war, but because of the greatness of the country. Al hakam II, it has to be said, was not a great army leader, in that aspect he lived and died in the shadow of the great achievements of his father, the great Abd al Rahman.

* Hisham II

(976-1009 AC.)

* Al Mansor

(976-1009 AC.)

Conclusion:

The glory and prosperity in al Andalus had now reached its peak. Never before, or after, had the iberian peninsula experienced similar stability, prosperity, and wealth in all aspects of life.

Health, education, trade, cultivation, construction (of new cities), roads, ships, harbours, bridges, paved streets, locks, dams etc. Beauty (gardens, castles, and mosques) and new inventions.

All the different religious groups (muslims, jews, christians), ethnical groups and/or races of the society (arabs, berber, original spaniards, etc.), lived together in harmony, without discrimination; something that we could still learn from today.

The iberian peninsula had become a paradise on earth, and al Andalus the strongest country in the world!

When reaching the top, there is only one way forwards, downwards. With great beauty comes great pain.

[journeydb]

April 11 2017 Cordoba

We arrived this morning in Cordoba, which is north of Seville (Sevilla) in Andalusia (Andalucia), which is in southern Spain. 

According to Wikipedia:

“Córdoba is a city in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. It was a Roman settlement, then colonized by Muslim armies in the eighth century. It became the capital of the Islamic Emirate, and then of the Caliphate of Córdoba, including most of the Iberian Peninsula. Córdoba consisted of hundreds of workshops that created goods such as silk. It was a center of culture and learning in the Muslim golden age.

Caliph Al Hakam II opened many libraries in addition to the many medical schools and universities which existed at the time, making Córdoba a center for education. During these centuries it became the center of a society ruled by Muslims, in which all other groups had a second-class status.  It was recaptured by Christian forces in 1236, during the Reconquista. The historic center has been named a UNESCO World Heritage Site.”

After checking into the hotel we wandered around the city and were very impressed with the main plaza (square), which opens out into alleys which lead to smaller plazas all over the city.

Spring in Cordoba is like summer elsewhere, warm and dry with flowers blooming everywhere.

La Gran Mezquita (The Great Mosque) is one of the main tourist attractions in the city.  According to Wikipedia:

“The Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba,   also known as the Great Mosque of Córdoba and the Mezquita, whose ecclesiastical name is the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Assumption (Spanish: Catedral de Nuestra Señora de la Asuncion) is the Catholic cathedral of the Diocese of Córdoba dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin Mary and located in the Spanish region of Andalusia.  The structure is regarded as one of the most accomplished monuments of Moorish architecture.

According to a traditional account, a small Visigoth church, the Catholic Basilica of Saint Vincent of Lérins, originally stood on the site.  In 784 Abd al-Rahman I ordered construction of the Great Mosque, which was considerably expanded by later Muslim rulers. Córdoba returned to Christian rule in 1236 during the Reconquista, and the building was converted to a Roman Catholic church, culminating in the insertion of a Renaissance cathedral nave in the 16th century.”

We are so lucky to be here during Semana Santa (Holy Week) because Cordoba is famous for the street processions like these which went through the streets around the mosque.

We came back to the hotel, The Palacio de Bailio, rested and had dinner on the patio outside the front door.  Our suite is very beautiful and historic, with murals of scenes from the novel, Don Quixote, on the walls.  Don Quixote, as many who may have  read this classic while studying Spanish will remember, is the quintessential story of a man who wanted more adventure in his life and set off to find it, taking a buddy along with him.  According to Wikipedia:

Don Quixote, fully titled The Ingenious Nobleman Sir Quixote of La Mancha (Spanish: El Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha, is a Spanish novel by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. Published in two volumes, in 1605 and 1615, Don Quixote is considered the most influential work of literature from the Spanish Golden Age and the entire Spanish literary canon. As a founding work of modern Western literature and one of the earliest canonical novels, it regularly appears high on lists of the greatest works of fiction ever published, such as the Bokklubben World Library collection that cites Don Quixote as the authors' choice for the "best literary work ever written".

The story follows the adventures of a noble (hidalgo) named Alonso Quixano who reads so many chivalric romances that he loses his sanity and decides to set out to revive chivalry, undo wrongs, and bring justice to the world, under the name Don Quixote de la Mancha. He recruits a simple farmer, Sancho Panza, as his squire, who often employs a unique, earthy wit in dealing with Don Quixote's rhetorical orations on antiquated knighthood."

Even if you never read the novel you may have seen the stage musical “Man of La Mancha” based on the novel or the movie based on the musical.  According to Wikipedia:

“Man of La Mancha is a 1972 film adaptation of the Broadway musical Man of La Mancha by Dale Wasserman, with music by Mitch Leigh and lyrics by Joe Darion. The musical was suggested by the classic novel Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes, but more directly based on Wasserman's 1959 non-musical television play, I, Don Quixote, which combines a semi-fictional episode from the life of Cervantes with scenes from his novel.

The film was financed by an Italian production company, Produzioni Europee Associates, and shot in Rome. However, it is entirely in English, and all of its principal actors, except for Sophia Loren, are either British or American. The film was released by United Artists. It is known in Italy as L'Uomo della Mancha.

The film was produced and directed by Arthur Hiller, and stars Peter O'Toole as both Miguel de Cervantes and Don Quixote, James Coco as both Cervantes' manservant and Don Quixote's "squire" Sancho Panza, and Sophia Loren as scullery maid and prostitute Aldonza, whom the delusional Don Quixote idolizes as Dulcinea. Gillian Lynne, who later choreographed Cats, staged the choreography for the film (including the fight scenes).”

[alandalus-experience]

818: El emir Al-Hakam reprime la revuelta del Arrabal El 25 de marzo de 818 el emir Al-Hakam reprimió con violencia una de las muchas revueltas a las que se había acostumbrado su reinado, esta vez en el Arrabal de Córdoba. El Arrabal de Córdoba era una zona densamente poblada que había crecido al otro lado del río Guadalquivir a raíz del puente construido por Hisham I. Convivía en esta zona gente muy pobre con una minoría de alfaquíes malekitas que trabajaban como maestros de escuela. Los alfaquíes eran intérpretes de las leyes, lo que en el mundo musulmán significa ser jurista y a la vez teólogo, y los de Córdoba habían sido además asesores palaciegos en tiempos de Hisham I. Defenestrados por Al-Hakam y en un entorno en el que era fácil rentabilizar descontentos, los alfaquíes del Arrabal vertieron su propaganda sobre sus vecinos, culpando al emir de excederse en los tributos, alejarse de la ortodoxia religiosa y actuar como un déspota. La llama prendió en el año 805 y el emir tuvo que ejecutar a 72 personas, entre ellas algunos notables alfaquíes. Sobre estas brasas nunca apagadas se fraguó la revuelta de 818. Encendió la mecha la muerte en el zoco de un armero a manos de un mameluco de la guardia personal del emir. El barrio se levantó en armas y marchó hacia el palacio del emir. Éste mandó a sus hombres arrasar el Arrabal e incendiarlo y la muchedumbre, al ver arder sus casas, marchó a salvar lo que pudiera. A la salida del puente les esperaba, cimitarra en mano, la guardia del emir. La represalia fue atroz y Al-Hakam ordenó crucificar boca abajo a más de 300 cabecillas. De los supervivientes, un gran número decidió salir de la Península y olvidar lo sucedido en mejores tierras. Algunos se asentaron en Fez, pero otro grupo llegó hasta Alejandría, ciudad que llegaron a ... leer más: blogs.libertaddigital.com