#Text-Critical English New Testament

[mybeautifulchristianjourney]

٤ اثبتوا فيَّ وانا فيكم. كما ان الغصن لا يقدر ان يأْتي بثمرٍ من ذاتهِ ان لم يثبت في الكرمة كذلك انتم ايضًا ان لم تثبتوا فيَّ. ٥ انا الكرمة وانتم الاغصان. الذي يثبت فيَّ وانا فيهِ هذا يأْتي بثمرٍ كثير. لانكم بدوني لا تقدرون ان تفعلوا شيئًا.

Abide in me, and I will abide in you. As the branch cannot bear fruit by itself unless it abides in the vine, neither can you bear fruit unless you abide in me. I am the vine; you are the branches. Whoever abides in me, and I in him, bears much fruit, because apart from me you can do nothing. — John 15:4-5 | Arabic Bible (Smith & Van Dyke) and The Text-Critical English New Testament (TCENT) The Arabic Bible, Translated by Smith & Van Dyke (1865) is in the public domain and the Text-Critical English New Testament an edition of the Byzantine (Majority) Greek text edited by Robinson and Pierpont Copyright © 2022 Robert Adam Boyd. Cross References: Matthew 12:33; Matthew 13:21; John 6:56; John 15:16; 1 John 2:6

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What Did Jesus Mean When He Said "Abide in Me"?

[givemearmstopraywith]

This may be a bit of a dump question but I've always wondered about this and I thought I could ask this from you since you seem to know more about it. I hope that's okay! Are the translations of the bible and their differences very important? Are the messages that the writings send us that different from each other depending on the translation?

it's very important. translation is an art, like anything else. from a semitic language like hebrew or arabic, it's difficult and often impossible to fully capture the meaning of a word in the original text using english (or any other language). in judaism every stroke of every letter is thought to be an emanation of God: he is the words themselves. the quran is the word of God exactly as it was transmitted to the prophet. so abrahamic religions, bar christianity, place extraordinary important in literal meaning, because you encounter God not only in the meaning of the words but in their very essence, their form and shape.

scriptural translation has always, always been fraught with problems. for instance jerome, developing the vulgate, encountered exodus 34, where moses encounters God face to face and is transformed with rays of light. the hebrew word for this transformation is קָרַ֛ן, and jerome translate it to "cornuta," horns: for centuries afterward moses is depicted in art as having horns, like a goat, because of this mistranslation. it may be that jerome meant "glorified" rather than "horned," based off his later commentaries and use of the term by previous exegetes, but the fact remains that outside of the theological sphere this single word, translated to a western language, stripped back meaning tragically. even to the extent that it propagated harmful stereotypes about jews.

or consider the use of the word "atonement" in english translations of the new testament: katallage, used in romans 5:11, is translated as atonement, but it actually means "reconciliation" or "restitution." in fact, jesus never speaks of atonement. in the old testament the word translated to atonement is כָּפַר, "kaphar", which means "covering." in 1 peter 4:8 we are told, "love covers over a great number of sins." how different would christian understandings of atonement be if we translated "kaphar" as "covering" and not atonement? forgiveness for wrongdoing becomes not something we offer to or beg from God, but something to which we submit, because the action is removed from us, humble as we are, to the great forgiver- the great lover.

i say all this to contextualize the difficulty of translation to begin with. but in the sense of critical pedagogy, every translation of any religious text is subject to the bias of the translator. a good translator is conscious of their bias and seeks to remove it from their work. but christian scripture has an agenda. it is not only something we read for a personal relationship to God but something that is used to dictate right behaviour, as a means of social control, something that develops culture. if a person translating a text has this in mind, they can construct the meaning of the text towards what version of a society or culture they feel is "right," based on their personal and invariably biased understanding of a text. this is why i dislike the kjv translation and never recommend it. the kjv is a product of its time. it is not a good translation of the bible: it is old, but it is not the oldest english translation, and its meaning is absolutely skewed. this is difficult, because many evangelical christians believe the kjv is the absolute word of God, and they are already wrong, because no translation will ever be absolute truth: it is only translation.

words are a limiting system. when we try to capture the essence of something like a god, we are limiting him to our vocabulary.

i always recommend the nrsv because it is version i use for scholarly work. it isn't beautiful but it is as close to a "correct" translation as you can get. but i always supplement my reading with other tools: the jewish annotated new testament is wonderful, for instance, and biblehub has detailed interlinear translations of different translations and the original text. but i am also aware i will never be able to fully comprehend the depth and beautiful of scripture until i learn hebrew and greek, at minimum. but this should not discourage anyone: scripture is meant to be read. but it has to be read actively, critically. God wants you to swallow his words, but he needs you to chew them first.

[walkswithmyfather]

This is fascinating! By Stefan Hager (FB)

“We currently have 5,800 plus Greek New Testaments manuscripts, 10,000 plus Latin manuscripts, and 9,300 plus manuscripts in various languages). if we were to stack the manuscripts we have found today it would reach more than a mile high). Beating all other historical records of the ancient world. for example, no one doubts the historical person “Homer” as we have 1.800 plus manuscripts of his life, yet we have 25,000 plus manuscripts of the life of Jesus, and that doesn’t include secular sources). And considering that the earliest copies of the New Testament are written within 25 years after the death of Jesus, but the earliest copies of Homers works are written 400 years after the death of Homer. Jesus is the gold standard for historians. If we’re going to doubt Jesus. We might as well doubt all ancient history.

Comparing these manuscripts we find that the teaching, stories, doctrines of the bible are all surprisingly the same. reading a bible in English vs reading a bible in Russian. It may be worded differently but you get the same story/biblical doctrine).

Tho no one manuscript is perfect. Through the centuries, minor differences arose in the various copies of the Scriptures. The vast majority of these differences are simple spelling variants, inverted words (one manuscript says “Christ Jesus” while another says “Jesus Christ” or different ways people have spelled names). or an easily identified missing word. In short, over 99 percent of the biblical text is not questioned. Of the less than 1 percent of the text that is in question, no doctrinal teaching or command is jeopardized. In other words, the copies of the Bible we have today are pure. The Bible has not been corrupted, altered, edited, revised, or tampered with.

“The early books of the bible” were so vastly copied and wide spread that if one group in Africa wanted to change any part, believers in Israel, Rome, Alexandria would have easily identified the change to the wide spread text/message.

This is also evidenced by the Dead Sea scrolls (large portions of Old Testament) which were found in 1947. These scrolls are dated 200BC. So Jesus would have those as scripture during his earthly time, and the content of those scrolls match. If we look at any bible in any chapter and we look at the Hebrew and the same chapter it’s going to read the same way we have today, now it is true there are variations in reading/wording or translation. Every book prior to the printing press has variations. The Quran has variations, The point is, variations don’t give you a different text, a different theology, a different meaning.

Here’s a scaled down example. using textual criticism and cross checking manuscripts. We can pretty much reconstruct what the original said. How does this work?.

Consider the following example. Suppose we have four different manuscripts that have different errors in the same verse, such as Philippians 4:13:

1.I can do all t#ings through Christ

2.I can do all th#ngs through Christ

3.I can do all thi#gs through Christ

4.I can do all thin#s through Christ

Is there any mystery of what the original said?. None whatsoever. By comparing and cross checking manuscripts. the original can be reconstructed with great accuracy and the reconstruction of the New Testament is easier than this, because there are far fewer errors in the actual New Testament manuscripts than there are represented by this example. Plus a vast amount of material to work with.

Any unbiased document scholar will agree that the Bible has been remarkably well-preserved over the centuries. Even many hardened skeptics and critics of the Bible admit that the Bible has been transmitted over the centuries far more accurately than any other ancient document.

There is absolutely no evidence that the Bible has been revised, edited, or tampered with in any systematic manner. No one group has ever had control over the biblical text. The sheer volume of biblical manuscripts makes it simple to recognize any attempt to distort God’s Word. There is no major doctrine of the Bible that is put in doubt as a result of the inconsequential differences among the manuscripts.

Ancient scribes often copied books letter by letter (one by one). not sentence by sentence. It was a long process but they assured Accuracy. And they would count the letters of the copies and count the letters of the original. if the original had 500 letters and the copy had 497 letters, they would destroy the copy and restart.”

[tanadrin]

The KJV is a bad translation?

the kjv is, as i understand it, a particularly poor translation for the modern english speaker. and probably not a great translation even for its day.

some of this is a historical problem. the kjv is a lightly edited revision of the bishop's bible; by the time it was put into print its language was already a hundred years out of date.

some of this is a time marches on problem: our understanding of the source texts and the number of manuscripts available to us to analyze is simply much better now than it was back when the kjv/bishop's bible/other early vernacular bibles were printed. not to mention our understanding of the historical context of those texts as furnished by, e.g., archeology.

some of this is a language marches on problem: "tabernacle" is from a Latin word meaning "small hut," which was probably a fine way to translate the hebrew word used for the dwelling place of god back in the sixteenth century, but now, thanks in part to its use in translations of the bible, basically only has a specialized religious meaning that obscures more than it illuminates when used in conservative translations of the bible. there are english-language turns of phrase in the kjv that are now consistently misunderstood just because standard english usage has changed sufficiently in the intervening centuries to alter the fundamental meaning of some passages.

and some of this is a dogma problem: there are passages in the bible that religious publishers with an agenda will insist on mistranslating because the plain meaning of the text is awkward for their particular dogmas. because of the role of the kjv in the second great awakening and american protestantism's fixation on this version of the text, there is the particular pathology of the "kjv-only" movement in american protestantism which insists that the kjv is not only fine, but is actually the best and only good translation of the bible and all the other english translations are corrupted by the devil or something, idk.

what translation of the bible is best probably depends on what you want to use the bible for (devotional purposes vs critical understanding of hte new testament vs critical understanding of the hebrew bible, etc.), but one can definitely do better than a translation published in the seventeenth century.

[blueheartbookclub]

"The New Revelation: Arthur Conan Doyle's Visionary Quest into the Mysteries of the Beyond"

In "The New Revelation," Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, best known for his iconic detective tales, takes an audacious leap into the realm of the supernatural and spiritual exploration. Published in 1918, amidst the backdrop of World War I, Doyle's departure from the familiar terrain of Sherlock Holmes marks a profound shift in his literary endeavors. The narrative unfolds as a thought-provoking treatise on spiritualism, where Doyle invites readers on a journey beyond the veil of the tangible world. This visionary work is an earnest attempt to reconcile the mysteries of life, death, and the existence of an afterlife.

The author presents a compelling case for the existence of a new revelation, one that transcends traditional religious doctrines and offers a glimpse into the metaphysical. Drawing on personal experiences, anecdotes, and an array of paranormal phenomena, Doyle weaves a narrative that challenges conventional skepticism and beckons readers to consider the possibility of a divine connection. His exploration into automatic writing, mediumship, and encounters with spirits propels the reader into a realm where the boundaries between the corporeal and the ethereal blur.

Doyle's prose is impassioned, and his sincerity in grappling with profound existential questions is palpable. He engages with the subject matter not as a detached observer but as a seeker of truth, infusing the text with a sense of urgency and conviction. The narrative is not without its controversies, as Doyle confronts skepticism and critics head-on, defending his belief in spiritualism with unwavering resolve.

"The New Revelation" serves as a captivating intersection of spirituality, philosophy, and the unexplored corners of the human psyche. While the work may not be embraced universally, its impact lies in its ability to spark introspection and foster a dialogue about the mysteries that continue to elude our comprehension. Whether one approaches this text as a believer or a skeptic, Doyle's venture into the metaphysical is undeniably a testament to the versatility and intellectual curiosity of one of literature's most celebrated minds.

In conclusion, "The New Revelation" stands as a bold departure from the detective fiction that defined Arthur Conan Doyle's career. This foray into the unknown provides readers with a unique perspective on spirituality, challenging preconceived notions and beckoning them to contemplate the enigmatic aspects of existence. Doyle's exploration of the supernatural serves as a testament to the boundless curiosity of the human spirit and its ceaseless quest for understanding in the face of life's greatest mysteries.

"The New Revelation," by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle is available in Amazon in paperback 10.99$ and hardcover 17.99$ editions.

Number of pages: 103

Language: English

Rating: 8/10                                           

Link of the book!

Review By: King's Cat

[animeupdates247]

Insights into Wednesday Season 2: Jenna Ortega Discusses the Upcoming Action-Packed Horror Experience

Introduction:

As the fervor for Wednesday Season 2 reaches its zenith, Jenna Ortega, reprising her iconic role as Wednesday Addams, recently spilled captivating details during the pre-show at the 75th Primetime Emmy Awards. From script revelations to a departure from romantic undertones, let's delve into Jenna Ortega's revelations about the impending season, promising an exhilarating, horror-laden escapade for avid fans.

Jenna Ortega's Insights at the Emmy Awards:

At the 75th Primetime Emmy Awards pre-show, the 21-year-old actress, Jenna Ortega, shared a sneak peek into the highly anticipated Wednesday Season 2. Armed with the scripts for the upcoming season and now donning the hat of a producer, Jenna unveiled that the new installment would steer towards heightened horror, bidding adieu to the whimsical romance that characterized Season 1.

Thrilling Action and Cinematic Brilliance:

A standout revelation emerged as Jenna expressed that Wednesday Season 2 would be a thrilling rollercoaster of action. Teasing "really good one-liners," she emphasized that each episode would exude cinematic brilliance, promising a viewing experience akin to watching a captivating movie. This bold shift aligns seamlessly with the show's evolution, ensuring an electrifying ride for its dedicated fan base.

Jenna Ortega's Vision for Wednesday's Evolution:

Delving into the character dynamics, Jenna Ortega shed light on the character arc of Wednesday Addams in Season 2. Acknowledging the need for evolution, Jenna conveyed her excitement about unraveling new facets of Wednesday's persona. Despite the character's timeless consistency, Jenna believes a touch of change is vital for the show's dynamism, presenting Season 2 as the ideal canvas for Wednesday's evolution.

Emmy Awards Triumph and Acclaim:

The Jenna Ortega-led sensation, Wednesday, garnered significant acclaim at the Emmy Awards, securing three nominations. With nods for Outstanding Comedy Series, Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series for Jenna Ortega, and Outstanding Direction for a Comedy Series for Tim Burton, the series stood as a testament to its impact on the television landscape. These accolades underscore the show's popularity and critical acclaim.

Season 1 Recap and Cliffhanger Anticipation:

Premiering on November 16, 2022, Wednesday Season 1 swiftly ascended to become Netflix's second most-watched English language show within three weeks of its release. The season concluded with an intense cliffhanger, unraveling Wednesday's newfound stalker. Cryptic texts and images hinted at looming threats, setting the stage for a gripping continuation in Season 2.

Departure from Romance:

Jenna Ortega's earlier revelation about Season 2 showcased a deliberate shift away from romantic elements prevalent in Season 1. The decision to forego any romantic entanglements for Wednesday underscores a commitment to delve deeper into horror and character development. This narrative pivot signals a refreshing direction for the series, leaving fans intrigued about the resolution of Season 1's lingering cliffhanger.

Conclusion:

With Wednesday Season 2 poised to be a spellbinding and action-packed horror odyssey, Jenna Ortega's revelations offer enthusiasts a tantalizing glimpse into the evolution of a beloved character. The abandonment of romance, coupled with the promise of heightened action and cinematic excellence, adds an extra layer of anticipation for viewers eagerly awaiting the next chapter. Recognized at the Emmy Awards and guided by Jenna Ortega's vision, Wednesday Season 2 stands as a beacon for an enthralling and captivating narrative. As production gears up and fans await further revelations, the excitement continues to mount for the mysterious and alluring world of Wednesday.

[qupritsuvwix]

Critical Rage Theory: If you put a roll of toilet paper on a table and tell someone that it is more similar to the “original” Bible than our current “book” is, they will think you are joking. You will not be.

The original form of the text was without vowels, titles, chapters or verses, and written on lord knows what.

Kinda like thriginlfrmfthtxtwswthtvwlsttlschptrsrvrssndwrttnnlrdknwswht…

The parchment (made from animal skins) scrolls that we have access to are generations later than the original manuscripts.

The verses in the “bible” were introduced pretty much arbitrarily, sometimes subverting the intended meaning or completely changing it. The verses and chapter divisions were supposedly introduced so you could find shit more easily in a block of text. Unfortunately, in the eyes and minds of modern cultists, it also introduced a level of organization and specification that is now attributed to divine will!

That citizens of the USA are addicted to an “english” version of a Hebrew and Greek text that has been modified and paraphrased to suit a specific religious cult at a certain time in white history is hilarious. That cult is the Church of England, an almost defunct sect of weirdos who are used-to-be Catholics who were turned into not-catholic-anymore by the stiffening of a Royal Penis that was disapproved of by the Rock Star of the Catholic cult, The POPE, whose occasionally stiffening penis was nobody’s business but his imaginary friends, the Father, Son, and little miss “I’m a good girl, I am!”

The “Bible” doesn’t really exist. It is a BOOK edition of a pile of crumbling scrolls. The scrolls were collections of hand-scribbled consonants without vowels, word divisions, verse divisions, chapters, or reliably attributable authors on lengths of animal skin. And that was just the Hebrew! The Greek texts were also fun, being backwards or zig-zaggy, using abbreviations or local slang… and suffering from it’s own Cursive version…

If you handed a BOOK to Jesus, would he know what to do with it?

What is a BOOK? It is a technological innovation. You can access any portion of it at once. With a scroll, you have open it and gently, um, “scroll” your way through the text. A BOOK is easily stored, easily transported, relatively protected from weather and damp, has it’s name on the spine and can be shelved or stacked or shoved in a pocket.

We are told that BOOKS were invented to accommodate the Gospels. This would have been a tremendous surprise to the Chinese and Koreans who invented books and printing long before Christians were invented!

Also, the characters the words of the Old (!) and New (?) Testament were scrawled in are not directly translatable to the English alphabet. Transliteration and translation are not the same thing. Some paraphrasing is going to occur. Some GUESSING is going to occur!

Not Only That, But:

The alphabet that English reading people use has changed since the KJV was published in 1611. Thus, the text has been changed to accommodate this. The letter “j” fer’instance, is the youngest character in the English alphabet. Hello, Nurse!

So, that means all the words and names in the “Bible” BOOK that have a “j” in them used to HAVE ANOTHER LETTER! I, Y, H… And those are just the Greek versions of Aramaic names… Wait ‘til we get to the LATIN versions of everything, some of which slopped over into the German, French, and Spanish translations of the “bible” of today.

The mental bean bags who tell you that the square chunk of paper wrapped in leather that they call a “bible”, is in that form because their imaginary friend chose to “inspire” men to create that form, need to be encouraged to use their imagination more creatively than the morons they are plagiarizing. The ultimate “blasphemy” is being boring. Boring is ugly. Jesus don’t like ugly!

[batstabb]

The Bible (from Koine Greek τὰ βιβλία, tà biblía, 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity, Judaism, Samaritanism, and many other religions. The Bible is an anthology – a compilation of texts of a variety of forms – originally written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Koine Greek. These texts include instructions, stories, poetry, and prophecies, among other genres. The collection of materials that are accepted as part of the Bible by a particular religious tradition or community is called a biblical canon. Believers in the Bible generally consider it to be a product of divine inspiration, but the way they understand what that means and interpret the text can vary.

The religious texts were compiled by different religious communities into various official collections. The earliest contained the first five books of the Bible. It is called the Torah in Hebrew and the Pentateuch (meaning five books) in Greek; the second oldest part was a collection of narrative histories and prophecies (the Nevi'im); the third collection (the Ketuvim) contains psalms, proverbs, and narrative histories. "Tanakh" is an alternate term for the Hebrew Bible composed of the first letters of those three parts of the Hebrew scriptures: the Torah ("Teaching"), the Nevi'im ("Prophets"), and the Ketuvim ("Writings"). The Masoretic Text is the medieval version of the Tanakh, in Hebrew and Aramaic, that is considered the authoritative text of the Hebrew Bible by modern Rabbinic Judaism. The Septuagint is a Koine Greek translation of the Tanakh from the third and second centuries BCE (Before Common Era); it largely overlaps with the Hebrew Bible.

Christianity began as an outgrowth of Judaism, using the Septuagint as the basis of the Old Testament. The early Church continued the Jewish tradition of writing and incorporating what it saw as inspired, authoritative religious books. The gospels, Pauline epistles and other texts quickly coalesced into the New Testament.

With estimated total sales of over five billion copies, the Bible is the best-selling publication of all time. It has had a profound influence both on Western culture and history and on cultures around the globe. The study of it through biblical criticism has indirectly impacted culture and history as well. The Bible is currently translated or being translated into about half of the world's languages.

Etymology

The term "Bible" can refer to the Hebrew Bible or the Christian Bible, which contains both the Old and New Testaments.[1]

The English word Bible is derived from Koinē Greek: τὰ βιβλία, romanized: ta biblia, meaning "the books" (singular βιβλίον, biblion).[2] The word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of "scroll" and came to be used as the ordinary word for "book".[3] It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, "Egyptian papyrus", possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos (also known as Gebal) from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece.[4]

The Greek ta biblia ("the books") was "an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books".[5] The biblical scholar F. F. Bruce notes that John Chrysostom appears to be the first writer (in his Homilies on Matthew, delivered between 386 and 388) to use the Greek phrase ta biblia ("the books") to describe both the Old and New Testaments together.[6]

Latin biblia sacra "holy books" translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια (tà biblía tà hágia, "the holy books").[7] Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra "holy book". It gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun (biblia, gen. bibliae) in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe.[8]

Development and history

See also: Biblical manuscript, Textual criticism, and Samaritan Pentateuch

Hebrew Bible from 1300. Genesis.

The Bible is not a single book; it is a collection of books whose complex development is not completely understood. The oldest books began as songs and stories orally transmitted from generation to generation. Scholars are just beginning to explore "the interface between writing, performance, memorization, and the aural dimension" of the texts. Current indications are that the ancient writing–reading process was supplemented by memorization and oral performance in community.[9] The Bible was written and compiled by many people, most of whom are unknown, from a variety of disparate cultures.[10]

British biblical scholar John K. Riches wrote:[11]

The books of the Bible were initially written and copied by hand on papyrus scrolls.[12] No originals survive. The age of the original composition of the texts is therefore difficult to determine and heavily debated. Using a combined linguistic and historiographical approach, Hendel and Joosten date the oldest parts of the Hebrew Bible (the Song of Deborah in Judges 5 and the Samson story of Judges 16 and 1 Samuel) to having been composed in the premonarchial early Iron Age (c. 1200 BCE).[13] The Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered in the caves of Qumran in 1947, are copies that can be dated to between 250 BCE and 100 CE. They are the oldest existing copies of the books of the Hebrew Bible of any length that are not fragments.[14]

The Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa), one of the Dead Sea Scrolls. It is the oldest complete copy of the Book of Isaiah.

The earliest manuscripts were probably written in paleo-Hebrew, a kind of cuneiform pictograph similar to other pictographs of the same period.[15] The exile to Babylon most likely prompted the shift to square script (Aramaic) in the fifth to third centuries BCE.[16] From the time of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Hebrew Bible was written with spaces between words to aid in reading.[17] By the eighth century CE, the Masoretes added vowel signs.[18] Levites or scribes maintained the texts, and some texts were always treated as more authoritative than others.[19] Scribes preserved and changed the texts by changing the script and updating archaic forms while also making corrections. These Hebrew texts were copied with great care.[20]

Considered to be scriptures (sacred, authoritative religious texts), the books were compiled by different religious communities into various biblical canons (official collections of scriptures).[21] The earliest compilation, containing the first five books of the Bible and called the Torah (meaning "law", "instruction", or "teaching") or Pentateuch ("five books"), was accepted as Jewish canon by the fifth century BCE. A second collection of narrative histories and prophesies, called the Nevi'im ("prophets"), was canonized in the third century BCE. A third collection called the Ketuvim ("writings"), containing psalms, proverbs, and narrative histories, was canonized sometime between the second century BCE and the second century CE.[22] These three collections were written mostly in Biblical Hebrew, with some parts in Aramaic, which together form the Hebrew Bible or "TaNaKh" (an abbreviation of "Torah", "Nevi'im", and "Ketuvim").[23]

Hebrew Bible

There are three major historical versions of the Hebrew Bible: the Septuagint, the Masoretic Text, and the Samaritan Pentateuch (which contains only the first five books). They are related but do not share the same paths of development. The Septuagint, or the LXX, is a translation of the Hebrew scriptures, and some related texts, into Koine Greek, begun in Alexandria in the late third century BCE and completed by 132 BCE.[24][25][a] Probably commissioned by Ptolemy II Philadelphus, King of Egypt, it addressed the need of the primarily Greek-speaking Jews of the Graeco-Roman diaspora.[24][26] Existing complete copies of the Septuagint date from the third to the fifth centuries CE, with fragments dating back to the second century BCE. [27] Revision of its text began as far back as the first century BCE.[28] Fragments of the Septuagint were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls; portions of its text are also found on existing papyrus from Egypt dating to the second and first centuries BCE and to the first century CE.[28]: 5 

The Masoretes began developing what would become the authoritative Hebrew and Aramaic text of the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible in Rabbinic Judaism near the end of the Talmudic period (c. 300–c. 500 CE), but the actual date is difficult to determine.[29][30][31] In the sixth and seventh centuries, three Jewish communities contributed systems for writing the precise letter-text, with its vocalization and accentuation known as the mas'sora (from which we derive the term "masoretic").[29] These early Masoretic scholars were based primarily in the Galilean cities of Tiberias and Jerusalem, and in Babylonia (modern Iraq). Those living in the Jewish community of Tiberias in ancient Galilee (c. 750–950), made scribal copies of the Hebrew Bible texts without a standard text, such as the Babylonian tradition had, to work from. The canonical pronunciation of the Hebrew Bible (called Tiberian Hebrew) that they developed, and many of the notes they made, therefore differed from the Babylonian.[32] These differences were resolved into a standard text called the Masoretic text in the ninth century.[33] The oldest complete copy still in existence is the Leningrad Codex dating to c. 1000 CE.[34]

The Samaritan Pentateuch is a version of the Torah maintained by the Samaritan community since antiquity, which was rediscovered by European scholars in the 17th century; its oldest existing copies date to c. 1100 CE.[35] Samaritans include only the Pentateuch (Torah) in their biblical canon.[36] They do not recognize divine authorship or inspiration in any other book in the Jewish Tanakh.[b] A Samaritan Book of Joshua partly based upon the Tanakh's Book of Joshua exists, but Samaritans regard it as a non-canonical secular historical chronicle.[37]

In the seventh century, the first codex form of the Hebrew Bible was produced. The codex is the forerunner of the modern book. Popularized by early Christians, it was made by folding a single sheet of papyrus in half, forming "pages". Assembling multiples of these folded pages together created a "book" that was more easily accessible and more portable than scrolls. In 1488, the first complete printed press version of the Hebrew Bible was produced.[38]

New Testament

Saint Paul Writing His Epistles, c. 1619 painting by Valentin de Boulogne

During the rise of Christianity in the first century CE, new scriptures were written in Koine Greek. Christians called these new scriptures the "New Testament", and began referring to the Septuagint as the "Old Testament".[39] The New Testament has been preserved in more manuscripts than any other ancient work.[40][41] Most early Christian copyists were not trained scribes.[42] Many copies of the gospels and Paul's letters were made by individual Christians over a relatively short period of time very soon after the originals were written.[43] There is evidence in the Synoptic Gospels, in the writings of the early church fathers, from Marcion, and in the Didache that Christian documents were in circulation before the end of the first century.[44][45] Paul's letters were circulated during his lifetime, and his death is thought to have occurred before 68 during Nero's reign.[46][47] Early Christians transported these writings around the Empire, translating them into Old Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, and Latin, among other languages.[48]

Bart Ehrman explains how these multiple texts later became grouped by scholars into categories:

during the early centuries of the church, Christian texts were copied in whatever location they were written or taken to. Since texts were copied locally, it is no surprise that different localities developed different kinds of textual tradition. That is to say, the manuscripts in Rome had many of the same errors, because they were for the most part "in-house" documents, copied from one another; they were not influenced much by manuscripts being copied in Palestine; and those in Palestine took on their own characteristics, which were not the same as those found in a place like Alexandria, Egypt. Moreover, in the early centuries of the church, some locales had better scribes than others. Modern scholars have come to recognize that the scribes in Alexandria – which was a major intellectual center in the ancient world – were particularly scrupulous, even in these early centuries, and that there, in Alexandria, a very pure form of the text of the early Christian writings was preserved, decade after decade, by dedicated and relatively skilled Christian scribes.[49]

These differing histories produced what modern scholars refer to as recognizable "text types". The four most commonly recognized are Alexandrian, Western, Caesarean, and Byzantine.[50]

The Rylands fragment P52 verso is the oldest existing fragment of New Testament papyrus.[51] It contains phrases from the 18th chapter of the Gospel of John.

The list of books included in the Catholic Bible was established as canon by the Council of Rome in 382, followed by those of Hippo in 393 and Carthage in 397. Between 385 and 405 CE, the early Christian church translated its canon into Vulgar Latin (the common Latin spoken by ordinary people), a translation known as the Vulgate.[52] Since then, Catholic Christians have held ecumenical councils to standardize their biblical canon. The Council of Trent (1545–63), held by the Catholic Church in response to the Protestant Reformation, authorized the Vulgate as its official Latin translation of the Bible.[53] A number of biblical canons have since evolved. Christian biblical canons range from the 73 books of the Catholic Church canon, and the 66-book canon of most Protestant denominations, to the 81 books of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church canon, among others.[54] Judaism has long accepted a single authoritative text, whereas Christianity has never had an official version, instead having many different manuscript traditions.[55]

Variants

All biblical texts were treated with reverence and care by those that copied them, yet there are transmission errors, called variants, in all biblical manuscripts.[56][57] A variant is any deviation between two texts. Textual critic Daniel B. Wallace explains that "Each deviation counts as one variant, regardless of how many MSS [manuscripts] attest to it."[58] Hebrew scholar Emanuel Tov says the term is not evaluative; it is a recognition that the paths of development of different texts have separated.[59]

Medieval handwritten manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible were considered extremely precise: the most authoritative documents from which to copy other texts.[60] Even so, David Carr asserts that Hebrew texts still contain some variants.[61] The majority of all variants are accidental, such as spelling errors, but some changes were intentional.[62] In the Hebrew text, "memory variants" are generally accidental differences evidenced by such things as the shift in word order found in 1 Chronicles 17:24 and 2 Samuel 10:9 and 13. Variants also include the substitution of lexical equivalents, semantic and grammar differences, and larger scale shifts in order, with some major revisions of the Masoretic texts that must have been intentional.[63]

Intentional changes in New Testament texts were made to improve grammar, eliminate discrepancies, harmonize parallel passages, combine and simplify multiple variant readings into one, and for theological reasons.[62][64] Bruce K. Waltke observes that one variant for every ten words was noted in the recent critical edition of the Hebrew Bible, the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, leaving 90% of the Hebrew text without variation. The fourth edition of the United Bible Society's Greek New Testament notes variants affecting about 500 out of 6900 words, or about 7% of the text.[65]

Further information: Textual variants in the Hebrew Bible and Textual variants in the New Testament

Content and themes

Themes

Further information: Ethics in the Bible, Jewish ethics, and Christian ethics

Creation of Light, by Gustave Doré.

The narratives, laws, wisdom sayings, parables, and unique genres of the Bible provide opportunity for discussion on most topics of concern to human beings: The role of women,[66]: 203  sex,[67] children, marriage,[68] neighbors,[69]: 24  friends, the nature of authority and the sharing of power,[70]: 45–48  animals, trees and nature,[71]: xi  money and economics,[72]: 77  work, relationships,[73] sorrow and despair and the nature of joy, among others.[74] Philosopher and ethicist Jaco Gericke adds: "The meaning of good and evil, the nature of right and wrong, criteria for moral discernment, valid sources of morality, the origin and acquisition of moral beliefs, the ontological status of moral norms, moral authority, cultural pluralism, [as well as] axiological and aesthetic assumptions about the nature of value and beauty. These are all implicit in the texts."[75]

However, discerning the themes of some biblical texts can be problematic.[76] Much of the Bible is in narrative form and in general, biblical narrative refrains from any kind of direct instruction, and in some texts the author's intent is not easy to decipher.[77] It is left to the reader to determine good and bad, right and wrong, and the path to understanding and practice is rarely straightforward.[78] God is sometimes portrayed as having a role in the plot, but more often there is little about God's reaction to events, and no mention at all of approval or disapproval of what the characters have done or failed to do.[79] The writer makes no comment, and the reader is left to infer what they will.[79] Jewish philosophers Shalom Carmy and David Schatz explain that the Bible "often juxtaposes contradictory ideas, without explanation or apology".[80]

The Hebrew Bible contains assumptions about the nature of knowledge, belief, truth, interpretation, understanding and cognitive processes.[81] Ethicist Michael V. Fox writes that the primary axiom of the book of Proverbs is that "the exercise of the human mind is the necessary and sufficient condition of right and successful behavior in all reaches of life".[82] The Bible teaches the nature of valid arguments, the nature and power of language, and its relation to reality.[75] According to Mittleman, the Bible provides patterns of moral reasoning that focus on conduct and character.[83][84]

In the biblical metaphysic, humans have free will, but it is a relative and restricted freedom.[85] Beach says that Christian voluntarism points to the will as the core of the self, and that within human nature, "the core of who we are is defined by what we love".[86] Natural law is in the Wisdom literature, the Prophets, Romans 1, Acts 17, and the book of Amos (Amos 1:3–2:5), where nations other than Israel are held accountable for their ethical decisions even though they don't know the Hebrew god.[87] Political theorist Michael Walzer finds politics in the Hebrew Bible in covenant, law, and prophecy, which constitute an early form of almost democratic political ethics.[88] Key elements in biblical criminal justice begin with the belief in God as the source of justice and the judge of all, including those administering justice on earth.[89]

Carmy and Schatz say the Bible "depicts the character of God, presents an account of creation, posits a metaphysics of divine providence and divine intervention, suggests a basis for morality, discusses many features of human nature, and frequently poses the notorious conundrum of how God can allow evil."[90]

Hebrew Bible

Further information: Hebrew Bible and Development of the Hebrew Bible canonTanakh

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The authoritative Hebrew Bible is taken from the masoretic text (called the Leningrad Codex) which dates from 1008. The Hebrew Bible can therefore sometimes be referred to as the Masoretic Text.[91]

The Hebrew Bible is also known by the name Tanakh (Hebrew: תנ"ך‎). This reflects the threefold division of the Hebrew scriptures, Torah ("Teaching"), Nevi'im ("Prophets") and Ketuvim ("Writings") by using the first letters of each word.[92] It is not until the Babylonian Talmud (c. 550 BCE) that a listing of the contents of these three divisions of scripture are found.[93]

The Tanakh was mainly written in Biblical Hebrew, with some small portions (Ezra 4:8–6:18 and 7:12–26, Jeremiah 10:11, Daniel 2:4–7:28)[94] written in Biblical Aramaic, a language which had become the lingua franca for much of the Semitic world.[95]

Torah

Main article: Torah

See also: Oral Torah

A Torah scroll recovered from Glockengasse Synagogue in Cologne.

The Torah (תּוֹרָה) is also known as the "Five Books of Moses" or the Pentateuch, meaning "five scroll-cases".[96] Traditionally these books were considered to have been dictated to Moses by God himself.[97][98] Since the 17th century, scholars have viewed the original sources as being the product of multiple anonymous authors while also allowing the possibility that Moses first assembled the separate sources.[99][100] There are a variety of hypotheses regarding when and how the Torah was composed,[101] but there is a general consensus that it took its final form during the reign of the Persian Achaemenid Empire (probably 450–350 BCE),[102][103] or perhaps in the early Hellenistic period (333–164 BCE).[104]

Samaritan Inscription containing portion of the Bible in nine lines of Hebrew text, currently housed in the British Museum

The Hebrew names of the books are derived from the first words in the respective texts. The Torah consists of the following five books:

Genesis, Beresheeth (בראשית)

Exodus, Shemot (שמות)

Leviticus, Vayikra (ויקרא)

Numbers, Bamidbar (במדבר)

Deuteronomy, Devarim (דברים)

The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of the creation (or ordering) of the world and the history of God's early relationship with humanity. The remaining thirty-nine chapters of Genesis provide an account of God's covenant with the biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (also called Israel) and Jacob's children, the "Children of Israel", especially Joseph. It tells of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home in the city of Ur, eventually to settle in the land of Canaan, and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt.

The remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of Moses, who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs. He leads the Children of Israel from slavery in ancient Egypt to the renewal of their covenant with God at Mount Sinai and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation was ready to enter the land of Canaan. The Torah ends with the death of Moses.[105]

The commandments in the Torah provide the basis for Jewish religious law. Tradition states that there are 613 commandments (taryag mitzvot).

Nevi'im

Main article: Nevi'imBooks of Nevi'im Former Prophets

Joshua

Judges

Samuel

Kings

Latter Prophets (major)

Isaiah

Jeremiah

Ezekiel

Latter Prophets (Twelve minor)

Hosea

Joel

Amos

Obadiah

Jonah

Micah

Nahum

Habakkuk

Zephaniah

Haggai

Zechariah

Malachi

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Nevi'im (Hebrew: נְבִיאִים, romanized: Nəḇî'îm, "Prophets") is the second main division of the Tanakh, between the Torah and Ketuvim. It contains two sub-groups, the Former Prophets (Nevi'im Rishonim נביאים ראשונים, the narrative books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings) and the Latter Prophets (Nevi'im Aharonim נביאים אחרונים, the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel and the Twelve Minor Prophets).

The Nevi'im tell a story of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy and its division into two kingdoms, the Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah, focusing on conflicts between the Israelites and other nations, and conflicts among Israelites, specifically, struggles between believers in "the LORD God"[106] (Yahweh) and believers in foreign gods,[c][d] and the criticism of unethical and unjust behaviour of Israelite elites and rulers;[e][f][g] in which prophets played a crucial and leading role. It ends with the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by the Neo-Assyrian Empire, followed by the conquest of the Kingdom of Judah by the neo-Babylonian Empire and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem.

Former Prophets

The Former Prophets are the books Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings. They contain narratives that begin immediately after the death of Moses with the divine appointment of Joshua as his successor, who then leads the people of Israel into the Promised Land, and end with the release from imprisonment of the last king of Judah. Treating Samuel and Kings as single books, they cover:

Joshua's conquest of the land of Canaan (in the Book of Joshua),

the struggle of the people to possess the land (in the Book of Judges),

the people's request to God to give them a king so that they can occupy the land in the face of their enemies (in the Books of Samuel)

the possession of the land under the divinely appointed kings of the House of David, ending in conquest and foreign exile (Books of Kings)

Latter Prophets

Further information: Major prophet

The Latter Prophets are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the Twelve Minor Prophets, counted as a single book.

Hosea, Hoshea (הושע) denounces the worship of gods other than Yehovah, comparing Israel to a woman being unfaithful to her husband.

Joel, Yoel (יואל) includes a lament and a promise from God.

Amos, Amos (עמוס) speaks of social justice, providing a basis for natural law by applying it to unbelievers and believers alike.

Obadiah, Ovadyah (עבדיה) addresses the judgment of Edom and restoration of Israel.

Jonah, Yonah (יונה) tells of a reluctant redemption of Ninevah.

Micah, Mikhah (מיכה) reproaches unjust leaders, defends the rights of the poor, and looks forward to world peace.

Nahum, Nahum (נחום) speaks of the destruction of Nineveh.

Habakkuk, Havakuk (חבקוק) upholds trust in God over Babylon.

Zephaniah, Tsefanya (צפניה) pronounces coming of judgment, survival and triumph of remnant.

Haggai, Khagay (חגי) rebuild Second Temple.

Zechariah, Zekharyah (זכריה) God blesses those who repent and are pure.

Malachi, Malakhi (מלאכי) corrects lax religious and social behaviour.

Ketuvim

Hebrew text of Psalm 1:1–2

Main articles: Ketuvim and Poetic BooksBooks of the Ketuvim Three poetic books

Psalms

Proverbs

Job

Five Megillot (Scrolls)

Song of Songs

Ruth

Lamentations

Ecclesiastes

Esther

Other books

Daniel

Ezra–Nehemiah (Ezra

Nehemiah)

Chronicles

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Ketuvim or Kəṯûḇîm (in Biblical Hebrew: כְּתוּבִים "writings") is the third and final section of the Tanakh. The Ketuvim are believed to have been written under the inspiration of Ruach HaKodesh (the Holy Spirit) but with one level less authority than that of prophecy.[107]

In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special two-column form emphasizing their internal parallelism, which was found early in the study of Hebrew poetry. "Stichs" are the lines that make up a verse "the parts of which lie parallel as to form and content".[108] Collectively, these three books are known as Sifrei Emet (an acronym of the titles in Hebrew, איוב, משלי, תהלים yields Emet אמ"ת, which is also the Hebrew for "truth"). Hebrew cantillation is the manner of chanting ritual readings as they are written and notated in the Masoretic Text of the Bible. Psalms, Job and Proverbs form a group with a "special system" of accenting used only in these three books.[109]

The five scrolls

Further information: Five Megillot

Song of Songs (Das Hohelied Salomos), No. 11 by Egon Tschirch, 1923

The five relatively short books of Song of Songs, Book of Ruth, the Book of Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Book of Esther are collectively known as the Hamesh Megillot. These are the latest books collected and designated as "authoritative" in the Jewish canon even though they were not complete until the second century CE.[110]

Other books

The books of Esther, Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah[h] and Chronicles share a distinctive style that no other Hebrew literary text, biblical or extra-biblical, shares.[111] They were not written in the normal style of Hebrew of the post-exilic period. The authors of these books must have chosen to write in their own distinctive style for unknown reasons.[112]

Their narratives all openly describe relatively late events (i.e., the Babylonian captivity and the subsequent restoration of Zion).

The Talmudic tradition ascribes late authorship to all of them.

Two of them (Daniel and Ezra) are the only books in the Tanakh with significant portions in Aramaic.

Book order

The following list presents the books of Ketuvim in the order they appear in most current printed editions.

Tehillim (Psalms) תְהִלִּים is an anthology of individual Hebrew religious hymns.

Mishlei (Book of Proverbs) מִשְלֵי is a "collection of collections" on values, moral behavior, the meaning of life and right conduct, and its basis in faith.

Iyyôbh (Book of Job) אִיּוֹב is about faith, without understanding or justifying suffering.

Shīr Hashshīrīm (Song of Songs) or (Song of Solomon) שִׁיר הַשִׁירִים (Passover) is poetry about love and sex.

Rūth (Book of Ruth) רוּת (Shābhû‘ôth) tells of the Moabite woman Ruth, who decides to follow the God of the Israelites, and remains loyal to her mother-in-law, who is then rewarded.

Eikhah (Lamentations) איכה (Ninth of Av) [Also called Kinnot in Hebrew.] is a collection of poetic laments for the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE.

Qōheleth (Ecclesiastes) קהלת (Sukkôth) contains wisdom sayings disagreed over by scholars. Is it positive and life-affirming, or deeply pessimistic?

Estēr (Book of Esther) אֶסְתֵר (Pûrîm) tells of a Hebrew woman in Persia who becomes queen and thwarts a genocide of her people.

Dānî’ēl (Book of Daniel) דָּנִיֵּאל combines prophecy and eschatology (end times) in story of God saving Daniel just as He will save Israel.

‘Ezrā (Book of Ezra–Book of Nehemiah) עזרא tells of rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile.

Divrei ha-Yamim (Chronicles) דברי הימים contains genealogy.

The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. The Babylonian Talmud (Bava Batra 14b–15a) gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles.[113]

One of the large scale differences between the Babylonian and the Tiberian biblical traditions is the order of the books. Isaiah is placed after Ezekiel in the Babylonian, while Chronicles opens the Ketuvim in the Tiberian, and closes it in the Babylonian.[114]

The Ketuvim is the last of the three portions of the Tanakh to have been accepted as canonical. While the Torah may have been considered canon by Israel as early as the fifth century BCE and the Former and Latter Prophets were canonized by the second century BCE, the Ketuvim was not a fixed canon until the second century CE.[110]

Evidence suggests, however, that the people of Israel were adding what would become the Ketuvim to their holy literature shortly after the canonization of the prophets. As early as 132 BCE references suggest that the Ketuvim was starting to take shape, although it lacked a formal title.[115] Against Apion, the writing of Josephus in 95 CE, treated the text of the Hebrew Bible as a closed canon to which "... no one has ventured either to add, or to remove, or to alter a syllable..."[116] For an extended period after 95CE, the divine inspiration of Esther, the Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes was often under scrutiny.[117]

The Isaiah scroll, which is a part of the Dead Sea Scrolls, contains almost the whole Book of Isaiah. It dates from the second century BCE.

Septuagint

Main articles: Septuagint and Jewish apocrypha

See also: Deuterocanonical books and Biblical apocrypha

Fragment of a Septuagint: A column of uncial book from 1 Esdras in the Codex Vaticanus c. 325–350 CE, the basis of Sir Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton's Greek edition and English translation.

The Septuagint ("the Translation of the Seventy", also called "the LXX"), is a Koine Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible begun in the late third century BCE.

As the work of translation progressed, the Septuagint expanded: the collection of prophetic writings had various hagiographical works incorporated into it. In addition, some newer books such as the Books of the Maccabees and the Wisdom of Sirach were added. These are among the "apocryphal" books, (books whose authenticity is doubted). The inclusion of these texts, and the claim of some mistranslations, contributed to the Septuagint being seen as a "careless" translation and its eventual rejection as a valid Jewish scriptural text.[118][119][i]

The apocrypha are Jewish literature, mostly of the Second Temple period (c. 550 BCE – 70 CE); they originated in Israel, Syria, Egypt or Persia; were originally written in Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek, and attempt to tell of biblical characters and themes.[121] Their provenance is obscure. One older theory of where they came from asserted that an "Alexandrian" canon had been accepted among the Greek-speaking Jews living there, but that theory has since been abandoned.[122] Indications are that they were not accepted when the rest of the Hebrew canon was.[122] It is clear the Apocrypha were used in New Testament times, but "they are never quoted as Scripture."[123] In modern Judaism, none of the apocryphal books are accepted as authentic and are therefore excluded from the canon. However, "the Ethiopian Jews, who are sometimes called Falashas, have an expanded canon, which includes some Apocryphal books".[124]

The contents page in a complete 80 book King James Bible, listing "The Books of the Old Testament", "The Books called Apocrypha", and "The Books of the New Testament".

The rabbis also wanted to distinguish their tradition from the newly emerging tradition of Christianity.[a][j] Finally, the rabbis claimed a divine authority for the Hebrew language, in contrast to Aramaic or Greek – even though these languages were the lingua franca of Jews during this period (and Aramaic would eventually be given the status of a sacred language comparable to Hebrew).[k]

Incorporations from Theodotion

The Book of Daniel is preserved in the 12-chapter Masoretic Text and in two longer Greek versions, the original Septuagint version, c. 100 BCE, and the later Theodotion version from c. second century CE. Both Greek texts contain three additions to Daniel: The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children; the story of Susannah and the Elders; and the story of Bel and the Dragon. Theodotion's translation was so widely copied in the Early Christian church that its version of the Book of Daniel virtually superseded the Septuagint's. The priest Jerome, in his preface to Daniel (407 CE), records the rejection of the Septuagint version of that book in Christian usage: "I ... wish to emphasize to the reader the fact that it was not according to the Septuagint version but according to the version of Theodotion himself that the churches publicly read Daniel."[125] Jerome's preface also mentions that the Hexapla had notations in it, indicating several major differences in content between the Theodotion Daniel and the earlier versions in Greek and Hebrew.

Theodotion's Daniel is closer to the surviving Hebrew Masoretic Text version, the text which is the basis for most modern translations. Theodotion's Daniel is also the one embodied in the authorised edition of the Septuagint published by Sixtus V in 1587.[126]

Final form

Further information: Deuterocanonical books and Biblical apocrypha

Textual critics are now debating how to reconcile the earlier view of the Septuagint as 'careless' with content from the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran, scrolls discovered at Wadi Murabba'at, Nahal Hever, and those discovered at Masada. These scrolls are 1000–1300 years older than the Leningrad text, dated to 1008 CE, which forms the basis of the Masoretic text.[127] The scrolls have confirmed much of the Masoretic text, but they have also differed from it, and many of those differences agree with the Septuagint, the Samaritan Pentateuch or the Greek Old Testament instead.[118]

Copies of some texts later declared apocryphal are also among the Qumran texts.[122] Ancient manuscripts of the book of Sirach, the "Psalms of Joshua", Tobit, and the Epistle of Jeremiah are now known to have existed in a Hebrew version.[128] The Septuagint version of some biblical books, such as the Book of Daniel and Book of Esther, are longer than those in the Jewish canon.[129] In the Septuagint, Jeremiah is shorter than in the Masoretic text, but a shortened Hebrew Jeremiah has been found at Qumran in cave 4.[118] The scrolls of Isaiah, Exodus, Jeremiah, Daniel and Samuel exhibit striking and important textual variants from the Masoretic text.[118] The Septuagint is now seen as a careful translation of a different Hebrew form or recension (revised addition of the text) of certain books, but debate on how best to characterize these varied texts is ongoing.[118]

Pseudepigraphal books

Main articles: Jewish apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha

See also: Authorship of the Bible

Pseudepigrapha are works whose authorship is wrongly attributed. A written work can be pseudepigraphical and not be a forgery, as forgeries are intentionally deceptive. With pseudepigrapha, authorship has been mistransmitted for any one of a number of reasons.[130]

Apocryphal and pseudepigraphic works are not the same. Apocrypha includes all the writings claiming to be sacred that are outside the canon because they are not accepted as authentically being what they claim to be. For example, the Gospel of Barnabas claims to be written by Barnabas the companion of the Apostle Paul, but both its manuscripts date from the Middle Ages. Pseudepigrapha is a literary category of all writings whether they are canonical or apocryphal. They may or may not be authentic in every sense except a misunderstood authorship.[130]

The term "pseudepigrapha" is commonly used to describe numerous works of Jewish religious literature written from about 300 BCE to 300 CE. Not all of these works are actually pseudepigraphical. (It also refers to books of the New Testament canon whose authorship is questioned.) The Old Testament pseudepigraphal works include the following:[131]

3 Maccabees

4 Maccabees

Assumption of Moses

Ethiopic Book of Enoch (1 Enoch)

Slavonic Book of Enoch (2 Enoch)

Hebrew Book of Enoch (3 Enoch) (also known as "The Revelation of Metatron" or "The Book of Rabbi Ishmael the High Priest")

Book of Jubilees

Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch (2 Baruch)

Letter of Aristeas (Letter to Philocrates regarding the translating of the Hebrew scriptures into Greek)

Life of Adam and Eve

Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah

Psalms of Solomon

Sibylline Oracles

Greek Apocalypse of Baruch (3 Baruch)

Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs

Book of Enoch

Notable pseudepigraphal works include the Books of Enoch such as 1 Enoch, 2 Enoch, which survives only in Old Slavonic, and 3 Enoch, surviving in Hebrew of the c. fifth century – c. sixth century CE. These are ancient Jewish religious works, traditionally ascribed to the prophet Enoch, the great-grandfather of the patriarch Noah. The fragment of Enoch found among the Qumran scrolls attest to it being an ancient work.[132] The older sections (mainly in the Book of the Watchers) are estimated to date from about 300 BCE, and the latest part (Book of Parables) was probably composed at the end of the first century BCE.[133]

Enoch is not part of the biblical canon used by most Jews, apart from Beta Israel. Most Christian denominations and traditions may accept the Books of Enoch as having some historical or theological interest or significance. Part of the Book of Enoch is quoted in the Epistle of Jude and the book of Hebrews (parts of the New Testament), but Christian denominations generally regard the Books of Enoch as non-canonical.[134] The exceptions to this view are the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.[132]

The Ethiopian Bible is not based on the Greek Bible, and the Ethiopian Church has a slightly different understanding of canon than other Christian traditions.[135] In Ethiopia, canon does not have the same degree of fixedness, (yet neither is it completely open).[135] Enoch has long been seen there as inspired scripture, but being scriptural and being canon are not always seen the same. The official Ethiopian canon has 81 books, but that number is reached in different ways with various lists of different books, and the book of Enoch is sometimes included and sometimes not.[135] Current evidence confirms Enoch as canonical in both Ethiopia and in Eritrea.[132]

Christian Bible

Main articles: Biblical canon and List of English Bible translations

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A Christian Bible is a set of books divided into the Old and New Testament that a Christian denomination has, at some point in their past or present, regarded as divinely inspired scripture by the holy spirit.[136] The Early Church primarily used the Septuagint, as it was written in Greek, the common tongue of the day, or they used the Targums among Aramaic speakers. Modern English translations of the Old Testament section of the Christian Bible are based on the Masoretic Text.[34] The Pauline epistles and the gospels were soon added, along with other writings, as the New Testament.[137]

Old Testament

Main article: Old Testament

Further information: Development of the Old Testament canon

The Old Testament has been important to the life of the Christian church from its earliest days. Bible scholar N.T. Wright says "Jesus himself was profoundly shaped by the scriptures."[138] Wright adds that the earliest Christians searched those same Hebrew scriptures in their effort to understand the earthly life of Jesus. They regarded the "holy writings" of the Israelites as necessary and instructive for the Christian, as seen from Paul's words to Timothy (2 Timothy 3:15), as pointing to the Messiah, and as having reached a climactic fulfillment in Jesus generating the "new covenant" prophesied by Jeremiah.[139]

The Protestant Old Testament of the twenty-first century has a 39-book canon – the number of books (although not the content) varies from the Jewish Tanakh only because of a different method of division. The term "Hebrew scriptures" is often used as being synonymous with the Protestant Old Testament, since the surviving scriptures in Hebrew include only those books.

However, the Roman Catholic Church recognizes 46 books as its Old Testament (45 if Jeremiah and Lamentations are counted as one),[140] and the Eastern Orthodox Churches recognize 6 additional books. These additions are also included in the Syriac versions of the Bible called the Peshitta and the Ethiopian Bible.[l][m][n]

Because the canon of Scripture is distinct for Jews, Orthodox Christians, Roman Catholics, and Protestants, the contents of each community's Apocrypha are unique, as is its usage of the term. For Jews, none of the apocryphal books are considered canonical. Catholics refer to this collection as "Deuterocanonical books" (second canon) and the Orthodox Church refers to them as "Anagignoskomena" (that which is read).[141] [o]

Books included in the Roman Catholic, Greek, and Slavonic Bibles are: Tobit, Judith, Greek Additions to Esther, the Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus), Baruch, the Letter of Jeremiah (also called the Baruch Chapter 6), the Greek Additions to Daniel, along with 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees.[142]

The Greek Orthodox Church, and the Slavonic churches (Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Poland, Ukraine, Russia, Serbia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia and Croatia) also add:[143]

3 Maccabees

1 Esdras (called 2 Esdras in the Slavonic canon)

Prayer of Manasseh

Psalm 151

2 Esdras (4 Ezra) and the Prayer of Manasseh are not in the Septuagint, and 2 Esdras does not exist in Greek, though it does exist in Latin. There is also 4 Maccabees which is only accepted as canonical in the Georgian Church. It is in an appendix to the Greek Orthodox Bible, and it is therefore sometimes included in collections of the Apocrypha.[144]

The Syriac Orthodox Church also includes:

Psalms 151–155

The Apocalypse of Baruch

The Letter of Baruch[145]

The Ethiopian Old Testament Canon uses Enoch and Jubilees (that only survived in Ge'ez), 1–3 Meqabyan, Greek Ezra and the Apocalypse of Ezra, and Psalm 151.[n][l]

The Revised Common Lectionary of the Lutheran Church, Moravian Church, Reformed Churches,��Anglican Church and Methodist Church uses the apocryphal books liturgically, with alternative Old Testament readings available.[p] Therefore, editions of the Bible intended for use in the Lutheran Church and Anglican Church include the fourteen books of the Apocrypha, many of which are the deuterocanonical books accepted by the Catholic Church, plus 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, which were in the Vulgate appendix.[147]

The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches use most of the books of the Septuagint, while Protestant churches usually do not. After the Protestant Reformation, many Protestant Bibles began to follow the Jewish canon and exclude the additional texts, which came to be called apocryphal. The Apocrypha are included under a separate heading in the King James Version of the Bible, the basis for the Revised Standard Version.[148]The Orthodox Old Testament[149][q]Greek-based nameConventional English nameLawΓένεσιςGénesisGenesisἜξοδοςÉxodosExodusΛευϊτικόνLeuitikónLeviticusἈριθμοίArithmoíNumbersΔευτερονόμιονDeuteronómionDeuteronomyHistoryἸησοῦς NαυῆIêsous NauêJoshuaΚριταίKritaíJudgesῬούθRoúthRuthΒασιλειῶν Αʹ[r]I ReignsI SamuelΒασιλειῶν ΒʹII ReignsII SamuelΒασιλειῶν ΓʹIII ReignsI KingsΒασιλειῶν ΔʹIV ReignsII KingsΠαραλειπομένων ΑʹI Paralipomenon[s]I ChroniclesΠαραλειπομένων ΒʹII ParalipomenonII ChroniclesἜσδρας ΑʹI Esdras1 EsdrasἜσδρας ΒʹII EsdrasEzra–NehemiahΤωβίτ[t]TobitTobit or TobiasἸουδίθIoudithJudithἘσθήρEstherEsther with additionsΜακκαβαίων ΑʹI Makkabaioi1 MaccabeesΜακκαβαίων ΒʹII Makkabaioi2 MaccabeesΜακκαβαίων ΓʹIII Makkabaioi3 MaccabeesWisdomΨαλμοίPsalmsPsalmsΨαλμός ΡΝΑʹPsalm 151Psalm 151Προσευχὴ ΜανάσσηPrayer of ManassehPrayer of ManassehἸώβIōbJobΠαροιμίαιProverbsProverbsἘκκλησιαστήςEkklesiastesEcclesiastesἎσμα ἈσμάτωνSong of SongsSong of Solomon or CanticlesΣοφία ΣαλoμῶντοςWisdom of SolomonWisdomΣοφία Ἰησοῦ ΣειράχWisdom of Jesus the son of SeirachSirach or EcclesiasticusΨαλμοί ΣαλoμῶντοςPsalms of SolomonPsalms of Solomon[u]ProphetsΔώδεκαThe TwelveMinor ProphetsὩσηέ ΑʹI. OsëeHoseaἈμώς ΒʹII. AmōsAmosΜιχαίας ΓʹIII. MichaiasMicahἸωήλ ΔʹIV. IoëlJoelὈβδίου Εʹ[v]V. ObdiasObadiahἸωνᾶς Ϛ'VI. IonasJonahΝαούμ ΖʹVII. NaoumNahumἈμβακούμ ΗʹVIII. AmbakumHabakkukΣοφονίας ΘʹIX. SophoniasZephaniahἈγγαῖος ΙʹX. AngaiosHaggaiΖαχαρίας ΙΑʹXI. ZachariasZachariahἌγγελος ΙΒʹXII. MessengerMalachiἨσαΐαςHesaiasIsaiahἹερεμίαςHieremiasJeremiahΒαρούχBaruchBaruchΘρῆνοιLamentationsLamentationsἘπιστολή ΙερεμίουEpistle of JeremiahLetter of JeremiahἸεζεκιήλIezekiêlEzekielΔανιήλDaniêlDaniel with additions

The bible wont save you from my foot going up your ass

[freebiblestudyhub]

Why is Matthew 17:21 Not Included?

The Bible is a compilation of diverse books, letters, and teachings that have been passed down through generations. While many parts of the New Testament are consistent across translations, certain verses, like Matthew 17:21, are conspicuously absent from some versions of the Bible. This absence raises important questions about the historical and theological reasons for its omission. Why is Matthew 17:21 not included in many modern Bible translations? Does its exclusion affect the meaning of the Gospel, and what does this say about how the Bible has been transmitted over the centuries?

In this article, we will explore the historical, textual, and theological reasons why Matthew 17:21 is not included in many translations of the Bible, what its original context may have been, and the broader implications for understanding the process of biblical transmission.

Matthew 17:21 and the Textual Issue

To understand why Matthew 17:21 is sometimes omitted, we must first look at the context of the verse itself. Matthew 17:21 is a verse that appears in some versions of the Gospel of Matthew, but not in others. It reads as follows in the King James Version (KJV):

"Howbeit this kind goeth not out but by prayer and fasting." (Matthew 17:21, KJV)

This verse is part of a larger passage in which Jesus' disciples are unable to cast out a demon from a boy who is possessed. When they ask Jesus why they could not perform the exorcism, Jesus responds with the famous words:

“Because of your unbelief…” (Matthew 17:20, KJV)

Then, in the KJV, Matthew 17:21 follows, with the added instruction that some demons can only be cast out through prayer and fasting.

However, this specific verse does not appear in most modern Bible translations, including the New International Version (NIV), the English Standard Version (ESV), and the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV), among others. The key question is: why is this the case?

The Role of Textual Criticism

The absence of Matthew 17:21 in many translations comes down to the field of textual criticism, which seeks to determine the most accurate and reliable text of the Bible based on the oldest and most complete manuscripts available. Textual critics study variations in ancient manuscripts to identify possible alterations, additions, and omissions.

Manuscript Evidence: The earliest Greek manuscripts of the Gospel of Matthew (such as Papyrus 37, Codex Sinaiticus, and Codex Vaticanus) do not include Matthew 17:21. These early manuscripts, which date back to the 4th and 5th centuries, are considered to be some of the most reliable and authoritative witnesses to the text of the New Testament. They are the primary sources that modern Bible translations rely on.

Later Manuscripts: However, later manuscripts, especially those produced in the Byzantine tradition, do include Matthew 17:21. These manuscripts, which were copied from earlier versions during the Middle Ages, contain a number of textual additions and variations, some of which were likely inserted over time by scribes who wanted to harmonize certain passages or provide clarification.

Textual Variants: The fact that Matthew 17:21 appears in some manuscripts but not in others is a prime example of a textual variant—a difference in wording or content found in different copies of the Bible. Textual critics examine these variants to determine which reading is most likely to reflect the original text of the New Testament. In this case, the majority of early manuscripts (and some key later manuscripts) do not contain Matthew 17:21, leading many scholars to conclude that this verse was likely a later addition.

Why Was Matthew 17:21 Added?

While we cannot be absolutely certain about the exact origin of Matthew 17:21, scholars have several theories as to why it might have been added to certain manuscripts of the Gospel.

1. Harmonization with Mark 9:29

One of the most plausible explanations is that Matthew 17:21 was added as a way to harmonize the Gospel of Matthew with the Gospel of Mark. In Mark 9:29, the parallel passage to Matthew 17:21, Jesus says:

“This kind can come out only by prayer.” (Mark 9:29, NIV)

The phrase "prayer and fasting" in Matthew 17:21 may have been introduced by scribes who were familiar with this verse in Mark and sought to add additional detail to the Matthew account, possibly in an effort to harmonize the two Gospels. The inclusion of "fasting" in Matthew 17:21 aligns more closely with other passages in the Gospels that emphasize the importance of fasting in spiritual disciplines (such as in Matthew 6:16-18).

2. Theological Considerations

Another possible reason for the addition of Matthew 17:21 could be theological. Early Christian communities were deeply concerned with the power of prayer and fasting as spiritual tools for overcoming evil forces. The idea that some spiritual battles required a more intense commitment to prayer and fasting was a theme that resonated with the early church.

The Role of Fasting: The combination of prayer and fasting as a means of spiritual preparation or warfare is a concept that appears in other parts of Scripture, particularly in the early church's practices. The inclusion of fasting in Matthew 17:21 may have been intended to provide a fuller teaching on how to confront spiritual challenges, especially in light of the growing influence of ascetic practices in some Christian communities.

3. Transmission and Scribe Variants

The addition of Matthew 17:21 may also be the result of the way texts were transmitted in antiquity. Scribes often sought to clarify or expand upon a passage they were copying, sometimes adding details that they believed would help readers better understand the text. The scribe who inserted Matthew 17:21 may have been influenced by the oral tradition or the liturgical practices of the time, which emphasized the importance of fasting alongside prayer.

Theological Implications of the Omission

While the absence of Matthew 17:21 from many modern translations may seem insignificant at first, it does have some theological implications. The omission of this verse does not change the core message of the passage—that faith in God can overcome even the most difficult challenges—but it does alter the focus on the role of prayer and fasting in spiritual warfare.

Prayer and Fasting as Spiritual Disciplines: The concept of prayer and fasting as a means of spiritual preparation and victory over evil is still supported by other parts of the Bible. For instance, in Matthew 6:16-18, Jesus teaches about fasting as a private act of devotion. Additionally, in the Gospel of Mark and other New Testament writings, prayer is emphasized as a means of accessing God's power and intervention.

Theological Emphasis: While Matthew 17:21 specifically mentions both prayer and fasting, the omission of fasting from the passage does not diminish the biblical teaching on these practices. Instead, it suggests that the early church recognized the importance of both prayer and fasting as distinct disciplines in their own right.

Conclusion: The Importance of Textual Integrity

The question of why Matthew 17:21 is not included in many translations of the Bible is a reflection of the broader discipline of textual criticism, which seeks to preserve the integrity of the biblical text. While the verse itself may not be included in all modern translations, its omission does not affect the core message of the Gospel. The presence or absence of Matthew 17:21 should not detract from the profound truths of the passage: that faith in Jesus can move mountains, and that prayer is a powerful tool in spiritual warfare.

Ultimately, the study of textual variants like Matthew 17:21 highlights the complex history of the Bible’s transmission, and serves as a reminder of the care and diligence involved in preserving the Word of God for future generations. Whether or not Matthew 17:21 is included, the overall message of the Gospel remains unchanged: that through faith in Jesus Christ, believers have access to divine power and victory over evil.

[garykrepak]

I recently made several posts and comments that echoed some life-long concerns of mine that have been partially satisfied.

I have only recently found a pool of people with very similar interests and unlike me. They have degrees from multiple distinguished universities and they have representative PhDs. They have spent their entire academic lives learning how to research and articulate and publish their findings on the subject. They often read and fluently speak several ancient languages of the near east. They seek out and study ancient texts and cultures and especially religions. They do this not in an effort to reinforce modern theological interpretations. But they seek to understand the intentions of the texts’ authors and to base their findings considering the wider historical contexts present upon their composition. They often encounter many ancient manuscripts of the same writings and they have to determine which of these are the earliest, most complete and least edited of them. They NEVER encounter manuscripts that are originals of the author. What they most often encounter are copies that are hundreds of years newer than the original compositions. This is especially true of both whole and fragmentary manuscripts of books that would later be included (or later excluded) in what would become the New Testament. In the last two to three hundred years, an incredible amount of ancient manuscripts have been discovered and/or made available for scholarly review and study.

The Torah, or Old Testament. Has its earliest manuscript examples in the form of Greek manuscripts and the recently discovered and translated fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Both, dating many centuries after the periods that the books were probably originally composed.

Because so many of their findings based upon objective scholarship have demonstrated a lack of harmony with the understanding of theologians that were basing their theology on less scientific information. These scholars are sometimes met with fervent opposition. This is not a new problem.

Some of the first European scribes to come back from reading early Greek scrolls, were actually murdered for publishing or even verbalizing their discoveries that ran counter to the interests of the church leaders of their time. Often, they did so at the behest of whatever King was funding their ministerial efforts of the time. They were political assassinations more than they were killed for committing actual heresy.

Today. The professional term for reviewing and more deeply understanding ancient texts and publishing the findings, is called Critical Scholarship.

They come from many countries, religious backgrounds and from varying academic disciplines. They do not seek to prove or disprove anything. They simply seek to understand what is available to be studied and to represent their translations absolutely as accurately as they can. Word for word. As one very prominent scholar puts it. “Data over Dogma”.

It isn’t their job to instill a spiritual interpretation on any given document. They are simply doing their best to make sure that the modern world has access to the literal words as they were intended to be read. Your spiritual interpretation is your personal prerogative. Religion, in its myriad of traditions, cultures and theology. Is there to guide you as to how they want you to interpret it based upon their preferences, spiritual interpretations, and their understandings.

Many of them will declare traditions of univocality and inerrancy and lack of contextual conflict and all manner of ways to elevate your spiritual perception and experience with whichever translation of the Canon they prefer. Some versions are based upon older manuscripts than others. Therefore some of the versions have some verses that differ from others. Or some may use various expressions of the English language than others. Oddly enough. The ones that used the oldest expression of English are based upon manuscripts that are hundreds of years newer than the source material used for more modern versions.

These paragraphs would have gotten me killed or excommunicated not all that long ago.

Because religious zealots are more interested in being in control than they ever were about carrying out the actual intended ministry of Jesus Christ. The most fascinating man that ever lived.

If you are going to call yourself a Christian. Then do as he did. Guide them to God rather than a religion, Feed the hungry, heal the sick, forgive sinners, demonstrate Grace, flip the tables of bankers, and show Love whenever possible no matter who they are, how they are dressed, what country they are from, and make apostles of women. Western Evangelicals like to ignore the fact that Jesus’ longest conversation in the Bible was him training woman to spread his Ministry.

This is probably the last time I am going to post about this subject. As I have my understanding of how I practice spirituality and I am not qualified to preach. All I could do is share some of my understanding for a minute, in hopes that it clicks with some.

Now. Go spread actual Love.

[mybeautifulchristianjourney]

The Great Commission

He said to them, “Go into all the world and preach the gospel to all creation.” — Mark 16:15 | Text-Critical English New Testament (TCENT) Text-Critical English New Testament an edition of the Byzantine (Majority) Greek text edited by Robinson and Pierpont Copyright © 2022 Robert Adam Boyd. Cross References: Matthew 28:19; Acts 1:2; Acts 1:8; Colossians 1:23

Read full chapter

A Closer Look at the Great Commission

[leonbloder]

Reading The Bible Critically

One of my seminary professors told us about a time when he guest-preached at a small, rural church as a favor for a friend.  

When he read the Scripture for his sermon, he used his Greek New Testament, which he translated directly from the original Greek. 

After the service, he was approached by several of the agitated church elders.  

"What version of the Bible were you reading from?" they angrily demanded.  "We only use the King James Version of the Bible in our church!" 

He patiently showed them his New Testament and explained that he translated it from the original language on the fly, but they were not mollified.  

One of them said, "If you ever preach here again, make sure you use the right interpretation."  

Of course, this begs the question, "What is the right interpretation of the Bible?"

I don't have the space in a Daily Devo to address that question entirely, but suffice it to say that whichever interpretation is closest to the ancient Hebrew and Greek languages from the original manuscripts is a safe bet. The problem with interpretations, in general, is that they are interpretations.  People are making editorial decisions about which variations in the ancient manuscripts (none of which are original, by the way) and codices that have been discovered to use as sources.  Then, there is the problem of Aramaic, which is the language that Jesus and his disciples would have spoken to each other.   For example, to better understand what Jesus may have said when he gave the disciples the Lord's Prayer, you would need to translate the Greek text into Aramaic and then back into English.   Biblical scholar Neil Douglas-Klotz did just that; see the result below.  The bold print is the traditional words, and the italicized are the words translated from Aramaic: 

As you can see, language matters.  The translation from Aramaic is full of nuances and an expanded understanding of the words that Jesus would have spoken to his disciples when they said to him, "Teach us to pray."  

So, why am I sharing all of this in a Devo?  

There are far too many Christians in our culture today who are fond of starting conversations about faith with the words, "The Bible says..."  Sadly, most of them never really read the Bible for all it's worth. 

If you want a translation of the Bible closest to the original Greek and Hebrew, get a copy of the New Revised Standard Bible.  There are editions of the NRSV that also have study guides. 

And if you want to read some great books on how to read the Bible critically, check out these: 

Peter Enns: "How The Bible Actually Works," and "The Bible Tells Me So"

Rob Bell: "What is the Bible?"

Rachel Held Evans: "Inspired" 

Various Authors: "The Bible And The Believer: How to Read The Bible Critically and Religiously" 

Marcus Borg: "Reading The Bible Again For the First Time" 

If you want a conversation partner in your journey or have questions about where to find more resources, feel free to contact me.  

May you discover more about the Bible than you ever knew, and may the grace and peace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you now and always. Amen.  

[blueheartbooks]

"The New Revelation: Arthur Conan Doyle's Visionary Quest into the Mysteries of the Beyond"

In "The New Revelation," Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, best known for his iconic detective tales, takes an audacious leap into the realm of the supernatural and spiritual exploration. Published in 1918, amidst the backdrop of World War I, Doyle's departure from the familiar terrain of Sherlock Holmes marks a profound shift in his literary endeavors. The narrative unfolds as a thought-provoking treatise on spiritualism, where Doyle invites readers on a journey beyond the veil of the tangible world. This visionary work is an earnest attempt to reconcile the mysteries of life, death, and the existence of an afterlife.

The author presents a compelling case for the existence of a new revelation, one that transcends traditional religious doctrines and offers a glimpse into the metaphysical. Drawing on personal experiences, anecdotes, and an array of paranormal phenomena, Doyle weaves a narrative that challenges conventional skepticism and beckons readers to consider the possibility of a divine connection. His exploration into automatic writing, mediumship, and encounters with spirits propels the reader into a realm where the boundaries between the corporeal and the ethereal blur.

Doyle's prose is impassioned, and his sincerity in grappling with profound existential questions is palpable. He engages with the subject matter not as a detached observer but as a seeker of truth, infusing the text with a sense of urgency and conviction. The narrative is not without its controversies, as Doyle confronts skepticism and critics head-on, defending his belief in spiritualism with unwavering resolve.

"The New Revelation" serves as a captivating intersection of spirituality, philosophy, and the unexplored corners of the human psyche. While the work may not be embraced universally, its impact lies in its ability to spark introspection and foster a dialogue about the mysteries that continue to elude our comprehension. Whether one approaches this text as a believer or a skeptic, Doyle's venture into the metaphysical is undeniably a testament to the versatility and intellectual curiosity of one of literature's most celebrated minds.

In conclusion, "The New Revelation" stands as a bold departure from the detective fiction that defined Arthur Conan Doyle's career. This foray into the unknown provides readers with a unique perspective on spirituality, challenging preconceived notions and beckoning them to contemplate the enigmatic aspects of existence. Doyle's exploration of the supernatural serves as a testament to the boundless curiosity of the human spirit and its ceaseless quest for understanding in the face of life's greatest mysteries.

"The New Revelation," by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle is available in Amazon in paperback 10.99$ and hardcover 17.99$ editions.

Number of pages: 103

Language: English

Rating: 8/10                                           

Link of the book!

Review By: King's Cat

[aimlayworldwide]

What is PhD thesis in English literature?

A PhD thesis in English literature represents the culmination of years of academic research and is a significant milestone in the life of any aspiring scholar. This lengthy and intricate document serves as a testament to the candidate's expertise, dedication, and contribution to the field of English literature. In this 1000-word essay, we will delve into the essence of a PhD thesis in English literature, its purpose, structure, and the journey that leads to its completion.

A PhD thesis in English literature is an extensive research project that aims to make a substantial and original contribution to the field. It is the final step in a doctoral candidate's academic journey, and it demonstrates their ability to conduct independent research, think critically, and engage with the existing body of literature. The thesis serves as a platform for scholars to explore, analyze, and advance the knowledge in their chosen area of interest within the realm of English literature.

Purpose of a PhD Thesis in English Literature

The purpose of a PhD thesis in English literature is multifaceted. First and foremost, it is a means for the candidate to showcase their expertise in the subject matter. This expertise is honed through years of rigorous study, coursework, and, most importantly, the extensive research conducted during the doctoral program. The thesis allows the candidate to demonstrate their mastery of the subject, including their understanding of literary theory, research methodologies, and critical analysis.

Furthermore, a PhD thesis is a contribution to the existing body of knowledge. It should offer fresh insights, innovative perspectives, and new interpretations of literary texts or themes. Scholars are encouraged to explore uncharted territories within the realm of English literature, shedding light on overlooked works, authors, or themes. In this way, a thesis adds to the ever-evolving discourse in the field.

Structure of a PhD Thesis in English literature

The structure of a PhD thesis in English literature typically follows a well-defined pattern. While there may be some variations depending on the university's guidelines and the candidate's specific focus, the following elements are generally included:

Introduction: This section provides an overview of the research topic, its significance, and the research questions the thesis aims to answer.

Literature Review: A comprehensive review of existing literature and scholarship related to the research topic. This section serves as the foundation for the candidate's research, demonstrating their knowledge of the field's current state.

Theoretical Framework: Here, the candidate outlines the theoretical framework that will guide their analysis and interpretation of the literary texts.

Methodology: A description of the research methods employed, including data collection, data analysis, and any other relevant procedures.

Chapters or Sections: The body of the thesis is composed of several chapters or sections, each addressing a specific aspect of the research topic. These chapters may include critical analysis, close readings of literary texts, and discussions of themes or motifs.

Conclusion: The final chapter summarizes the main findings, discusses their implications, and suggests avenues for future research.

Bibliography: A comprehensive list of all the sources, both primary and secondary, used in the research.

Appendices: Any additional materials, such as transcripts, questionnaires, or illustrations, are included in the appendices.

The journey towards completing a PhD thesis in English literature is arduous and demanding. It begins with the selection of a research topic, a process that can take considerable time and thought. Candidates must choose a topic that both excites their intellectual curiosity and offers a significant contribution to the field.

Once the topic is chosen, the candidate embarks on an extensive literature review, delving into existing research to identify gaps and opportunities for their own contribution. They formulate research questions and hypotheses, develop a research plan, and select the appropriate methodology for their study.

The data collection and analysis phase can take several years, as it involves reading and analyzing literary texts, conducting interviews or surveys, and critically engaging with the materials. This process demands a high level of dedication, as scholars must balance their research with other academic responsibilities, such as teaching, coursework, or publishing.

Throughout this journey, candidates often receive guidance and feedback from their advisors or supervisory committees, who help refine the research and ensure it aligns with the highest academic standards. The process culminates in the composition of the thesis, which can be a daunting task in itself.

In the end, the completion of a PhD thesis in English literature is a momentous achievement, reflecting not only the candidate's academic prowess but also their perseverance, critical thinking abilities, and contribution to the field. It is a testament to the vitality of the discipline and the enduring quest to uncover new insights and interpretations within the rich tapestry of English literature.

Conclusion

A PhD thesis in English literature is a significant undertaking that represents the culmination of years of rigorous study, research, and critical thinking. Its purpose is to showcase the candidate's expertise, contribute to the field's body of knowledge, and provide fresh perspectives on literary texts and themes. The structure of the thesis follows a standard pattern, with an introduction, literature review, theoretical framework, methodology, chapters, conclusion, bibliography, and appendices. The journey towards completing a thesis is a demanding one, requiring dedication, intellectual curiosity, and the guidance of mentors. Ultimately, the completion of a PhD thesis in English literature is a testament to the candidate's academic prowess and their enduring commitment to advancing the discipline.

[greatestloveinc]

The Truth about Tithes and Offerings

In the realm of religious and spiritual discussions, few topics are as widely debated and misunderstood as the concept of tithes and offerings. While some view them as essential acts of faith and obedience, others perceive them as financial burdens or manipulative tools used by religious institutions. To uncover the truth about tithes and offerings, it is essential to explore their historical, theological, and practical dimensions.

Understanding Tithes

Tithing, a practice with deep roots in religious traditions, typically involves giving a portion of one's income, often 10%, to a religious institution, such as a church or synagogue. The word "tithe" itself comes from the Old English word "teoþa," which means "tenth." The practice is primarily associated with Christianity and Judaism, though similar principles can be found in other faiths.

In the Judeo-Christian tradition, tithing has its origins in the Hebrew Bible. The Book of Leviticus prescribes the giving of one-tenth of agricultural produce and livestock as an offering to God. This was intended to support the religious institutions, the priesthood, and those in need. Many proponents of tithing argue that these principles are still relevant today, as a way to support the work of the church and help those less fortunate.

Offerings and Their Purpose

In addition to tithing, religious institutions often encourage congregants to make offerings. While tithing involves a specific percentage of one's income, offerings are typically freewill gifts, not limited to a specific amount. They are used to support various church activities, from maintaining the building and paying staff to funding charitable works and mission trips.

Offerings, unlike tithes, are not rigidly defined in religious texts. Instead, they are seen as expressions of gratitude and generosity. Many individuals feel a sense of fulfillment in giving above and beyond the tithe, as it allows them to actively participate in the growth and well-being of their faith community.

Theological Perspectives

The interpretation of tithes and offerings varies among different religious denominations and beliefs. Some argue that tithing is a divine command, while others see it as a matter of personal conviction. Critics often raise concerns about the misuse of funds, questioning the transparency of financial management within religious organizations.

Proponents of tithing often cite the New Testament to support their position. In the Book of Malachi, for example, there is a reference to God's promise to "open the windows of heaven" and "pour out a blessing" upon those who bring tithes into the storehouse. Many believers view tithing as an act of faith, trusting that God will provide when they obey this command.

However, some religious leaders emphasize the principle of cheerful giving, emphasizing the importance of offerings that come from the heart rather than a rigid 10% calculation. They argue that generosity should not be confined to a specific percentage but should be motivated by a genuine desire to help others and support the work of the church.

Practical Considerations

Beyond the theological aspects, the practicality of tithing and offering should also be acknowledged. It is essential to assess one's financial situation and make decisions that are responsible and sustainable. Some argue that blindly giving 10% of their income might lead to financial strain, especially for those facing economic hardships.

Therefore, individuals should approach tithing and offerings with wisdom and discernment, seeking to strike a balance between their faith-based giving and their financial well-being. This may involve discussions with religious leaders, financial advisors, and a consideration of individual circumstances.

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The English Bible that came from Germany - Reformation Day 2023

When tourists come to the city of Worms in Rhineland-Palatinate, a visit to the so-called "Luther Monument" is of course a "must". But the monument known as the "Luther Monument" is actually not an individual monument to the German reformer from Wittenberg, but a monument to the Reformation and its outstanding personalities per se. In addition to the figure of Luther, the world's largest Reformation monument also features the figures of the Italian Reformers Peter Waldus and Girolamo Savonarola, the English Reformer John Wycliff and the Czech Reformer John Huss.

The "Luther Memorial" ("Reformation Memorial") at the Obermarkt in Worms/Rhineland-Palatine - Picture: Immanuel Giel - Eigenes Werk, Gemeinfrei, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=10415428

Forgotten by the creators of the Worms Reformation Monument, however, were two very important figures in the history of the Reformation: the German Pre-Reformer Hans Denk (ca. 1500 - 1527) and the English Reformer William Tyndale (1494 - 1536). The work of these two men, who lived and worked in Worms for a time, would later achieve an international significance similar to that of Luther.

On the occasion of this year's Reformation Day, I would like to shine the spotlight on these two people:

"In Worms, Denck completed his best-known work, which he created together with Ludwig Hätzer: the Worms Prophets, named after the place where the first edition was printed. This is the first printed German translation of the prophetic books of the Old Testament according to the original Hebrew text. It was published on 13 April 1527 by the Worms printer Peter Schöffer the Younger and soon found wide circulation in numerous editions. The translators' motivation and objective were not only theological but also critical of power and society: against the background of the bloody suppression of the peasant uprisings in the Peasants' War and the incipient Anabaptist executions, the polemics of the Old Testament prophets against injustice and abuse of power took on a special topicality." (W) This makes Denk's translation of the Bible, which is unfortunately often forgotten, older than that of Martin Luther.

Title of the first German Translation of the Hebrew Prophets by Haetzer and Denk - Private collection of S. Whitehead, Gemeinfrei, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3048269

The second important figure sadly missing at the Worms Reformation Memorial is William Tyndale (1494 - 1536). Tyndale, an English tutor who had absorbed the teachings of the German Reformation, had to flee England in 1523 to escape persecution by the Roman Catholic Church and first found refuge in Wittenberg. There he translated the New Testament into English. Wittenberg thus became the starting point not only for the German Bible but also for the Bible in English, which later became the world language. This translation was then to be printed in Cologne in 1526. However, these efforts were betrayed and William Tyndale had to flee again. His next place of refuge was the small town of Worms on the Rhine, the place where Luther had delivered his remarkable defence speech before the Imperial Diet only a few years earlier. In this city, which can look back on a long Pre-Reformation history (see Hannes Denk), the New Testament was now also published in English. In the printing press of Peter Schöffer the Younger, 6000 copies of the New Testament were produced in English, which were then first brought across the Rhine to Belgium and from there smuggled to England and Scotland. In the course of persecution by the English government, Tyndal's translation was banned and most of the copies burned. Until now, only two copies were known to have escaped the book burning. It was only a few years ago that a third copy was discovered in the Landesbibliothek Stuttgart (click!).

"The Gospell off Sancte Jhon - The fyrst chapter" - Title of William Tyndales Bible Translation printed in Worms/Rhineland-Palatine by Peter Schöffer (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17912989)

The official Homepage of the City of Worms writes (translation mine):

"Unlike Wyclif, who had already translated the Bible into English about 150 years earlier, Tyndale's New Testament, like Luther's translation, is based on the original Greek text - not the Latin translation of the Church Father Jerome (Vulgate) authorised by the Catholic Church. Moreover, Wyclif did not yet have the printing press at his disposal to distribute his translation.

The Worms edition, like its Antwerp pirate print, was smuggled to England and found wide circulation among the people. The Church, with the support of Henry VIII, who at this time was not yet in conflict with Rome, pursued the possession of this printed edition of the Bible. On 8 May 2009, the City Library received a reproduction of William Tyndale's "New Testament" from a delegation from Worms' twin city St. Albans (Great Britain).

Most copies ended up at the stake in England - as did the translator himself in 1536, who had been imprisoned near Brussels in 1535 on the king's orders.

Only three copies of the New Testament have survived: One fragment is held by the library of St Paul's Cathedral in London, and an (almost) complete one was acquired by the British Library from the holdings of Bristol Baptist College in the late 1990s for over £1 million. The facsimile that was presented to the Worms City Library at the beginning of May 2009 is based on this copy.

Shortly after the spectacular purchase by the British Library, the third copy was rediscovered in the Württemberg State Library, which also includes the title page and is thus the only complete copy that has survived.

Since the printer is not named in the "New Testament", there are only two sure indications of its origin in Peter Schöffer's workshop: In his report to Cardinal Wolsey, Thomas More and Henry VIII about the ban on Tyndale's Bible printing in Cologne, Johannes Cochlaeus mentions that Tyndale had moved on to Worms with a companion. The Stuttgart title page provides another clue: Schöffer used the same woodcut title for two other prints from his workshop.

The location of the printing workshop of Schöffer, who was the first printer to work in Worms for only a few years (1518-1529), was previously unknown. According to the latest research, it can now be regarded as certain: Peter Schöffer the Younger's printing shop, where the New Testament was printed, was located in the Meielburg in the northern suburb at the Mainzer Tor (later location of the Eulenburg; today: location of the DRK Alten- und Pflegeheim / Seniorenzentrum Eulenburg on Mainzer Straße - Eulenburgstraße 2, 67547 Worms)."