#air o2 blender

[my-sk-love]

[yeonghcn-a]

five times kissed

five times kissed. / accepting@suhntaek

⇨ o1. isn’t it strange how two people just connect?

she had been jokingly upset at first over his ‘pumpkin murders’, but soon she had become one of him - and, after setting their ‘murder victims’ outside, had successfully seen the joking joy in slaughtering pumpkins. mixing up the pumpkin - seeds removed - in a blender to create a puree; his hands carefully measured about two-thirds a cup and dropped it in a bowl. whisking and beating three eggs into one bowl, he hummed and added it to the pumpkin.

dumping sugar and cinnamon carefully into the mixture; he blended it well until it was completely smooth. carefully greasing up a jelly roll pan, he drained the mixture into it; evenly spreading it until it was ready to go into the oven. in another bowl, cream cheese, confectioners’ sugar, and one-fourth teaspoon’s worth of vanilla extract was mixed together carefully, his concentration never wavering.

the moment the cake was done baking and cooled enough to handle, he began to spread the frosting along the top before rolling it up; dusting the top lightly with confectioners’ sugar.

“and the pumpkin roll is done.”

“ooh! can we cut it?”

chuckling at her excitement, the librarian grabbed a cake cutting knife and two small plates; cutting two slices carefully before serving one to her. her face of absolute bliss was too cute, earning a small laugh from him. it’d been a surprisingly relaxing evening, despite doing nothing but carving pumpkins and baking. perhaps it was just the woman’s company. noticing a spot of cream cheese; he stood up and tilted her chin up, wiping it from her cheek with his thumb.

“careful, you’re a bit messy there.”

it was a teasing tone, but it was still stubbornly there. leaning in; lips pressed to her cheek, tongue snaking out for a moment to lick it off. perhaps the notion was odd, but it was better to clean her cheek then not at all.

⇨ o2. you made me hunger for life for the first time.

she had told him once that she was in university. elementary education - a cute major, good for someone as sweet as her. what he did not expect, however, was to be in the staff room at the library; sorting through a few clipboards worth of various tasks or counts, only to hear a coworker call his name.

“oi - song-ssi! your friend’s here with lunch.”

furrowing his brow, he stood and went to the counter; where she stood, waiting, two boxes of lunch in her hands. confused; he leaned on the counter and stared at the lunches.

“you brought me lunch?”

“yeah! you’re so skinny, you don’t eat all that much, do you? so i thought we could share lunch together!”

snickers came from another librarian nearby, earning a glare from him as his cheeks flushed lightly. he never really bothered with much lunch, but having one here - available - was actually enticing him to enjoy.

“alright, come on.”

leading her to the staff room, he signed himself out on break; cleaning up the clipboards. she sat across from him, unwrapping the lunches carefully and setting it up. she’d brought him nude gimbap with kimchi, gyeranmari, and saeujeon for lunch. it smelled - and looked - absolutely delicious.

perhaps in a moment of gratitude, he leaned across the table and lifted her chin; giving a soft kiss to the girl - she froze, melting underneath him after a moment.

“ah, sorry… i just… thank you. i haven’t had a homemade lunch since i went to school.”

chuckling out of nervousness, they settled down to eat; his mind racing over how nice she was treating him - it was weird. at least, to him.

⇨ o3. you were the breath of fresh air i needed: i was drowning.

he couldn’t sleep. it had been a long day - the only highlight had been that she brought him lunch - again. it had become a regular thing: she would make lunch and come to the library, and he would pick her up from university and make her dinner before taking her home.

perhaps one could tease them and say they were dating, but as far as they were concerned; they were just close friends.

the rest of the day wasn’t as smooth, however: someone fucked up an order of books and supplies, he had a rather tough - and long - phone call with his elder brother that he couldn’t avoid. directly after that, his parents called him for the first time in years. it had been so bad that after lunch, he’d told her that he didn’t feel too well and wanted to go home and sleep.

but here he was, still awake; contemplating calling out of work due to the sick feeling roiling in his gut. he felt like crying, like screaming into the pillow and tearing up his room like a child throwing a tantrum. instead, he lifted his phone; entering the r.f.a. chat.

[YUCHEON HAS ENTERED THE CHATROOM]

she was online - and just her. why?

yucheon ⇨ heyyucheon ⇨ why are you up?yucheon ⇨ it’s late, silly.

he half expected her not to reply; but suddenly the messages came through.

hana ⇨ couldn’t sleep!hana ⇨ feeling any better?hana ⇨ can’t sleep, either?

he found himself typing out everything that was wrong; shaking his head and then deleting it. what he sent her instead was the simplest message, wanting her to come over.

yucheon ⇨ no. come over. please.hana ⇨ i’ll be right over.

[HANA HAS LEFT THE CHATROOM][YUCHEON HAS LEFT THE CHATROOM]

he let her in, curling up on the couch. wordlessly; they stayed huddled together, her lips softly pressing to his head and temple. without saying anything, she’d managed to rid himself of that disgusting feeling in his stomach, to reassure him that everything was alright.

⇨ o4. we could be in a room full of art, and i’d only look at you.

the daily lunches and dinners were continuing, with her staying over some nights. it had gotten to the point where his co-workers were whispering behind his back, wondering if he was going to marry her at this rate. he ignored them, often yelling at them to get back to work.

but the whispers brought up a good point: what were they? friends? lovers? all they’ve ever done - at most - is share a stolen kiss here or there. but she was practically acting like a wife, and the thought of her being his made him slightly weak in the knees and nervous in the stomach.

when was the last time he dated anyone? shortly after high school, really. he’d dated a guy for a month or two, and then some girl. neither lasted longer than three months, and any sexual interactions had been pretty much one night stands - not that he’d had many.

but when she came with his lunch, he signed himself out on break as usual; bringing her to the back, before looking at her.

“so… what are we?”

good going, idiot, was all his brain screamed at him; cheeks flushed at his own stupidity. she looked confused, and so he elaborated.

“we’ve been doing this thing - the lunch and dinner thing - for a long while now… and… i’ve kind of stolen some kisses from you… so...”

she looked contemplative, unwrapping their lunches while he sat down; staring at the table.

“if you wanted to date me, i wouldn’t mind.”

her response came slow, almost a full minute of agonizing wait. he flushed darker, leaning forward to kiss her nose. she let out a giggle - and it was the most musical noise he’d ever had grace his ears.

“so, tonight it’s a date then, instead. sound good?”

his eager tone earned him yet another giggle; along with a nod.

⇨ o5. you are an intoxicating collection of poems, roses, and stardust.

it had been how long, now? nearly a year? that they had gotten together. it was through her assistance that he managed to find a job as an amateur photographer for a magazine, quitting the crap librarian job. she was already working in a primary school, her students loving whenever he came by around lunch - he always brought baked treats, and they always found his hair ‘interesting’; earning him the nickname of ‘mister fairy’.

it was a day off for both of them, and they’d decided on a picnic in a park; seated beneath a beautiful tree. holding her close; he asked her to stand up - much to her confusion, she did so, pink sundress swishing around her knees as she stood.

“hey, we’ve been together a while, right?”

getting on a knee; the reason she was standing became obvious, a small box coming from his pocket.

“move in with me - be mine forever.”

if it weren’t for him expecting to be leapt upon; they would’ve smushed their lunch, tears of absolute joy coming from her eyes as he slid the ring onto her finger, her ecstatic shouts of ‘yes’ ringing in his ears. laughing softly, he held her until she was a bit calmer; tugging her into his lap.

“i love you, hana.”

“i love you too, cheonnie~.”

“i thought i told to quit that?”

laughing, the two locked lips gently; embraced well and true in the moment - the perfect moment.

[juniperpublishersoceanography]

Effect of Origanum vulgare Extract on Immune Responses and Heamatological Parameters of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)- Juniper Publishers

Abstract

In this study, Origanum vulgare extract was used to evaluate its effects on immune responses and hematological parameters of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Six hundred (600) averages mean weight 13±0.05g rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were randomly allocated into two groups including placebo-treated group (control), and Origanum vulgare extract-treated group, each of three replicates. The fishes were hand-fed once a day with diet medicated placebo or Origanum vulgare extract (OE) at a rate of 1% of feed weight in the first feeding for 8 weeks. At the end of every two weeks 24hrs after feeding, fish were bled from caudal vein and blood samples were analyzed for some of hematological and immunological parameters. The results showed that serum total protein, albumin and globulin, respiratory burst activity, phagocytic activity and serum lysozyme activity vary among the two treatment groups which were found to be higher in OE-treated group (P<0.05). It was concluded that supplementation of OE at a rate of 1% registered higher immunological responses. Therefore, dietary inclusion of OE could improve nonspecific immune responses in rainbow trout. Future studies to determine optimal herb mixtures and dietary levels should be conducted.

Keywords: Herbal immunostimulant; Iranian medicinal plants; Origanum vulgare; Fish

Introduction

Major targets in the aquaculture industry are to maintain fish health as well as to improve fish performance. The use of plant extracts in practical diets for fish is a very topical concept in aquaculture industry. One of the most important aspects in rainbow trout farming is the nutrition factor. It can influence the performance as well as the health status of the cultured fish. Origanum vulgare is a member of the Labiatae family of plants. It is an aromatic plant with a wide distribution throughout the Mediterranean area and Asia [1]. The essential oil obtained from O. vulgare subsp. hirtum plant by a steam distillation process comprises more than 20 ingredients, most of which are phenolic antioxidants [2]. Major components are carvacrol and thymol that constitute about 78 to 82% of the total oil [3]. It has been suggested that the essential oil derived from oregano possess in vitro antimicrobial [4,5] antifungal [6], insecticidal [7] and antioxidant [8] properties. These properties are mainly attributed to carvacrol and thymol. The activity of other constituents such as the two monoterpene hydrocarbons, γ-terpinene and p-cymene, that often constitute about 5 and 7% of the total oil, respectively [3] is uncertain.

Materials and Methods

Preparation of Origanum vulgare extract

The plant of Origanum vulgare was procured from local store and plant species was identified and confirmed by a botanist in Institute of Medicinal Plants. The dried air parts were collected and washed in sterile distilled water. The samples were separately shade-dried for 10 day till weight constancy was achieved. Then, the samples were powdered in an electric blender. The extract was prepared with the standard method of percolation. To do this, chopped dried air parts of plant in 80% ethanol were percolated for 72 hours. Then, the slurry was filtered with Whattman No. 1 filter paper and centrifuged for 5min at 5000rpm. The filtrate obtained from ethanol using a rotary device, the excess solvent was separated from the extract. These crude extract was stored at 4 °C until use.

Supplementation ofthe normal diet with dried Origanum vulgare extract

The formulated fish feed was prepared using the normal fish diet (50% crude protein, 18% crude lipid, 1.9% fiber, 1.3% total phosphorus, 8.3% ashes, and 14.8% nitrogen free extract) with dried Origanum vulgare extract or placebo at a ratio 1% of weight food and mixing part by part in a drum mixer. Sufficient water along with the oil ingredients were then added to make a paste of each diet. After it was pelleted and allowed to cool dry. The pellets were air dried and stored in air tight containers until fed.

Fish and experimental conditions

600 rainbow trout weighing 13±0.05 were used. All experiments were carried out in 1,000 liter round concrete ponds with a continuous water flow of 2.5 liter per second. The fish were kept at an ambient, including uncontrolled water temperature of 15±1 °C, dissolved oxygen of 7.2±0.2mg l-1 and pH 8±0.3. After 2 weeks adaptation, fish were randomly allotted in two groups including an experimental group and a control group, in triplicate was maintained in 6 concrete ponds each containing 100 fish. Each group was hand-fed once a day with diet medicated 1% of Origanum vulgare extract, or placebo (70% lactose, 10 % starch and 20 % talc) prepared in the laboratory and three times with normal diet at a rate 2% of body weight for 10 weeks.

Bleeding and serum collection

During bleeding, fish were rapidly netted, tranquillized with 50mg/l of tricaine methane sulfonate (MS222, Sigma chemical Co. St. Louis, MO, USA). Fish were bled from caudal vein using 1ml insulin syringe fitted with 24 gauge needle. To minimize the stress to fish, 1ml of blood was drawn and the whole bleeding procedure was completed within 1min. A total number of 15 blood samples were collected from 15 fish in each group (5 samples from each replicate) at the end of every 2 weeks, 24h after final feeding period. The blood pooling of 5 fish from each replicate divided into 2 haves. Half collected in serological tubes containing a pinch of lithium heparin powder, shaken gently and kept at 4 °C to test hematological parameters. Other half collected in tubes without of anticoagulant and allowed to clot at 4 °C for 2hrs to test serological parameters. The clot was the spun down at 2000rpm for 10min to separate the serum. The serum collected by micropipette and was stored in sterile Eppendorf tubes at -20 °C until used for assay.

Hematological assay

Blood sample was analyzed with routine methods adopted in fish hematology [9]. The total red blood cell counts (RBC x106/μl) were determined in a 1:200 dilution of the blood sample in Hayem's solution and total white blood cell counts (WBC x103/μl) in a 1:20 dilution of the blood sample with a Neubauer hemocytometer. The hematocrit (Hct) and leucocrit percentages were determined in duplicate by using micro hematocrit-heparinized capillary tubes of 75μl volume and a micro hematocrit centrifuge at 15000rpm for 5min [10]. The percentages of erythrocyte (hematocrit) and leucocyte (leucocrit) volumes were calculated by overlaying the tubes on a sliding scale hematocrit reader.

The hemoglobin (Hbg/dl) concentrations were determined by the cyanomethaemoglobin method [11] using a haemoglobin reagent set (Ziest Chem Diagnostics). The all the values of red blood cell indices, the mean values of cell haemoglobin (MCH pg), cell hemoglobin concentration (MCHC %), and cell hemoglobin volume (MCV fl) were calculated according to Wintrobe formulae [12]. The differential leukocytes count was carried out using blood smears stained with Wright-Giemsa. The percentage composition of leukocytes was determined based on their identification characters listed by Ivanava [13].

Biochemical assay

Serum total protein content was estimated photo metrically by citrate buffer and bromocresol green (BCG) dye binding method [14] using the kit (total protein and albumin kit, Pars Azmun Company, Iran). Albumin was determined BCG binding method. The absorbance of standard and test were measured against blank in a spectrophotometer at 546nm. Globulin level was calculated by subtracting albumin values from total serum protein. Albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio was calculated by diving albumin values by globulin values.

Immunological assay

Separation of leukocytes from the blood

Leucocytes for assay were separated from each blood sample by density-gradient centrifugation. One milliliter of histopaque 1.119 (Sigma) containing 100μl of bactohemagglutination buffer, pH 7.3 (Difco, USA) was dispensed into siliconised tubes. 1ml of a mixture of 1.077 density histopaque and hemagglutination buffer and 1ml of blood was carefully layered on the top. The sample preparations were centrifuged at 2500rpm for 15min at 4 °C. After centrifugation, plasma was collected and stored at -80 °C for future analysis; separated leukocytes were gently removed and dispensed into siliconised tubes, containing phenol red free Hanks Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS, Sigma). Cells were then washed twice in HBSS and adjusted to 2*106 viable cells/ml.

Respiratory burst activity

Respiratory burst activity of isolated leukocytes was quantified by reduction of ferricytochrome C [15]. Briefly, 100μl of leukocyte suspension and an equal volume of cytochrome C (2mg/l in phenol red free HBSS) containing phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA, Sigma) at 1μg/ml were placed in triplicate in micro titer plates. In order to test specificity, another 100μl of leukocyte suspensions and solutions of cytochrome c containing PMA and superoxide dismutase (SOD, Sigma) at 300U/ml were prepared in triplicate in micro titer plates. Samples were then mixed and incubated at room temperature for 15min. Extinctions were measured at 550nm against a cytochrome C blank in a multiscan spectrophotometer. Readings were converted to nmoles O2 by subtracting the O.D. of the PMA/SOD treated supernatant from that treated with PMA given alone for each sample, and converting O.D. to n moles O2 by multiplying by 15.87. Final results were expressed as nano moles O2 produced per 105 blood leukocytes.

Phagocytosis assay

Phagocytosis activity of blood leukocytes was determined spectrophotometrically according to Seeley et al. [16]. This assay involves the measurement of congo red-stained yeast cells which have been phagocytised by cells. To perform the assay, 250μl of the leukocyte solution was mixed with 500μl of the congo red- stained and autoclaved yeast cell suspension (providing a yeast cell: leukocyte ratio of 40:1). The mixtures were incubated at room temperature for 60min. Following incubation, 1ml ice-cold HBSS was added and1 ml of histopaque (1.077) was injected into the bottom of each sample tube. The samples were centrifuged at 2500rpm for 5min to separate leukocytes from free yeast cells. Leukocytes were harvested and washed two times in HBSS. The cells then were resuspended in 1ml trypsin-EDTA solution (5.0g/l trypsin and 2.0g/l EDTA, Sigma) and incubated at 37 °C overnight. The absorbance of the samples was measured at 510nm using trypsin-EDTA as a blank.

Serum lysozyme assay

In this study, an assay based on the lysis of Micrococcus lysodeikticus was used to determining the lysozyme activity. Serum lysozyme activity was measured spectrophotometrically according to the method Parry et al. [17]. Briefly, 0.02% (w/v) lyophilized Micrococcus lysodeikticus in 0.05mM solution phosphate buffer (pH 6.2) was used as substrate. 10μl of fish serum was added to 250μl of bacterial suspension and reduction in absorbance at 490nm was determined after 0.5 and 4.5min of incubations at 25 °C using a microplate reader. One unit of lysozyme activity was defined as the amount of enzyme causing a decrease in absorbance of 0.001 per min.

Statistical analysis

All results for each parameter measured were expressed as means±standard errors, and were compared at each time point using Student's t-test for independent data. Significant differences between experimental groups were expressed at a significance level of p <0.05. All analyses were carried out on 15 fish per group.

Results

Hematological analysis

Dietary Origanum vulgare extract incorporated test diets had no significant (p <0.05) effect on red blood cell count (RBC), white blood cell count (WBC), differential leukocytes count (monocyte, lymphocyte and neutrophile), hematocrit (Hct), hemoglobin (Hb), the all the values of red blood cell indices, the mean values of cell hemoglobin (MCH pg), cell hemoglobin concentration (MCHC %), and cell hemoglobin volume (MCV fl) at the end of none of the identical two weeks after feeding in compared to placebo group (Table 1).

Data are expressed as mean±SE (n=15). No significant differences were observed in the Origanum vulgare treated groups relative to the placebo group at the end of the identical every two weeks after feeding (P>0.05). Neut: neutrophil; Mon: Monocyte; Lymp: Lymphocyte.

Biochemical analysis

Origanum vulgare extract had significant (P<0.05) effect in increase of total protein (TP), albumin (AL), and globulin (GL), at the end of the identical every two weeks after feeding in compared to placebo group (Table 2). The maximum level of total protein was recorded on week 2 of exposure duration. Similarly, albumin and globulin contents were significantly higher in Aloe vera group as compared to placebo group. However, albumin/globulin ratio was not exhibited significant differences in two weeks after feeding in compared to placebo group (p>0.05; compared to placebo group at the end of the identical every Table 2).

Data are expressed as mean±SE (n=15). *: P<0.05 compared with the

Immunological analysis

Respiratory burst activity

The respiratory burst activity significantly (P<0.05) enhanced in fish fed with 1% of Origanum vulgare extract supplementation feed at the end of the identical every two weeks after feeding in compared to placebo group (Figure 1).

Phagocytic activity of blood leucocytes significantly (P<0.05) enhanced in fish treated with 1% of Origanum vulgare extract supplementation feed at the end of the identical every two weeks after feeding in compared to placebo group (Figure 2).

Lysozyme activity

Lysozyme activity significantly (P<0.05) enhanced in fish fed with 1% of Origanum vulgare extract supplementation feed at the end of the identical every two weeks after feeding in compared to placebo group (Figure 3).

Discussion

The present study projects the impact of dried Origanum vulgare extract on the hematological and immunological responses in rainbow trout (Oncorhyncous mykiss). The hematological parameters in the present investigation such as RBC, WBC, differential leukocytes counts, hemoglobin, hematocrit, the all of the values of red blood cell indices (MCH, MCHC and MCV) were no significant differences at the end of none of the identical every two weeks after feeding when compared to control group. These observations are in agreement with the obtained results of other researchers, who reported that rainbow trout treated with dietary Aloe vera supplementation were no significant differences in RBC and Hct [18], or RBC and Hb [19] among the groups.

In the present study, the dietary Origanum vulgare extract supplementation enhanced total plasma protein, albumin and globulin values in comparison with control group. Similar results were reported in rainbow trout fed with garlic [20], ginger [21], lipopolysaccharide [22], Laurus nobilis [23], and Coggyria coggyria [24]. Serum proteins are various humoral elements of the non-specific immune system, measurable total protein, albumin and globulin levels suggest that high concentrations are likely to be a result of the enhancement of the non-specific immune response of fish. So, this study revealed that Origanum vulgare extracts incorporated diets helped to increase the humoral elements in the serum. Respiratory burst activity is considered as an important indicator of non-specific defense in fish, which is a measure of the increase of oxidation level in phagocytes stimulated by foreign agents [25]. An enhancement of respiratory burst activity has been identified in the present study, that it is in agreement many of studies with dietary immunostimulants [23,26]. Respiratory burst and phagocytosis response by phagocytes in blood present a major antibacterial defense mechanism in fish [27]. Phagocytosis is one of the most important processes in fish. The main cells involved in phagocytosis in fish are neutrophils and macrophages. These cells remove bacteria mainly by the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) during a respiratory burst. In addition, neutrophils possess myeloperoxidase in their cytoplasmic granules, which in the presence of halide and hydrogen peroxidase kills bacteria by halogenations of the bacterial cell wall. Moreover, these cells have lysozymes and other hydrolytic enzymes in their lysosomes [28]. Similarly, macrophages can produce nitric oxide in mammals and can be as potent as antibacterial agents, peroxynitrates and hydroxyl groups. Phagocytic activity of leucocytes in rainbow trout was enhanced by dietary dose of powdered ginger rhizome [29,30]. Also, in this study an increasing trend in lysozyme activity has been shown which is in agreement with several reports indicating the role of herbal immunostimulants in enhancing lysozyme activity [31-33]. Lysozyme is a humoral component of the non-specific defense mechanism which has the ability to prevent the growth of bacteria by splitting p-1,4 glycosidic bonds in the peptidoglycan of bacterial cell walls, resulting in bacteriolysis. In conclusion, supplementation of OE in aquaculture diets would be use to enhance non-specific immune system in fish. Therefore, further studies are necessary for effective use of Origanum vulgare extract with optimal dose, suitable duration, and method of administration.

For more about Juniper Publishers please click on: https://twitter.com/Juniper_publish

For more about Oceanography & Fisheries please click on: https://juniperpublishers.com/ofoaj/index.php

[pavanghage]

Incontinence Care Devices Market to Experience Huge Growth during 2021-2027

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[bluesdoodles]

Wille and The Bandits Path takes them to Islington

Wille and The Bandits Path takes them to Islington - The word eclectic often gets misused but not in the case they take a variety of rich ingredients from the past and put it into their particular blender producing an imaginative take on the blues

Saturday night in a vibrant Islington, the pubs filling up with groups of friends meeting and a bit of a buzz in the air, none more so than in the small indoor shopping centre set back from the main drag which, incongruously, houses the two separate O2 Academy stages; on this evening the more intimate upstairs venue, with lighting that could be classified without fear of contradiction as…

[multibisnis]

→  Penggunaan plastik dalam kehidupan sehari-hari tidak dapat dihindari, seperti penggunaanya sebagai Kantong tas belanja(shoping bag), wadah makanan, kemasan makanan, casing alat elektronik,alat-alat masak, furnitur, dan lainnya menggunakan plastik sebagai bahan utama. Ini dikarenakan sebuah alasan, yaitu plastik memiliki kelebihan dibandingkan bahan atau komponen lain.

→ Plastik memiliki densitas yang relatif rendah yakni 0,9 sampai 1,4 gr/cm3 dimana akan memiliki massa yang lebih kecil pada volume yang sama dibandingkan dengan bahan lain. → Plastik kantong belanja menggunakan energi 40 % lebih rendah dan menempati volume 80 % lebih kecil dari kertas. → Plastik berasal dari bahasa Yunani, “plastikos” yang berarti sesuatu yang mudah dibentuk. → Plastik sebagai kemasan pangan memenuhi fungsi yakni sebagai barrier, terutama untuk gasdan cahaya. Dengan mengurangi paparan gas seperti O2,maka pertumbuhan mikroorganisme perusak makanan dapat ditekan. Selain itu paparan cahaya yang dapat memicu reaksi kerusakan lemak dan pemudaran pigmen/warna makanan dapat dihindari. Ditinjau dari segi ekonomi, kemasan pangan(makanan ataupun bahan makanan) harus memenuhi prinsip bahwa total biaya produksi (cost) dari kemasan harus lebih kecil dari kegunaan yang diberikan (benefit) dan nilainya (added value). Hal ini terkait dengan kemasan sebagai salah satu cara untuk meningkatkan laba perusahaan.

→  Pada masa sekarang, kemasanjenis plastik yang paling umum digunakan adalah dari jenis PET untuk produk-produk botol air minum dalam kemasan (AMDK).PET atau polietilen tereftalat dengan kode1 ini pemakaiannya hanya boleh satu kali karena saat pemakaian yang kedua kali dan seterusnya, apalagi bila digunakan untuk menyimpan air panas,lapisan polimer pada botol akan meleleh dan mengeluarkan zat yang bersifat karsinogenik (menyebabkan penyakit kanker). Selain itu selama penyimpanan, PET dapat melepas zat antimon trioksida (SbO3). Antimon trioksida merupakan zat berbahaya yang dapat menyebabkan iritasi kulit, iritasi saluran pernapasan, dan untuk jangka panjang dapat menyebabkan kanker. HDPE (high density polietilen) dengan kode 2 dan LDPE (low density polietilen) dengan kode 4 merupakan jenis plastik lainnya yang juga sering digunakan. Perbedaan keduanya terletak pada susunan kristal dan densitasnya. Karakteristik HDPE lebih kuat dari LDPE karena memiliki daerah kristal yang lebih banyak. Selain itu, plastik HDPE memiliki struktur yang lebih tertutup dan rantai polimer yang lebih rapat dengan rantai cabang yang lebih sedikit sehingga densitasnya lebih tinggi. Hal inilah yang membuatnya disebut dengan “high density” polietilen, sedangkan LDPE dengan rantai polimer yang tidak terlalu rapat (volume lebih besar) disebut sebagai “low density” polietilen. Plastik jenis HDPE hanya dapat digunakan untuk sekali pemakaian karena pelepasan senyawa antimoni trioksida terus meningkat seiring waktu juga pelepasan senyawa dari penggunaan bahan pelembut (plastisizer) seperti DEHA. DEHA mempunyai aktivitas mirip dengan hormon estrogen sehingga dapat mengacaukan sistem hormon alami. Perbedaan karakteristik HDPE dan LDPE juga berpengaruh pada aplikasinya sebagai kemasan bahan pangan. HDPE digunakan sebagai wadah yang sifatnya lebih kokoh seperti pada botol-botol minuman susu UHT, jus dan sebagainya, sedangkan LDPE dengan strukturnya yang tidak sekokoh HDPE digunakan pada botol lunak yang dpt ditekan seperti botol saus sambal dan kecap. Kedua jenis plastik ini umumnya berasal dari minyak bumi namun sekarang lebih banyak dilakukan sintesis untuk produksinya dimana dilakukan dengan teknik-teknik yang cukup umum dalam pembuatan berbagai jenis plastik yakni teknik polimerisasi, laminasi, serta moulding dengan injeksi, ekstrusi, atau dengan blow.

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→  Polipropilen (PP) dengan kode 5 adalah jenis plastik yang digunakan sebagai wadah atau kemasan food grade produk-produk makanan. Berbeda dengan PET, jenis plastik ini lebih aman dan dapat digunakan lebih dari sekali, contohnya yang digunakan pada wadah makanan merk Tupperware dan Lock & Lock. PP juga digunakan pada kemasan produk-produk makanan olahan hasil industri seperti biskuit, cookies, chips, wafer, juga lazim diaplikasikan untuk kemasan retort pouch dan boil bag. Kemasan laminasi yang sering digunakan industri pangan saat ini tidak hanya kombinasi antara berbagai macam plastik semisal PP saja, melainkan kombinasi plastik dengan aluminium. Kemasan seperti ini disebut metallized plastic. Metallized plastic bersifat tidak meneruskan cahaya, menghambat masuknya oksigen, menahan bau, memberikan efek mengkilap, dan mampu menahan gas. Untuk memperbaiki sifat-sifatnya, PP dapat dimodifikasi menjadi OPP (Oriented Polypropilene), dimana dalam pembuatannya ditarik ke satu arah. OPP mempunyai sifat tahan terhadap suhu tinggi, tahan terhadap asam kuat, basa, dan minyak. OPP memiliki karakteristik WVTR (water vapor transmission rate) cukup rendah dimana sirkulasi uap air akan terbatas sehingga baik untuk menjaga kualitas produk selama penyimpanan. Meskipun begitu, PP bukanlah jenis plastik tanpa cela. Penggunaan PP pada produk air minum dalam kemasan gelas 350 ml disebut-sebut dapat memunculkan bau dan rasa aneh yang dihubungkan dengan proses ozonisasi. Saat proses ozonisasi produk air minum dalam kemasan dimungkinkan terjadi migrasi monomer seperti heksanal, heptanal, dan oktanal yang memberi bau dan rasa yang kurang menyenangkan. Kode nomor 6 menunjuk pada polistirena atau biasa disebut dengan nama dagangnya, styrofoam. Styrofoam atau polistirena mengandung 95 % udara sehingga baik digunakan untuk keperluan insulasi. Plastik jenis ini menduduki tempat kedua paling tidak ramah lingkungan karena sangat sulit didaur ulang. Selain itu, polistirena dapat melepas monomer-monomer stirena yang menganggu kerja sistem hormon dan sistem syaraf manusia. Sesuai dengan keputusan BPOM tanggal 20 Agustus 2007tentang bahan kemasan pangan menyebutkan bahwa batas maksimal stirena adalah 10000 ppm.

→  Polivinil klorida (PVC) menjadi jenis plastik nomor 1 paling kuat, tahan terhadap cuaca, dan tahan terhadap bahan kimia namun di saat yang sama juga menjadi plastik paling tidak ramah lingkungan. Meskipun lebih banyak yang mengetahui aplikasi PVC sebagai plastik untuk pipa, PVC ternyata juga merupakan plastik yang digunakan pada bungkus makanan transparan seperti pada produk-produk permen dan regulasinya diatur dalam SNI 06-0182-2004 tentang film PVC untuk kemasan kembang gula. Karena mengandung klorin, bila terpapar panas PVC akan membentuk salah satu klorida yakni dioksin. Secara umum dioksin terbentuk pada waktu terjadinya pembakaran senyawa yang berbasis klorin dengan hidrokarbon. Dioksin bersifat larut dalam lemak, dan berpotensi terakumulasi dalam pangan dengan kandungan kadar lemak relatif tinggi. Dioksin menganggu kesehatan karena bersifat teratogenik (dapat menular dari ibu ke bayi yang dikandungnya). Pada pembuatan PVC umumnya ditambahkan suatu senyawa inhibitor yakni bisfenol A (BPA). BPA sayangnya juga merupakan suatu zat berbahaya yang menyebabkan kelainan dan gangguan syaraf, hormon, dan juga bersifat karsinogen. BPA mudah ditemukan pada jenis plastik polikarbonat (PC) dimana jenis plastik ini dahulu sering digunakan sebagai bahan pembuat botol bayi namun karena isu kesehatan, penggunaannya sudah dilarang.

→  Jenis plastik lain, yang tidak masuk ke dalam 6 klasifikasi sebelumnya, digolongkan pada “other” dengan kode nomor 7. Ada beberapa jenis plastik berupa campuran resin yang termasuk golongan ini yakni akrilonitril stirena (SAN) untuk plastik wadah blender dan cawan petri, kemudian akrilonitril butadiena (ABS) untuk casing alat-alat elektronik, dan polikarbonat (PC) untuk botol susu bayi.

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