#Metallo-organic Compounds Production

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Top 15 Market Players in Global Metallo-organic Compounds Market

Top 15 Market Players in Global Metallo-organic Compounds Market

The global metallo-organic compounds market is witnessing significant growth due to its applications in advanced materials, catalysis, electronics, and coatings. Industry leaders are focusing on innovation, sustainability, and regional expansion to stay competitive. Below are the top 15 players shaping the global metallo-organic compounds market:

Alfa Aesar (Thermo Fisher Scientific) A renowned supplier of high-purity chemicals, Alfa Aesar provides a comprehensive range of metallo-organic compounds for academic and industrial R&D.

Merck KGaA Merck specializes in precision chemicals, offering high-quality metallo-organic compounds for semiconductor and pharmaceutical applications.

Strem Chemicals, Inc. Strem Chemicals focuses on specialty chemicals, offering a broad portfolio of metallo-organic compounds for catalytic and advanced material research.

American Elements With a strong global presence, American Elements delivers tailored solutions in metallo-organic compounds for electronics, energy storage, and nanotechnology.

Gelest, Inc. Gelest provides innovative metallo-organic compounds, especially in surface treatments, coatings, and electronic materials.

Sigma-Aldrich (Merck Group) Sigma-Aldrich offers a diverse range of metallo-organic products, emphasizing innovation for pharmaceuticals and advanced material sciences.

Tokyo Chemical Industry Co., Ltd. (TCI) TCI is known for its high-quality metallo-organic compounds, meeting the demands of academia, biotechnology, and electronics.

BASF SE A leader in chemicals and materials, BASF develops metallo-organic compounds with a focus on sustainability and industrial scalability.

Evonik Industries AG Evonik leverages its expertise in specialty chemicals to provide tailored metallo-organic solutions for catalysis and coatings applications.

Umicore N.V. Umicore specializes in high-performance materials, offering metallo-organic compounds for energy, electronics, and catalytic applications.

Johnson Matthey A leader in sustainable technologies, Johnson Matthey focuses on metallo-organic compounds for automotive catalysts and pharmaceutical manufacturing.

Heraeus Holding GmbH Heraeus provides advanced metallo-organic solutions for electronics, including conductive inks and semiconductor materials.

Materion Corporation Materion specializes in performance materials, offering metallo-organic compounds for aerospace, energy, and electronic applications.

Dongyang Tianyu Chemicals Co., Ltd. A prominent player in the Asian market, Tianyu Chemicals focuses on cost-efficient metallo-organic compounds for industrial applications.

Chemtura Corporation (Lanxess) Chemtura, now part of Lanxess, offers specialty metallo-organic compounds for coatings, adhesives, and polymer additives.

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Top Winning Strategies in Metallo-organic Compounds Market

To remain competitive, players in the metallo-organic compounds market are implementing strategies that address technological advancements, environmental concerns, and customer-specific requirements. Key winning strategies include:

Focus on R&D and Innovation Leading companies are investing heavily in research to develop innovative metallo-organic compounds tailored for emerging applications like OLEDs, photovoltaics, and next-generation catalysts.

Sustainability and Green Chemistry There is an increasing shift towards developing eco-friendly metallo-organic compounds by minimizing hazardous waste and focusing on recyclable raw materials.

Expansion into Emerging Markets Companies are targeting high-growth regions like Asia-Pacific, Latin America, and the Middle East to capitalize on industrial and technological advancements in these areas.

Strategic Partnerships and Collaborations Collaborations with academic institutions and industry partners are enabling players to accelerate innovation and expand their product portfolios.

Vertical Integration By controlling supply chains and integrating upstream and downstream operations, companies are achieving cost efficiencies and ensuring a steady supply of raw materials.

Customization and Client-Centric Approach Tailoring metallo-organic compounds to meet specific customer needs, such as unique formulations for pharmaceuticals or advanced electronics, has become a critical differentiator.

Adoption of Advanced Manufacturing Technologies Automation, artificial intelligence, and precision manufacturing are being adopted to improve product quality and optimize production processes.

Regulatory Compliance and Certification Compliance with stringent global regulations is becoming a priority, with companies obtaining certifications that demonstrate their commitment to quality and sustainability.

Digital Transformation Digital tools, including big data analytics and real-time monitoring, are being used to enhance operational efficiency and predict market trends.

Diverse Product Offerings Expanding product lines to include metallo-organic compounds for multiple industries, such as electronics, automotive, and coatings, helps capture a wider customer base.

Competitive Pricing Optimizing manufacturing costs and offering competitive pricing without compromising quality is a key strategy for players in price-sensitive markets.

Enhanced Supply Chain Management Companies are strengthening their supply chain networks to ensure timely delivery and meet the growing demand for metallo-organic compounds globally.

Brand Building and Marketing Strong branding and targeted marketing campaigns are helping companies enhance their visibility and attract a larger customer base.

Merger and Acquisition Activities Strategic acquisitions and mergers are enabling companies to gain technological expertise, expand their product portfolios, and enter new markets.

Development of Multi-Functional Products The development of multi-functional metallo-organic compounds capable of addressing diverse applications is a growing trend among leading manufacturers.

By adopting these strategies, companies in the metallo-organic compounds market can strengthen their market position and cater to the evolving needs of diverse industries.

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[juniperpublishers-sciences]

Effect of Nickel Chloride on the Growth and Biochemical Characteristics of Phaseolus Mungol-Juniper Publishers

Abstract

The effect of heavy metal nickel chloride on germination, growth and biochemical parameters of Phaseolusmungo L. was studied. Application of various concentrations from 3mM to 15mM decreased the percentage of growth, pigment content and increased the content of amino acid and proline. It was found to be decreased when compared to the respective control grown with nutrient medium. The present study demonstrated that the heavy metal nickel had adversely affected the growth and biochemical parameters of the plant Phaseolusmungo L.

Keywords: Germination; Biochemical paramters; Heavy metal

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Introduction

The accumulation of heavy metal in soil is becoming a serious problem as a result of industrial and agricultural practices and also a major cause for pollution today. Fertilizers from sewage sludge, mining waste and paper mills all contribute to the continuous deposition of heavy metals into soils. Another point of concern is the effect of leaching on these contaminated sites which in turn contaminate water tables [1]. Living organisms require a trace amount of some heavy metals which include copper (Cu), iron (Fe), nickel (Ni) and zinc (Zn) and are often referred to as essential elements [2]. However there are some non-essential heavy metals which are of great concern due to their presence in areas of heavy metal pollution such as chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg) and lead (Pb) [3]. The capacity of plants to concentrate metals has usually been considered a detrimental trait since some plants are directly or indirectly responsible for a proportion of the dietary uptake of toxic heavy metals by humans [4]. The dietary intake of heavy metals through consumption of contaminated crop plants can have long-term effects on human health [5].

Heavy metals are defined as metal with density higher than 5gcm3. Fifty three of the ninety naturally occurring elements are heavy metals and these are metallic elements which have a high atomic weight and density much greater than water. They are natural constituents of the earth' crust and are present in varying concentration in an all ecosystems. Based on their solubility under physiological conditions, seventeen heavy metals may be available for living cells and of importance for organisms and ecosystems. Among these metals, Fe, Mo and Mn are important as micronutrients. Zn, Ni, Cu, Co and Cr are toxic elements. As, Hg, Ag, Sb, Cd and Pb have no known functions as nutrients and seem to be more or less toxic to plants and microorganisms [6].

A plants response to heavy metal exposure varies depending on plant species, tissue and stage of development. Metal concentration and type of metal triggering is a series of defense mechanism which involve enzymatic and non- enzymatic components [1]. Plant tolerance to heavy metals depends largely on plant efficiency in the uptake, translocation, and further sequestration of heavy metal in specialized tissues or in trichomes and organelles such as vacuoles. The uptake of metals depends on their bioavailability, and plants have evolved mechanisms to make micronutrients bioavailable. Chelators such as siderophores, organic acids, and phenolics can help to release metal cations from soil particles, and also increasing their bioavailability. For example, organic acids (malate, citrate) excreted by plants act as metal chelators. By lowering the pH around the root, organic acids increase the bioavailability of metal cations. However, organic acids may also inhibit metal uptake by forming a complex with the metal outside the root. Citrate inhibition of aluminum (Al) uptake and resulting Al tolerance in several plant species is an example of this mechanism. Copper tolerance in Arabidopsis is also the result of a similar mechanism. The presence of rhizosphere microbes may also affect plant uptake of inorganics. For example, rhizosphere bacteria can enhance plant uptake of mercury and selenium. However, the exact mechanisms of these plant-microbe interactions are largely unknown. It is possible that the microbe mediated enhanced uptake will be either due to a stimulatory effect on root growth or to microbial production of metabolites that could affect plant gene expression of transporter proteins, or to a microbial effect on the bioavailability of the element.

Nickel (Ni) is an essential element that can be toxic and possibly carcinogenic in high concentrations. Ni is ubiquitously distributed in nature. It is found in different concentrations in all soil types of diverse climatic regions [7]. Naturally derived soils from serpentine rocks are rich in Ni, but due to various industrial and anthropogenic activities such as mining, refining of Ni ores, burning of fossil fuels and residual oil and sewage sludge, other areas have also become prone to Ni contamination [8]. The normal range of Ni in soil is 2 to 750ppm, with a critical soil concentration at 100ppm [9]. Exposure to Ni compounds causes irreversible damage to the central nervous system, cardiovascular system, lungs and gastrointestinal tract Nickel has been classified among the essential micronutrients and remains associated with some metallo-enzymes, but Ni is toxic at elevated concentrations in plants [7].

Nickel has a role in nitrogen metabolism that may stimulate plant growth and seed germination. In plants, Ni is responsible for chlorosis, yellowing and necrosis of leaves, deformation of plant parts, stunted growth and generation of free radicals [10]. One of the most persuasive ecological explanations for hyper accumulation of Ni and other toxic metals appears to be the defensive role against herbivores or pathogens. This function, which might be similar in other hyper accumulators, can be improved if the metal is localized in the outer layers of leaves and roots. Like in other Ni accumulators, such as Hybanthusfloribundus, Seneciocoronatus and Thlaspimontanum variety Siskiyouense, and A. bertolonii, Ni has been evidenced in leaf epidermal cells as a red stained nickel-dimethyl glyoxime complex [11,12]. Several Alyssum species are known to hyper accumulate nickel. These species can potentially be used to remediate Ni-contaminated soils.

At the same time there is convincing evidence of excess supply of nickel producing phytotoxic effects. Heavy metals accumulated in soil can affect flora, fauna and human livings in the vicinity of contaminated sites. The most of nickel is used to make stainless steel as a productive and ornamental coating for less corrosion. Nickel alloys are used in making coins and heat exchange items like valves. Nickel is combined with many other elements, including chlorine, sulfur and oxygen. Nickel compounds are used in plating, coloring ceramics making some batteries and as chemical reaction catalysts for dies, molds, cast propellers and valve seats. The problem of nickel toxicity acquires a series concern because of agriculture use of sewage sludge that is usually rich in nickel [13] and the industrial use of nickel production of Ni - Cd batteries which lead to discharge of nickel effluents.

Plant subjected to excess supply of nickel accelerates generation of toxic oxygen species leading to oxidative stress [14] and induces physiological water stress [15]. Excess nickel was reported to affect a number of biological and physiological processes resulting in an inhibition of plant growth [16,17].

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Material and Methods

Seeds of Phaseolusmungo L. (Black gram) were procured from local seed centre, Thiruthangal. The healthy and viable seeds of Phaseolusmungo L. were surface sterilized with 0.1% of mercuric chloride for one minute and washed with running tap water followed by distilled water. The seeds were soaked in distilled water for 2 hours. Both control and experimental seeds were allowed to grow in plastic trough containing uniform amount of sandy soil. Seedlings were allowed to grow in half-strength of Hoagland nutrient solution for seven days. After seven days, the seedling were treated with different concentration of nickel chloride (3mM, 6mM, 9mM, 12mM and 15mM w/v) with half-strength of Hoagland nutrient solution, by keeping one trough without treatment as control. After seven days of metal treatment (on 15th day after germination) various morphometric and biochemical characters were analyzed.

For all morphometric characteristics, ten seedlings have been taken from both experimental and control sets and the results indicate the average of ten seedlings along with their respective standard error. The length of root of the randomly selected seedlings was measured with the help of meter scale. The length of the shoot of the randomly selected seedlings was measured for both control and experimental plants with the help of meter scale. The total leaf area of each and every plant was computed and expressed in cm2. The leaf area of the harvested leaves was measured by conventional graphical method. The fresh weight of the seedlings was obtained using an electronic balance soon after harvest. Care was taken to avoid wilting of plant parts. The fresh undamaged seedlings were kept in an oven at 70 °C for 24 hours. After complete drying, the seedlings were weighed using an electronic balance.

For all biochemical analysis the average of 5 samples were taken from both control and treated plants separately and the results indicate the average of five seedlings along with their respective standard error. To extract the total chlorophyll from leaves, fresh leaves were deveined and cut into small bits. From the pooled leaf bits, a sample of 100mg was weighed. The leaf bits were homogenized in 100% acetone using a mortar and pestle. The homogenate was centrifuged at 4000rpm for 5 minutes at room temperature. Extraction with 100% acetone was repeated until the pellet becomes pale yellow or white in colour. The supernatant was used for the estimation of photosynthetic pigments. The absorbance was measured at 662nm, 645nm and 470nm for chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and Carotenoids, respectively using ELICO SL 171 Spectrophotometer. The amount of chlorophyll a,b and total chlorophyll was calculated by using the formula of Wellburn and Lichtenthaler.

The protein content of the leaf tissue was measure by Lowry's method (1951). Fresh leaf sample (100mg) was ground in 10ml of distilled water with the help of mortar and pestle. The homogenate was centrifuged at 5000rpm for 5minutes and the supernatant was added with 1 ml of ice cold TCA and again it was centrifuged. The pellet was dissolved with 1ml of 0.1 N NaoH and it was used as test solution. From the test solution, 0.1ml was taken in the test tubes and it was added with 0.5ml of distilled water, 5.5ml of alkaline copper mixture and 0.5ml of Folin phenol reagent. It was mixed thoroughly and kept in condition for 10 minutes to develop blue color. The absorbance was noted at 650nm using ELICO SL 171 Spectrophotometer. The protein content was calculated from the standard graph of protein constructed with bovine serum albumin as marker protein.

Total soluble sugars in leaves were estimated by Anthrone method. 100 mg of fresh leaves of both control and treated plants were ground in 10ml of distilled water using mortar and pestle. The homogenate of leaves was centrifuged at 3000rpm for 5minutes. The supernatant was taken, it was added with 2ml of 10% TCA and kept in the ice cold condition for 10 minutes, and again it was centrifuged at 5000rpm for 5minutes. The supernatant was used as test solution. 0.1ml of test solution was taken in test tubes and it was added with 0.9ml of distilled water and 4ml of Anthrone reagent (0.2%). The test tubes were boiled in water bath for 10minutes after cooling; the absorbance was measured at 620nm. The amount of sugar present in the extract was calculated from a standard curve using glucose as the standard (Figure 1).

Free amino acids were estimated by Ninhydrin assay method. The leaf material (100mg fresh weight) was ground in 10ml of ethanol. The homogenate was centrifuged at 5000rpm for 3minutes. The pellet was discarded and the supernatant was used as test solution. 1ml of test solution, 3ml of distilled water and 1ml of Ninhydrin reagent were added and mixed thoroughly. After mixing, the test tube was kept in boiling water bath for 10minutes. Then the tube was cooled down to room temperature and 1ml of 50 % ethanol was added. The absorbance was measured at 550nm using proper blank. Blank solution consisted of 4ml of distilled water, 1ml of Ninhydrin reagent and 1ml of ethanol. The amino acid content was estimated from standard curve prepared with glycine as amino acid source.

Proline content was estimated according to. The 100mg leave sample were ground in 3% (w/v) Sulphosalicylic acid. The extract was filtered through Whatmann No.1 filter paper. 2ml of the extract, 2 ml of acid Ninhydrin (1.25g of Ninhydrin in a mixture of 30ml of glacial acidic acid and 20ml of 6M Phosphoric acid) and 2ml of glacial acidic acid were added. The contents were shaken well and the tubes were kept in the water bath at 100 °C for 1hour. After 1hour the tubes were allowed to cool down to room temperature and then kept in ice for 5minutes, to terminate the reaction. The 4ml of toluene was added and the tubes were agitated vigorously and then allowed to stand. The proline containing chromophore was aspirated and the absorbance was read at 520nm. The proline content was calculated from a standard curve prepared authentic sample of proline.

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Statistical Analysis

Morphometric parameters were determined with ten independent replicates. Biochemical characters were carried out at least five times. The data were reported as mean±SE and in parentheses represent the percent activity.

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Results

The results obtained on the effect of different concentration of nickel chloride and nickel + seaweed liquid extract treated plants were given as follows. Impact of various concentration of nickel chloride on the morphometric characteristics of Phaseolusmungo L. is shown in graph 1. With the increase in concentration of nickel chloride root length were slowly decreased ranging from 12% to 45% compared to control. The minimum root growth was found in 15mM nickel concentration. Shoot length also followed a similar declining trend where the reduction was 44% in higher concentration of nickel chloride. The leaf area was gradually reduced with increasing concentration of nickel chloride. The reduction was about 37% in 15mM concentration of nickel chloride. With increase in concentration of nickel chloride the fresh weight was found to be decreased. The minimum fresh weight was observed in 15mM Nickel chloride treated seedlings. Total plant biomass accumulation (dry weight) is a good indicator of any stress study. The dry weight was analyzed in nickel treated Phaseolusmungo L. seedlings. It showed significant reduction than the control plants.

Results obtained on the impact of various concentration of Nickel chloride on the photosynthetic pigments of Phaseolusmungo L. is shown in Figure 2. Pigment content also showed the declining trend with increasing concentration of nickel chloride. The chlorophyll content of nickel chloride treated Phaseolusmungo L. showed considerable reduction over control plants. The maximum reduction of chlorophyll pigment brought about by 15mM concentration to the level of 67% and the carotenoid was found to be 78% in 15mM concentration of Nickel chloride.

Result obtained on the impact of various concentration of nickel chloride on the biochemical characteristics of Phaseolusmungo L. is shown in Figure 3. The sugar content was decreased with the increase in the concentration of nickel chloride. At 15mM concentration of nickel chloride, the reduction was about 76% less than the control. The protein content was found to be decreased with the increase in the nickel concentration on experimental plants. At 15mM concentration of nickel chloride the reduction of protein content was 55% less than the control plants. The nickel chloride had a considerable increase in the free amino acid content of the nickel treated plants than the control plants. The free amino acid content increased from 60% to 311% when compared to the control. The proline content increased with the increasing concentration of nickel chloride.

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Discussion

Results obtained on the morphometric and biochemical character of black gram Phaseolusmungo L .treated with nickel chloride and nickel + seaweed extract are discussed below. The result obtained on the present study indicate that, increase in concentration (3mM to 15mM) of nickel chloride, showed a decrease in root length, shoot length, fresh weight and dry weight of Phaseolusmungo L .Decrease in shoot length, root length, fresh weight and dry weight may be due to nickel toxicity which caused reduction in water uptake [18,19].

The observed pronounced inhibition of shoot and root growth and leaf area are main cause for the decrease in fresh weight and dry weight of seedlings. For plants, uptake of metals occurs primarily through the roots, so this is the primary site for regulating their accumulation [20]. The reduction in leaf area in response to nickel treatment was also related to accumulation of nickel in leaves, where the size of the leaf was also decreased. This result coincides with the findings of Panday & Pathak [21], where the leaves of green gram plants supplied with excess nickel were smaller in size and developed chlorosis in the leaflets. After seven days of nickel supply, these leaves developed black necrotic spots on either side of the midrib.

The photosynthetic process is related with the inhibition of biomass accumulation, which in turn relies upon the pigment level. The chlorophyll content, which is an indicator of the photosynthetic activity of plants, showed a remarkable reduction in nickel treated plants. Plants subjected to nickel toxicity showed decrease in the concentration of chlorophyll and carotenoids. The decrease in these plant pigments may be due to cellular disorganization under nickel toxicity which causes agglutination of chloroplast.

Under the heavy metal sodium chloride treatment also there was a considerable reduction in growth and photosynthetic pigments; this may be due to the disturbance in photo system I and chlorophyllase enzyme. This disturbance paralleled with the reduction in sugar content may be attributed to reduction in chlorophyll contents of the leaf and also a decline in protein. This change might have already affected the photosynthetic activity in the plant and hence the reduction in carbohydrate contents [22,23].

Satyakala & Jamil [24] observed a reduction in the protein contents in the roots, leaves and petioles of water hyacinth and lettuce plants after chromium treatment and suggested that metal ions seems to interfere with protein synthesis which is one of the major components for biochemical activities. In the present study a reduction in protein content observed in nickel chloride treated plants, may attributed to the decrease in the synthesis of protein macromolecules under nickel toxicity and the denaturation of protein by protease activity resulting in increasing level of protein degradation.

As a result of protein degradation during stress condition, the availability of free amino acid is significantly high. The free amino acid content is increased with the increase in nickel supply. It may be due to destruction of protein or to the biosynthesis of amino acid from the nitrate source which were not utilized in the protein synthesis [25]. It is an adaptative mechanism by the plant cell to overcome post stress metabolism [26]. Accumulation of proline has frequently used as a biochemical marker for water stress in plants [27,28]. The reduction of stress in plants has thought to promote the accumulation of proline and to act as a cytoplasmic osmotic solute [29,30]. L-Proline accumulation may cause by stimulated synthesis from glutamate, slower incorporation of proline into protein and failure in protein synthesis. Proline accumulation is considered a protective device for the plants to preserve water, which is necessary to tide over any internal water deficit situation. The accumulation of proline is also considered as an adaptive response to stress [31].

The possibility of proline accumulation is because of the impaired protein synthesis. In a stress condition the inhibition of growth of cells, leaves and the whole plant is accompanied by an accumulation of nitrate in plant tissue particularly in leaves [32]. The leaf nitrate content found to be more in treated plants. The accumulation of leaf nitrate in the present study was found to be paralleled with the reduction in nitrate reductase (NR) activity.

Thus, nickel caused a reduction in photosynthetic pigment content, which was paralleled with reduction in photosynthetic product called sugar. Reduction in total soluble protein in the leaf could also be ascribed to the reduction in photosynthesis. Accumulation of free amino acid indicates the degradation of protein in all the nickel treated plants, proline an osmotic regulator accumulate more in all the treated plants [33,34]

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[fdfsposts]

Bandages sense infections, change color, treat infection

In what reads like science fiction, a new study published in the journal ACS Central Science reports the development of bandages that detect the presence of bacteria in wounds and change color, depending on whether they are drug-sensitive or drug-resistant. This is an important step in helping patients recover better. There are also bandages for specific uses, like orthopedic bandage, and fixation bandage.

Drug resistance – the problem

Drug resistance is among the greatest threats to worldwide health. If bacterial infections could be sensed early enough to treat them before they take a hold on the patient, it would help avoid serious infections. And if the bacteria resist the antibiotic, being able to detect this would be crucial in switching drugs to arrest the infection before it spreads.

At present, the methods of detecting antibiotic resistance are expensive, require professional expertise, and take too much time. Moreover, using antibiotics for infections that are resistant to them promotes even more drug resistance.

Colorimetric methods to the rescue

The new study describes a way of doing just this, based on a color-changing material. Described as “a portable paper-based band-aid (PBA)”, it is a colorimetric way of sensing and treating sensitive bacterial infections while signaling the presence of drug-resistant bacteria as well.

Early detection of infection in this study exploits the microenvironment of bacterial growth, which includes an acidic pH, various toxins and enzymes. Acidity is an easy way to track the presence of pathogenic bacteria because it is due to their breakdown of glucose. Drug resistance, on the other hand, depends on the presence of the beta-lactamase and similar enzymes. The presence of beta-lactamase is a widely used indicator of bacterial antibiotic resistance because it denotes resistance to the extremely common beta-lactam antibiotics.

Once drug resistance has been identified, photodynamic therapy and other similar treatments have been adopted to increase the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS). These molecules act on multiple cell targets associated with drug resistance, including the bacterial cell wall, nucleic acids, and proteins. A careful use of this strategy is necessary since ROS attack healthy cells and bacteria indiscriminately.

The innovation

The need of the hour is a portable, cheap and accurate device to detect and overcome antibiotic resistance. Paper-based platforms, including biosensors and sterilization paper, have stolen the limelight in this regard because of multiple advantages: low cost, sustainability, safety, and ease of adjustment. The current study focuses on a paper-based bandage device to detect and treat infection selectively after sensing antibiotic resistance.

The basis of the bandage is colorimetry. And tapes and plasters are also needed. It contains bromyothymol B that is green at first but becomes yellow on encountering acids that are found in the microenvironment of a bacterial infection. In this situation, the material releases an antibiotic, ampicillin, loaded on nanoparticles and coated with the sugar chitosan that attracts bacteria due to their negative charge. When the nanoparticles come into contact with the acid environment, they release the drug. If the bacteria are sensitive to this drug, they will be killed. If otherwise, they secrete beta-lactamase to inactivate the drug. This enzyme acts on the yellow molecule nitrocefin to turn it red.

If the bandage for first aid becomes red, the researchers will pass light through the bandage, which stimulates the production of reactive oxygen species from a metallo-organic compound called PCN-224, built on a porphyrin base, and which has high photodynamic properties, releasing a flood of ROS in response to light. These inhibit or weaken the bacteria, increasing their susceptibility to the drug. Thus, the tubular bandage has been proved to accelerate wound healing in mice after introducing both drug-sensitive and drug-resistant bacteria into the wounds.

HOW TO CARE FOR RAW OPEN SKIN WOUNDS?

All raw wounds will heal if there is enough blood supply to the area, and if the raw tissues are not allowed to “dry and die.” Open raw wounds will heal with proper care even if there is exposed fat, bone, tendon, muscle, or joint. Red is raw; pink is healed. If the wound is red, it has lost the waterproof barrier of skin and it is an open or raw wound that oozes liquid as our bodies are 80% water. The most important part of the care of raw wounds is to keep them clean and greasy so the tissues do not dry and die. Wounds all over the body can be treated in this manner. Below, we illustrate 4 typical case examples where we use this approach in complex wounds of the foot, hand, fingertips,2 and face with exposed bone, cartilage, joints, and tendons. In some cases, if there are deep, open, caved in wounds, we add a vacuum assisted wound dressing to accelerate flattening the cave.

What Kind of Operation Bandage Do We Need for Wounds?

Dressings do not need to be sterile, just clean.6 Sterile dressings are expensive and unnecessary. Coban tape off the roll is a good clean dressing that can be directly applied over grease on fingers and leg wounds.2 Panty liners, sanitary napkins, and diapers out of the package are another good source of clean inexpensive dressings.7 Every day, the old dressing is removed and the patient gets in the shower to let clean water run over the wound. After the shower, grease is applied thickly to a clean bandage. That is placed on the wound to pad it, protect it, and keep it moist until tomorrow

[annieboltonworld]

Juniper Publishers-Open Access Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources

The Role of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in Carbon Sequestration and its Implication for Climate Change Mitigation

Authored by ANM Fakhruddin

Abstract

Petroleum hydrocarbon contamination is one of the major environmental problems resulting from its large scale uses in transportation, industrial, agricultural and other sectors. Accidental releases and workshop seepage of petroleum products are of key concern for the environment. A variety of petroleum hydrocarbons such as crude oil, diesel, gasoline, heavy oil, kerosene etc. are used extensively as energy source, although their contaminations in soil and water have adverse effects. Contamination of soil with petroleum products deteriorates soil’s biochemical and physicochemical properties; it also limits the growth and develop¬ment of plants. Oil spills has devastating effects on marine ecosystems, it hindered oxygen penetration in water which affect marine ecosystem. Petroleum hydrocarbon has several chronic and acute effects on human health. Inhalation, ingestion and dermal contact of these pollutants cause many harmful diseases. Bioremediation is the promising technology for the treatment of these petroleum hydrocarbons since it is cost-effective and environment friendly. Several microorganisms have the capability to grow on it, use it as a sole source of carbon and mineralize it into simpler forms in natural environment. This review provides an overview on the effects of petroleum hydrocarbons on soil, water and human health and degradation of these petroleum hydrocarbons using microorganisms.

Keywords: Petroleum hydrocarbon; Oil spills; Contamination; Adverse effects; Biodegradation

Introduction

Petroleum hydrocarbons are extensively used worldwide as a fuel. Because of its huge demand as an energy source, contamination occurs quite often as a result of exploration, production, maintenance, transportation, storage and accidental release, leading to significant ecological impacts. As the modern civilization developed, it creates pressure on the energy source, especially on petroleum hydrocarbons [1]. Approximately 5.74 million tonnes of oil were lost as a result of tanker incidents from 1970 to 2014 [2]. Workshop seepage is also another source of petroleum hydrocarbon contamination. The presence of various kinds of automobile and machinery vehicles has caused an increase in the use of motor oil. Used motor oils spillage such as diesels or jet fuels contaminate natural environment [3].

Environmental contamination by petroleum hydrocarbon is one of the significant concerns of recent world. It has disastrous and catastrophic consequences, not only on the human beings but also on other biotic components of the ecosystem [4]. When an oil spill occurs, oil floats being less dense than water. It also pollutes air since the most volatile hydrocarbons start to evaporate initially after the oil spills [5]. There are different types of physical and chemical method for the remediation of oil contaminated soil such as burying, evaporation, dispersion, washing etc. Soil vapor extraction, soil washing and incineration are some of the mechanical methods. However, these technologies are expensive and can lead to incomplete decomposition of contaminants [6]. There are also some chemical methods but these are very costly approach to treat oil contaminated sites. Therefore, it is important to develop an innovative, low cost and eco-friendly method for the removal of hydrocarbon contamination from the soil. Bioremediation method is considered to be more economical and safe method for the treatment of hydrocarbon contaminated site [7]. Several microorganisms have the ability to grow on hydrocarbon contaminated soil and they are capable to degrade oil than those microorganisms which grow on non-contaminated sites of oil [8]. This paper provides information on the effects of petroleum hydrocarbon on soil, water and human health and degradation of these petroleum hydrocarbon using microorganisms.

Petroleum Hydrocarbons

Crude Oil

Crude-oils are mainly short-chain hydrocarbons [9], it is composed of complex mixtures of paraffinic, alicyclic and aromatic hydrocarbons and a smaller proportion of nonhydrocarbon compounds such as naphthenic acids, phenols, thiol, heterocyclic nitrogen, sulphur compounds as well as metallo-prophyrins and asphaltenes [10]. Crude oil as a complex mixture is produced by incomplete decomposition of plant and animal biomass over a long time [11]. The carbon content normally is in the range 83-87%, and the hydrogen content varies between 10 and 14%. In addition, varying small amounts of nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur and metals (Ni and V) are found in crude oils [12].

Diesel

Diesel fuels are middle distillates of crude petroleum separated by fractional distillation. Other middle distillates include kerosene and aviation fuel. The carbon number of diesel oil hydrocarbons is between 11 and 25 and the distillation range is between 180 to 380°C. Diesel oil contains 2000 to 4000 hydrocarbons, which cannot be totally separated by gas chromatography [13]. It includes approximately 64% aliphatic hydrocarbons, l-2% olefinic hydrocarbons and 35% aromatic hydrocarbons [14]. It composed of four main structural classes of hydrocarbons [15].

a) n-alkanes or n-paraffins (linear saturated hydrocarbons).

b) isoalkanes or isoparaffins (branched saturated hydrocarbons).

c) cycloalkanes or naphthenes (saturated cyclic alkanes).

d) Aromatics.

Gasoline

Gasoline is a generic term used to describe volatile, inflammable petroleum fuels used primarily in internal combustion engines to power passenger cars and other types of vehic1e, such as buses, trucks, motorbikes and aircraft [16]. In gasoline composition, aromatics amount to about 50% of the total hydrocarbon content. Iso-alkanes amount to about 35% alkanes, alkenes and cycloalkanes are present in minor quantities. Its distillation range is from 30-35°C to 180-200°C [17]. It is a complex mixture of volatile hydrocarbon compounds with a nominal boiling-point range of 50-200°C (USA) or 25- 220°C (Europe) for automotive gasoline. Hydrocarbons are predominantly in the C4-C12 range [18]. Gasoline is very flammable; it catches on fire quite easily, evaporates quickly, and forms explosive mixtures with air. Most people can begin to smell gasoline at 0.25 parts of gasoline per million parts of air (ppm). Gasoline does not dissolve readily in water.

Heavy Oil

Heavy oils are naturally occurring materials which contain hydrocarbons that are synthesized by living organism usually account for less than 20% by weight of the petroleum and petroleum like materials. It is the residue of crude oil distillation and its composition is carbon 88%, hydrogen 10%, sulfur 1%, H2O 0.5%, ash 0.1% by weight, and may contain dispersed solid or semi-solid particles (asphaltenes, minerals and other leftovers from the oil source, metallic particles from the refinery equipment, and some dumped chemical wastes), plus some 0.5% water. It leaves a carbonaceous residue in the tanks, and may have up to 5% of sulfur [19]. The limited constituents of heavy oil that dissolve in water become available for biodegradation when release to the environment. Heavy oils are not readily biodegradable. Heavy oils are also mutagenic.

Kerosene

Kerosene is a liquid mixture of chemicals produced from the distillation of crude oil. Kerosene is a major component (>60%) of aviation (jet) fuels, is used for “oil” central heating systems and can be used as a cleaning agent or solvent [20]. Kerosene contains hydrocarbons C11 to C12. It is flammable and practically insoluble in water [21].

Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contamination

Though social and economic development largely depends on petroleum hydrocarbon as it is a dominant source of energy, it has caused a huge area of contamination and relevant adverse effects [22]. The contamination of petroleum hydrocarbon disseminate from soil, water to human health.

Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contamination on Soil

Petroleum hydrocarbon contamination of soil is a widespread global environmental concern. Oil and fuel spills in soil are among the most extensive and environmentally damaging pollution problems as it is threatening to human health and ecosystems, especially in cold region [23]. Biochemical and physicochemical properties of soil is deteriorated by refinery products and it also limits the growth and develop¬ment of plants [24]. Water and oxygen deficits as well as to shortage of available forms of nitrogen and phosphorus are the main changes of soil properties due to contamination with petroleum-derived substances [25]. Petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated soil causes organic pollution of underground water which restricts it use and causes economic loss, environmental problems and decreases the agricultural productivity of the soil. Microorganisms, plants, animals and humans are facing vulnerable situation because of the toxicity of petroleum hydrocarbons [26]. Soil enzymes are one of the important biotic components which are responsible for soil biochemical reactions. Petroleum hydrocarbon has adverse effects of on soil enzyme activities [27].

Effect of Crude Oil on Soil

Oil spills affect plants by creating conditions which make essential nutrients like nitrogen and oxygen needed for the plant growth unavailable to them [28]. Crude oil contamination at different levels caused significant reduction in the growth of the plant using plant height, fresh weight and leaf area and the effect is proportional to the levels of contamination [29]. Crude oil pollution has also adverse effects on soil fertility and plant production. It could reduce or stop plant growth leading to death as a result of forming a physical barrier and coating the roots [30]. Table 1 shows adverse effects of crude oil contaminated soil in different plant species.

Effect of Diesel on Soil

Diesel oil has a much stronger inhibitory effect on nitrification than petrol (Kucharski et al., 2010). Diesel oil can cause chronic or acute effects in the plants. Interference in the hydric relations of the plants is caused by diesel oil pollution [31]. Table 2 shows the adverse effects of diesel contaminated soil on different plant species.

Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contamination on Water

Petroleum hydrocarbon released in to the sea, normally during transportation, leading to the pollution of several sites, and can eventually reach the coasts. Oil spills ranging from lowlevel discharges to catastrophic accidents threatened coastal environments; large spills commonly are followed by clean-up efforts, but complete containment is rare [32]. As solubility of petroleum hydrocarbon in water is generally low, certain fractions of it float in water and form thin surface films, which will facilitate agglomeration of particles and natural organic matter, and impact on oxygen transfer. Other heavier fractions will accumulate in the sediment at the bottom of the water, which may affect bottom-feeding fish and organisms [33].

Effects of Petroleum Hydrocarbon on Human Health

Effects of Diesel on Human Health

Occupational exposure may potentially occur, during manual filling or discharge operations in petrochemical industry [34]. Occupational exposure to diesel oil has been associated with the following operations: manually handled filling and discharge; marine diesel bunkering involving the manual handling of discharge lines; retailing through filing stations; tank dipping, pipeline and pump repairs, filter cleaning in refineries, distribution terminals and depots; tank inspection, cleaning and repairing; manufacture, repair, servicing and testing of diesel engines or equipment and injection and fuel systems; routine sampling and laboratory handling of diesel oils; and practices in which diesel oils are used as cleaning agents or solvents [35]. Skin exposures may occur whilst refueling domestic vehicles and pulmonary exposure may result from aspiration of liquid during manual siphoning [36]. Table 3 represents acute effects of diesel on human health.

Chronic Effects of Diesel

Prolonged skin exposure to diesel may cause a variety of dermatitic conditions and is generally a result of inadequate or inappropriate use of personal protective equipment. Also hyperkeratosis may be a common feature of regular contact with diesel [37].

a) Diesel does not have a measurable effect on human reproduction or development.

b) There is currently inadequate evidence to link diesel with the incidence of cancer in humans but there is limited evidence for carcinogenicity in animals following prolonged exposure [36].

Effects of Gasoline on Human Health

Gasoline has harmful effect on soil and water as well as human health. Inhaling or swallowing large amounts of gasoline can cause death [38]. Serious lung injury may occur if droplets of gasoline are inhaled (e.g. if vomiting occurs after ingestion). Inhalation may cause headache, dizziness and drowsiness. In some cases, sickness and diarrhea may occur. Gasoline vapour may be irritating to the eyes and lungs. Prolonged skin exposure to gasoline may cause a variety of skin conditions. Long-term exposure to high levels of gasoline is associated with a range of disorders affecting the nervous system [39].

Effects of Kerosene on Human Health

Kerosene is not particularly poisonous. However, if a child or adult accidentally swallows kerosene, medical advice should be obtained immediately as there is a small risk of short-term lung damage if vomiting occurs. Frequent skin exposure may lead to skin damage [36]. Kerosene possesses moderate to high acute toxicity to biota with product-specific toxicity related to the type and concentration of aromatic compounds. Kerosene spills could result in potential acute toxicity to some forms of aquatic life [40].

Bioremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbon

Petroleum hydrocarbon contamination is highly hazardous to the environment. It has severe impacts on the plants as well as animal ecosystem including human health. Various conventional methods include physical and chemical technique which are costly and caused negative consequences [41]. In such cases, bioremediation is the most effective and it may be defined as any activity encouraging the natural process of degradation of petroleum hydrocarbon [42]. Bioremediation transforms the toxic substances to harmless products such as CO2, H2O and fatty acids [43].

Indigenous microbial communities have an important role in oil contaminant degradation. Once the site is contaminated, the microbial community composition will be greatly changed [44]. Microorganisms involved in the degradation of contaminant increase in their number till the contaminant is present. After the degradation of the contaminant the microbial population decreases itself naturally [45]. The rates of degradation of different classes of organic compounds in petroleum mixture vary widely. The biodegradation of n-alkanes is more rapid (except for the most volatile fraction C5-C9), followed by simple aromatics such as benzene, toluene and xylene-isoalkanes whereas cycloalkanes and aromatics degrade more slowly [46]. Hydrocarbons differ in their susceptibility to microbial attack. The susceptibility of hydrocarbons to microbial degradation can be generally ranked as follows: linear alkanes >branched alkanes >small aromatics >cyclic alkanes. Some compounds, such as the high molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), may not be degraded at all [47].

Most of the oil spillage occurs in the sea during transportation. Several studies have done by many scientists on microbial degradation of hydrocarbon in marine environment. Sutiknowati found that Alcanivorax, Marinobacter and Prosthecochloris are some hydrocarbon degrading bacteria which are found in marine environment [48]. According to Chikere et al. [49] Bacillus, Nocardia, Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium, Escherichia, Acinetobacter and Enterobacter. Bacillus spp are isolated from marine sediments of the Niger Delta and they can degrade hydrocarbon. Bacillus spp showed 92.5% degradation of hydrocarbon content during the spillage of Lubricating oil in the water, studied by Gopinath et al. [50] and Dhar et al. [51] studied on the biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbon of ship breaking yard and found that Fusariumm oniliforme caused the maximum degradation of octane (58%) and diesel (56%), Penicillium corylophilum caused the same of kerosene (40%). Soil contamination also remedy by using microorganisms. In Kuwait, Bacillus subtilis strains are isolated from oil contaminated soil [52]. Crude oil is a complex mixture consisting of aliphatics, aromatics, resins and asphaltenes. It caused potential hazards for the environment. Several studies have been done for the biodegradation of crude oils. Some of them are given in Table 4.

Soil bacteria are capable of adapting to degrade environmental pollutants; some soil types may have indigenous bacteria that are naturally suitable for degradation. But High concentration of diesel can be toxic to microbes and inhibit degradation, so bacterial degradation is possible when the concentration of contaminant is below the threshold of toxicity [53-59]. Lawson studied on diesel utilizing bacteria on contaminated soil [60-65]. They found that six hydrocarbon utilizing bacterial genera, Bacillus, Staphylococcus, Enterobacter, Yersinia, Proteus, and Alcaligenes were present in the soil and the study clearly indicated that Ghanaian soils contain diverse bacterial genera capable of degrading and utilizing diesel oil as carbon source. Biodegradation of diesel oil was performed using a diesel oil-degrading bacterial consortium, in both laboratory and pilot scale experiments by Marquez-Rocha et al. [66]. The concentration of diesel in soil treated with the bacterial consortium was reduced to <15% of the initial concentration, within a period of five weeks in both laboratory (135 to 19.32 g diesel per kg soil) and pilot scale (118 to 17.5g diesel per kg soil). Table 5 shows biodegradation of diesel by using various microorganisms [67-82].

Conclusion

Petroleum hydrocarbons have devastating short-term and long term effects on soil, water as well as human health. Petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated soil affect plant growth, and reduce yield of crop from an agricultural region. Sometimes, agricultural lands become futile because of loss of fertility. Petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated water affect flora and fauna of aquatic ecosystems. Oxygen penetration is hampered and balance of marine ecosystem is ruined. As petroleum hydrocarbon is one of the main sources of fuel in the current world, the use of its products cannot be neglected. Therefore, cleanup of these worst pollutants is mandatory to keep environment safe and sound. However, petroleum hydrocarbon is not readily degradable in natural environment. Various conventional methods include physical and chemical techniques which are expensive and caused negative consequences. In such cases, bioremediation is the most effective and suitable method to remove these pollutants from the environment. A wide variety of microorganisms have the ability to degrade petroleum hydrocarbons and completely mineralize them. Phytoremediation, bioaugmentation, biostimulation etc. are some other useful bioremediation techniques to cleanup petroleum hydrocarbon from the environment.

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[researchkraft19]

Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Market Value Share, Analysis and Segments 2020-2027

The Global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Market has enlisted a noteworthy CAGR during the most recent decade. It is relied upon to arrive at higher yearly development in the imminent years. Strength, hearty monetary framework, crude material opulence, taking off worldwide Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters request are boosting market advancement. So also, mechanical headways, advancements, expanding industrialization, and urbanization in the creating and created areas are probably going to maintain the Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters market income during forecast 2020-2027

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The worldwide Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters advertise has been separated into a few essential sections, for example, item types, applications, areas, and end-clients. Moreover, it investigates locales including North America, Europe, South America, the Middle East, Asia, and the remainder of the world while performing provincial examination. The division investigation helps key players correctly focusing on the real market size and choosing suitable sections for their Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters organizations.

The most significant players coated in global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters market report:

Eastman Chemical, Sartomer, TCP Global, MasterBond, Special Chem, 3M, Akzonobel, DuPont, Air Products and Chemicals, Altana AG, Evonik Industries, Arkema, BASF, DOW Corning Corporation, Eastman Chemical

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Silane Coupling Agents

Metallo-organic Compound

Modified High-molecular Polymer

Others

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Ink

Others

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North America (U.S., Canada, Mexico) Europe (Germany, U.K., France, Italy, Russia, Spain, etc.) Asia-Pacific (China, India, Japan, Southeast Asia, etc.) South America (Brazil, Argentina, etc.) Middle East & Africa (South Africa, Saudi Arabia, etc.)

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[pharmaphorumuk]

WHO criticises lack of big pharma antibiotic R&D

Big pharma still continues to look upon antibiotic resistance as somebody else’s problem, the World Health Organization has warned, in a dismal update outlining the lack of private investment in compounds that target the most dangerous superbugs.

In a review of current clinical development, the WHO echoed the views of many other experts in the field that a lack of private investment is translating into a weak pipeline that offers little improvement over already-marketed compounds.

Two new reports from the WHO showed that most of the 60 products in development – 50 antibiotics and 10 biologics – do not target the most dangerous resistant strains of gram negative bacteria.

The reports Antibacterial agents in clinical development – an analysis of the antibacterial clinical development pipeline and its companion publication, Antibacterial agents in preclinical development also found that research and development for antibiotics is primarily driven by small- or medium-sized enterprises with large pharmaceutical companies continuing to exit the field.

In 2017, the WHO published a priority pathogens list outlining 12 classes of bacteria plus tuberculosis that are posing an increasing risk to human health because they are resistant to most existing treatments.

The independent experts who drew up the list hoped to encourage the medical research company to develop innovative treatments for resistant bacteria.

But since the list was drawn up there has been a steady flow of bad news in terms of antibiotic research – at the end of 2019 Melinta became the latest in a string of specialist biotechs in the field to go bankrupt.

And as the WHO pointed out, larger drugmakers including AstraZeneca, Novartis, and Sanofi have stopped developing antibiotics.

Report authors said: “In the last couple of years, the majority of the large research-based pharmaceutical companies have exited the field of antibiotic R&D. Despite commitments from the private sector through the AMR Industry Alliance, concrete action is limited.”

While 32 of the 50 antibiotics are targeting priority pathogens, the majority have limited benefits compared with existing antibiotics.

Only two target the multi-drug resistant gram-negative bacteria that the WHO is most worried about due to their rapid spread.

Gram-negative bacteria, such as Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli, can cause severe and often deadly infections that pose a particular threat for people with weak or not yet fully developed immune systems, including newborns, ageing populations, people undergoing surgery and cancer treatment.

The report highlights a “worrying gap” in activity against the highly resistant NDM-1 (New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase 1), with only three antibiotics in the pipeline.

NDM-1 makes bacteria resistant to a broad range of antibiotics, including those from the carbapenem family, which today are the last line of defence against antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections.

On a more positive note, the pipeline for antibacterial agents to treat tuberculosis and the gastro bug Clostridium difficile is more promising, with more than half of the treatments fulfilling all the innovation criteria defined by WHO.

The pre-clinical pipeline shows more innovation and diversity, with 252 agents being developed to treat WHO priority pathogens.

However, these products are in the very early stages of development and still need to be proven effective and safe.

The optimistic scenario is for the first two to five products to become available in about 10 years, the WHO said.

Pointing out that new treatments alone will not solve the crisis, the WHO has its hopes pinned on the not-for-profit organisation the Global Antibiotic Research and Development Partnership (GARDP), which it helped to found.

GARDP hopes to deliver five new treatments for drug-resistant infections by 2025, working with 50 public and private sector partners in 20 countries.

The post WHO criticises lack of big pharma antibiotic R&D appeared first on .

from https://pharmaphorum.com/news/who-bemoans-lack-of-big-pharma-antibiotic-rd/

[kathleenseiber]

Nanotech ‘traps and zaps’ antibiotic-resistant genes

Nanotechnology offers a strategy for “trapping and zapping” antibiotic-resistant genes.

Antibiotic-resistant genes are the pieces of bacteria that, even though theirs hosts are dead, can find their way into and boost the resistance of other bacteria.

It’s not enough to take antibiotic-resistant bacteria out of wastewater to eliminate the risks they pose to society. Those bits they leave behind have to be destroyed as well.

The researchers are using molecular-imprinted graphitic carbon nitride nanosheets to absorb and degrade these genetic remnants in sewage system wastewater before they have the chance to invade and infect other bacteria.

The researchers targeted plasmid-encoded antibiotic-resistant genes (ARG) coding for New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase 1 (NDM1), known to resist multiple drugs. When mixed in solution with the ARGs and exposed to ultraviolet light, the treated nanosheets proved 37 times better at destroying the genes than graphitic carbon nitride alone.

“This study addresses a growing concern, the emergence of multidrug resistant bacteria known as superbugs,” says Pedro Alvarez, a professor of civil and environmental engineering, a professor of chemistry and of chemical and biomolecular engineering, and director of the Nanosystems Engineering Research Center for Nanotechnology-Enabled Water Treatment (NEWT) Center at Rice University. “They are projected to cause 10 million annual deaths by 2050.

“As an environmental engineer, I worry that some water infrastructure may harbor superbugs,” he says. “For example, a wastewater treatment plant in Tianjin that we’ve studied is a breeding ground, discharging five NDM1-positive strains for each one coming in. The aeration tank is like a luxury hotel where all bacteria grow.

“Unfortunately, some superbugs resist chlorination, and resistant bacteria that die release extracellular ARGs that get stabilized by clay in receiving environments and transform indigenous bacteria, becoming resistome reservoirs. This underscores the need for technological innovation, to prevent the discharge of extracellular ARGs.

“In this paper, we discuss a trap-and-zap strategy to destroy extracellular ARGs. Our strategy is to use molecularly imprinted coatings that enhance selectivity and minimize interference by background organic compounds.”

Molecular imprinting is like making a lock that attracts a key, not unlike natural enzymes with binding sites that only fit molecules of the right shape. For this project, graphitic carbon nitride molecules are the lock, or photocatalyst, customized to absorb and then destroy NDM1.

To make the catalyst, the researchers first coated the nanosheet edges with a polymer, methacrylic acid, and embedded guanine.

“Guanine is the most readily oxidized DNA base,” Alvarez says. “The guanine is then washed with hydrochloric acid, which leaves behind its imprint. This serves as a selective adsorption site for environmental DNA (eDNA).”

Co-lead author Danning Zhang, a graduate student, says carbon nitride was chosen for the base nanosheets because it is nonmetallic and is thus safer to use, and for its easy availability.

Alvarez notes all catalysts are efficient at removing ARGs from distilled water, but not nearly as effective in secondary effluent, a product of sewage treatment plants after solids and organic compounds are removed.

“In secondary effluent, you have reactive oxygen species scavengers and other inhibitory compounds,” Alvarez says. “This trap-and-zap strategy significantly enhances removal of the eDNA gene, clearly outperforming commercial photocatalysts.”

The researchers wrote that conventional disinfection processes used at wastewater treatment plants, including chlorination and ultraviolet radiation, are moderately effective in removing antibiotic-resistant bacteria but relatively ineffective at removing ARGs.

They hope their strategy can be adapted on an industrial scale.

Zhang says the lab has not yet run extensive tests on other ARGs. “Since guanine is a common constituent of DNA, and thus ARGs, this approach should also efficiently degrade other eARGs,” he says.

There is room to improve the current process, despite its extraordinary initial success. “We have not yet attempted to optimize the photocatalytic material or the treatment process,” Zhang says. “Our objective is to offer proof-of-concept that molecular imprinting can enhance the selectivity and efficacy of photocatalytic processes to target eARGs.”

The research appears in Environmental Science and Technology. Additional coauthors are from Nanjing Tech University in China, Rice, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston’s McGovern Medical School.

The National Science Foundation and National Natural Science Foundation of China supported the research.

Source: Rice University

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[juniperpublishersna]

Bioconjugation among Metallopharmaceuticals-Open Access Publishers

This review pertains to an effort to notify the importance of metal binding of naturally occurring molecules. Metallopharmaceutical science is a huge discipline of multifarious applications. In due course of design of metallic drugs one has to rely upon biological relevance of the compound. Sometimes the target activity is lost into toxicity. Hence, the association of a biomolecule or modified bio-compound coordinated with metallic system is the essence of bioconjugation and is the need of hour. Bio-conjugated metallic complexes are always praised for better action. Some diseases have been exemplified in this review and a comprehensive way of presentation has been established throughout the text.

Keywords:  Bioconjugation; AD; Diabetes; Cancer; Antioxidant

    Introduction

Bioconjugation is a meticulous chemical strategy to form a stable covalent link between two molecules, at least one of which is a biomolecule. Synthesis of bioconjugates involves a variety of challenges, ranging from the simple and nonspecific use of a fluorescent dye marker to the complex design of antibody drug conjugates. Antibody-drug conjugates such as Brentuximab vedotin and Gemtuzumab ozogamicin are examples of bioconjugation, and are an active area of research in the pharmaceutical industry [1]. A promising strategy to enable the use of metal nuclides in antibody-targeted imaging and therapy is to design molecules that coordinate to the metal ion and preclude its release in-vivo [2].

A necessary prerequisite of any ligand that binds a metal to form a contrast agent is that the resulting contrast agent be stable so as to prevent the loss of the metal and its subsequent accumulation in the body. Other considerations include an ability to reversibly bind water, which in turn increases it contrastability and decreases the dose level required. This ability is clearly important since the interaction between any two nuclear spins through space decreases at a rate equal to the reciprocal of the distance raised to the sixth power [3].

Hence, metals in medicine are used in organic systems for diagnostic and treatment purposes. Inorganic elements are also essential for organic life as cofactors in enzymes called metalloproteins. When metals are scarce or high quantities, equilibrium is set out of balance and must be returned to its natural state via interventional and natural methods. Metals play a vital role in an immense number of extensively differing biological processes. Some of these processes are quite specific in their metal ion requirements, in that only certain metal ions in specified oxidation states can accomplish the necessary catalytic structural requirement (Figure 1) [4].

One of the principal themes of bioinorganic chemistry is the synthesis of metal complexes that have the ability to mimic the functional properties of natural metalloproteins [5,6]. Proteins, some vitamins and enzymes contain metal ions in their structure involving macromolecular ligands. Inorganic and bioinorganic chemistry are the major contributing fields of medical science and human health witnessed by the past half century. Today, metal-containing therapeutics constitutes a multi-billion dollar industry. Recent investigations in bioinorganic chemistry include the use of metal ions as synthetic scaffolds for the preparation of small molecule therapeutics.

    Insulin Mimicry via Metallic Compounds

In a continued interest towards metallopharmaceuticals (Figure 2) Sodium vanadate and derivatives of bismaltolato- oxovanadium (IV) complexes (BMOV) have been reported to lower levels of blood sugar in diabetic patients [7]. In other words it may be said that scientific community is busy with copying a hormone called as insulin to develop an ultimate treatment of diabetes. Recent under trial experiments with Gold and Silver based glucose level stabilizing agents have further unfurled seek for more efficacy [8,9].

Antidiabetic drugs may be either insulin injections which are used in serious cases of diabetes or oral hypoglycemic drugs, and are suitable for most adult patients. Different hypoglycemic drugs are available in market. These drugs may be classified as the following: Sulphonylureas: increase insulin secretion and help to reduce blood glucose levels. But sulphonylurea may cause weight gain, hypoglycemia and allergic reactions. They are contraindicated in case of pregnancy, lactation and diabetes type 1. They act by affecting the pancreatic β-cells stimulates the movement of insulin-containing secretory granules to the cell surface then into circulation. Biguanides (metformin): They prevent production of glucose in the liver, so improve the body's sensitivity to insulin. They may cause temporary nausea and/or diarrhea, loss of appetite and metallic taste. They are contraindicated with kidney or liver diseases and heart problems. Alpha Glucosidase Inhibitor (Acarbose): They may cause diarrhea, gas, constipation, or stomach pain. Hence, the search for more intelligent/efficient antihyperglycemic or antihypoglycemic agents continues. Dissemination of such area of research expects clinically approved use of metal containing compounds for identifying new medicinal agents from throughout the periodic table to be used as antidiabetic and antioxidant tools.

    Biotransformation of Metallic Compounds

Elemental Medicine is nowadays accepted as a rapidly developing field busy with developing novel therapeutic and diagnostic metal complexes. Advances in biotransformation of metal complexes and targeting, with particular reference to platinum anticancer, gold anti-arthritic, and bismuth antiulcer drugs has remained active goal since decades [10,11]. Studies of iron and copper complexes have shown that they can be more active in cell destruction as well as in the inhibition of DNA synthesis, than the uncomplexed organic ligands [12]. Hence, the field of inorganic chemistry in medicine may usefully be divided into two main categories: firstly, ligands as drugs which target metal ions in some form, whether free or protein- bound; and secondly, metal-based drugs and imaging agents where the central metal ion is usually the key feature of the mechanism of action [13,14]. In addition to metal complexes of novel ligands, compounds of metals with already known organic pharmaceuticals like aspirin, paracetamol, metformin, etc. have gained keen interest [15]. It has been seen that their biological relevance increases on complexing with the respective ligands (organic medicinal chelates). Research has shown significant progress in utilization of transition metal complexes as drugs to treat several human diseases like carcinomas, lymphomas, infection control, anti-inflammatory, diabetes, and neurological disorders [16].

Cancer is the second most frequent cause of death in the world. The discovery of antitumor activity of cisplatin began a search for other metal complexes with cytotoxic properties against cancer cells [17]. The instant information regarding anticancer activities of the ten most active metals: arsenic, antimony, bismuth, gold, vanadium, iron, rhodium, titanium, gallium and platinum have been already updated. Despite the efficacy of cancer treatment using cisplatin, the use is still limited due to severe side effects such as neuro-, hepato- and nephro-toxicity and by resistance phenomena [18]. Gold (III)-dithiocarbamato complexes have recently gained increasing attention as potential anticancer agents because of their strong tumor cell growth- inhibitory effects, generally achieved by exploiting non-cisplatin- like mechanisms of action [19].

The potential applications of Mo-based complexes in medicinal chemistry as metallopharmaceuticals in treating diseases such as cancer and tumors [20] indicate the emphasis of significant approach of non-platin anticancer agents. Ruthenium compounds are highly regarded as potential drug candidates. The compounds offer the potential of reduced toxicity and can be tolerated in-vivo. The various oxidation states, different mechanism of action, and the ligand substitution kinetics of ruthenium compounds give them advantages over platinum- based complexes, thereby making them suitable for use in with promising cytotoxic profiles [21]. The role of transition metals as micronutrients as well as co-factors of several metallo- enzymes in living systems further corroborates the rationale behind synthesis and evaluation of novel transition-metal based complexes for their anticancer effects [22]. Future use of substituted organic ligands and their metal complexes would hence bring forth effective anticancer agents and would depend on structural modifications as would afford them better potency against a number of tumors/cancers, together with low toxicity and better solubility.

    Antioxidant Properties of Metal Complexes

An antioxidant is a molecule that inhibits the oxidation of other molecules. Oxidation is a chemical reaction that can produce free radicals, leading to chain reactions that may damage cells. Antioxidants terminate these chain reactions. Transition metal complexes have been shown to possess encouraging antioxidant activities [23]. Co(II), Ni(II), Cu(II) and Mn(II) complexes of 6-bromo-3-(3-(4-chlorophenyl)acryloyl)-2H-chromen-2-one have been recently found to be effective antioxidants [24]. Generally, antioxidant activity of complexes are determined in- vitro by the hydroxyl radical scavenging, DPPH, NO and reducing power methods [25]. The chemical principles of methods based on biological oxidants comprise superoxide radicals scavenging (O2•-); hydroxyl radical scavenging (HO.); hydrogen peroxide scavenging (H2O2); peroxyl radical scavenging (ROO.) and nitric oxide scavenging (NO.) [26]. Among the non-biological testing scavenging of 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH« assay) and scavenging of 2, 2-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline- 6-sulphonate) radical cation (ABTS assay) are mostly experimented. Furthermore, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and protein carbonyl assays have also been the subject of great attention in this context [27,28]. The novel electrochemical approach to antioxidant activity assay based on the reaction with stable radical 2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) monitored by the rotating disk electrode (RDE) method has been described advantageous in comparison with usual spectrophotometrical assay since it can be applied to colored compounds and in a wide range of concentrations [29].

    Dementia Relevant Metallic Systems

Alzheimer's disease currently affects over 5.4 million Americans with $236 billion spent annually on the direct costs of patient care [30]. Studies on antioxidant drugs would surely open successful doors to treat AD patients. Seeking for potential antioxidants, chemical behavior of Quercetin as antioxidant and metal chelator has become the subject of intense experimental research [31]. Under comparative antioxidant studies of Co(II), Ni(II), Cu(II) and Mn(II) complexes of 6-bromo-3-(3- (4-chlorophenyl)acryloyl)-2H- chromen-2-one Ni(II) complex shows superior antioxidant activity than other complexes [32]. Commonly it is has been observed that metal complexes may serve as better free radical scavengers [33-35] as compared to the respective free ligands. In some cases antioxidant complexes have rendered a well pronounced larvicidal activity [36]. Hence, synthetic chemistry is playing revolutionary role in human beings by synthesizing novel compounds by different techniques [37]. The target of scientific community has been thus to prepare bioactive compounds relevant to anticancer, antioxidant and enzyme inhibition studies at both the in-vitro as well as in-vivo fronts.

    Biomarkers

Biochemical pathways are famously complex and interconnected, so it’s no surprise that depictions of them have to be simplified (Figure 3). Increasingly, molecular and cell biologists have been coming to terms with the fact that it is hard to decide a label for some protein as a green fluorescent protein (GFP) and expect it to carry on as before. Putting a star next to its name on the whiteboard, or renaming it ‘Target-GFP’, doesn't capture what’s really going on. It is very, very hard to observe living systems at the molecular level without perturbing the very things trying to see, but a great deal of effort is now going into trying to minimize these effects [38]. Under the light shed for evaluation of antidiabetic and antioxidant research, besides developing biomarkers treatment strategies have also been the subject of huge interest. The current status of the aimed field in terms of literature survey is discussed below: (Figure 3).

    Diabetes and Bio-Conjugation

With the aim to continue the enthusiastic search of metallopharmaceutical drugs against diabetes [39,40], thiazolidinediones (TZD) have been reported to be effective anti-diabetic agents that improve insulin sensitivity through the activation of the nuclear receptor and adipocyte-specific transcription factor, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) [41]. Recently it has been found that Selective PPARγ modulators (sPPARγM) retain insulin sensitizing activity but with minimal side effects compared to traditional TZDs agents [42]. A combination of virtual docking, Surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-based binding, luciferase reporter and adipogenesis assays have been suggested to enlighten the interaction mode, affinity and agonistic activity of L312 to PPARγ in-vitro, respectively [43]. The pharmaceutical isoforms having anti-diabetic effect act by improving the biochemical parameters, this effect is probably due to the high content of polyphenolic compounds found in the formulations [44].

In due course of finding a successful antihyperglycemic candidate, metallic compounds like Vanadium complexes have been well demonstrated in streptozotocin-induced (STZ) diabetic rats and was found that that the vanadate and vanadyl forms of vanadium possessed a number of insulin-like effects in various cells [45]. In the current times basic aspect of diabetes including insulin molecular characterization, chemical basis and its secretion, hypoglycemic drugs and their mode of action associated with diabetes are among the main quests being searched [46]. In an approach of comparative antidiabetic studies of isoforms of BMOV having different metallic centres, it has been found that none so far has surpassed bis (maltolato) oxovanadium (IV) (BMOV) for glucose- and lipid-lowering in an orally available formulation [47]. It is hence clear that ligand and metal selection should be meticulously done to formulate efficient antidiabetic compound.

The bioconjugate chemistry of antihyperglycemic metallic complexes have presented worth some results. The conspicuous application of chromium (III)-amino acid complex against nicotinamide-streptozotocin induced diabetic Wistar rats showed that supplementation of Cr(III)-complex in 8 weeks decreased the blood glucose level in range 46.446-79.593% [48]. Similarly, vanadyl (IV) adenine complex has been introduced as a new drug model for the diabetic complications [49]. Therefore it is expected to be worthy if derivatives of biogenic ligands are formed to design a ligand of favourable properties. For instance, zinc metal-organic framework (MOF) synthesized under mild hydrothermal routes using 5-aminotetrazole and methyl-2- amino-4-isonicotinate anionic ligands has been reported to possess a well pronounced in-vivo antidiabetic activity and low in-vitro cell toxicity [50]. With the same effort,

N,N-Dimethylbiguanide hydrochloride complexes of Neodymium introduced as oral glucose-lowering agent to treat non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus and to act as antioxidant has shown prominent effect of functional group position in the respective ligands [51].

The medical properties of naturally occurring compounds such as chromones, flavonoids and coumarins are expected to enhance when complex with metal ions suggest the importance of bioconjugate chemical drug research. These complexes can be successfully used in the satisfactory treatment of diseases such as diabetes mellitus [52]. In recent years regulation of the enzymatic activity of human aldose reductase (HAR) has been the main focus of investigation, due to its potential therapeutic application in Diabetes mellitus (DM). Docking behaviour of human aldose reductase (HAR) with different ligands namely such as embelin (Figure 4), copper-embelin complex, zinc- embelin complex, vilangin and quercetin evaluated along with their putative binding sites using Discovery Studio Version 3.1 has shown that that vilangin has maximum interaction energy (-48.94kcal/mol) and metformin with the least interaction energy (19.52kcal/mol) as compared to the other investigated ligands [53]. Therefore, it is strongly suggested that such type of study outcomes might provide new insight in understanding these seven ligands, as potential candidates for human aldose reductase (HAR) inhibitory activity & for the prevention of Diabetes mellitus (DM) associate disorders.

Based on combined in-vitro and in-vitro antioxident evaluation of resveratrol (Figure 5) and molecular modeling studies, it has been indicated that ligand-target interactions/ biological activities are largely dependent on enantiomerism of a target compound [54].

    Antioxidant Activity and Bioconjugation

Antioxidant studies are carried out at the cost of various standard methods [55]. Metal dyshomeostasis is known to be linked with numerous diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson’s diseases, cancer, etc. Recent studies have indicated that some of the metallic compounds of certain ligands may be active while some render inactivity when antioxidant activity test was carried out using picryhydrazyl (DPPH) [56]. On one hand polyphenols have been suggested as efficient antioxidant and anti inflammatory candidates [57] and on the other hand their metallic compounds are expected to exhibit enhanced antioxidant activity due to flexible oxidation state of a metallic centre [58]. Nickel complex of the non-steroidal antiinflammatory drug diflunisal (Hdifl) resulted in the additive antioxidant effect of the respective ligand [59].

The antioxidant activity of the ligand, bis(N-(3-methoxy- salicylidene)-4-amino -phenyl)ether (H2L) and its metal complexes Mn(III) and Cu(II) complexes determined by DPPH, superoxide, hydroxyl and ABTS radical scavenging methods in- vitro, suggest that the Cu(II) complex exhibits greater antioxidant activity against DPPH, superoxide, hydroxyl and ABTS radicals than those of the ligand and the Mn(III) complex [60]. The biotin- 8-hydroxyquinoline conjugates and their metal complexes with manganese(II), cobalt(II), nickel(II), copper(II) and zinc(II) have also been well studied for the possible application in oxidative stress [61]. Similar fashion has been observed with the metallic compounds of

p-coumaric acid [62], 2-(3-amino-4, 6-dimethyl-1Hpyrazolo[ 3,4-b]pyridin-1-yl)aceto-hydrazide [63], chromone Schiff base (Figure 6) [64], etc.

Another important aspect of the antioxidant studies is the strength of a complex not to undergo ROS generation to render a mechanistic action without harming a normal mammalian cell e.g., Ag complex of 1, 10-phenanthroline [65] has shown an interesting behaviour in this context.

    Sugar and Urea Derivative Based Complexes

Urea derivatives bonding through the nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen atoms to the central metal ion form an important class of biologically active ligands. They have been receiving considerable attention due to their pharmacological properties, anti tubercular activity, antiviral potentiality, activity against protozoa small pox and certain kinds of tumour [66]. The chelating characters of thiosemicarbazone have been studied very widely with different metal ions, their complexes with transition and non transition elements were reported.

The ability of sugars to sequester metals is of current interest in the possible development of metal chelates for clinical use and as models for biologically important compounds. Amino sugars form Schiff base with salicylaldehyde and other aromatic aldehydes and only few reports of transition metal complexes of these ligands have been found. Metal chelation could be a rational therapeutic approach for interdicting Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. Amyloid plaques that are clusters of proteins and metal ions accumulated between neurons (nerve cells) in Alzheimer's patients’ brains. Enhancing the targeting and efficacy of metal-ion chelating agents through sugar appended ligand is a recent strategy in the development of the next generation of metal chelators.

    Conclusion

From the overall survey it has been established that biomolecules impart great effects in metallic systems to develop molecules of interest. Metallopharmaceuticals are engaged in designing heme-oxygenase and nitric oxide synthase models to bring forth highly demanded gasotransmitter efficiency applicable at various bio-essential routes. Under these circumstances scientific community should fabricate bioconjugated systems to form compounds of human beneficial and multi-purposeful.

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Friction Modifiers Market Report Explored in Latest Research 2017 – 2025

Friction modifiers, often referred to as boundary lubrication additives, are oil soluble chemicals used in lube oils as additives for transmissions and internal combustion engines. These lubricants are added to reduce wear and friction in machine components. They are essential in a borderline of lubrication regime, where these help prevent solid surfaces from greasing into each other, thereby reducing friction and wear. Although they signify only a small portion of the total engine oil market, they play a vital role in modern engine oils by reducing friction in major metal-metal interaction points in engines and transmissions. Apart from enhancing fuel economy by decreasing friction, these help minimize light surface contacts, reduce engine wear and noise, and help to avoid micro-pitting of metal surfaces when these are used in industrial gear lubricants.

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Products that are used as friction modifiers include natural and synthetic fatty acids, esters, and few solid materials such as molybdenum disulfide and graphite. These molecules help provide a cushioning effect to coated surfaces when one surface comes in contact with another surface, provided the frictional contact is minimum. However, in case of a heavy contact, molecules are brushed off, thereby eliminating any potential benefits of additives.

The major function of a friction modifier differs based on its application. For instance, in a combustion engine, it reduces the amount of friction, thus gaining fuel economy. However, in industrial applications, automatic transmissions, and clutches, it reduces slippage and regulates friction to enhance efficiency. Friction modifiers are designed to increase lubricity of machine components or reduce friction in order to achieve better fuel economy. In the last few years, the U.S. government has increased the fuel economy standards to raise the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) to 54.5miles/gallon. This is for gasoline engines only; however, there is a slight push for diesel engines as well. Reduction in viscosity of engine oils is required to achieve this goal.

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The market for friction modifiers is driven by the increase in demand for fuel efficient lubricants, stringent regulations pertaining to fuel economy standards, and continuous development in technology for friction modifiers. Furthermore, expansion of the automotive industry and vehicle parc is anticipated to boost the market. However, shift in trend toward the usage of alternative fuel sources and expansion of the electric vehicles sector is anticipated to hinder the market.

The global friction modifiers market can be segmented based on type, function, and region. In terms of type, the global friction modifiers market can be divided into organic friction modifiers, and non-organic friction modifiers. The non-organic friction modifiers segment is further bifurcated into metallo-organic compounds and mechanical types. Based on function, the market can be classified into friction reduction, slippage reduction, and others.

Based on region, the global friction modifiers market can be segmented into North America, Asia Pacific, Latin America, Europe, and Middle East & Africa. In terms of consumption, Asia Pacific dominated the global friction modifiers market in 2017, closely followed by Europe and North America. The region is anticipated to dominate the global market during the forecast period. This can be ascribed to the recognition of countries such as China, Japan, South Korea, and India as automotive hubs. Owing to continuous progresses and modifications in technologies that are employed for manufacturing friction modifiers, significant investments in R&D activities are witnessed being in the region, in order to the improve friction modifiers.

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STANDARDIZATION OF ABHRAKA BHASMA W.R.T CHEMICAL, PHARMACEUTICAL & METALLOGRAPHIC STUDIES

From The Vault: T. Maheswar - (Asst. Director (Ay.), National Ayurveda Research in Vector borne diseases, Vijayawada ) G. Venkateshwarlu (Asst. Director (Ay.), National Ayurveda Dietetics Research Institute, GCP Annexe, Ashoka pillar,Jayanagar, Bangalore-11.) Introduction Rasashastra, the science of Ayurvedic metallurgy deals with the Minerals & Metals, their purification and various Kalpanas (formulations) has been held in high esteem in the maintaining of health. It is obvious from the literature that after progressive blooming of Sodhana (purification) and Marana (incineration) processes, the use of metallo mineral drugs becomes acceptable to the human body. The mineral compounds prepared through the process like Shodhana (purification), Bhavana (trituration), Marana (incineration) are considered pharmac eutically most suitable forms as they are superior, non-toxic and highly potent for therapeutic point of view. Owing to the superiority of mineral drugs in the place of herbal drugs it has been described that the supremacy might be due to their fast action in smaller dose with good palatability. Even though many Physicians do not prescribe these drugs amidst of apprehensions of heavy metal toxicity. Ayurvedic rasa texts have documented therapeutic and ill effects of properly and improperly prepared bhasmas. Moreover, due to the popularity and great demand of herbal and herbo mineral drugs, many of the Ayurvedic pharmaceutical industries are employing short cut methods, besides, using substitute drugs, adulteration practices, which may lead to hazardous ill effects in the patients. While taking into account of the quality control measures for the standardization of Rasaushadhies, the following ancient methods have to be employed to assure the reliability in terms of safety and efficiency of the product. Selection of raw material on the basis of Grahyagrahyalakshanas. Shodhana process-Suitable purificatory Marana procedure- Suitable incineration Bhasma pariksha- Physical & chemical tests for prepared bhasma. From Ayurvedic literature it has described that Abhraka bhasma is being used for treating several ailments like Prameha (diabetes), Kshaya (emaciation), Pandu (anaemia), Jwara (chronic fever), Dourbalya (debility), restorative, vitalizer and promotes immunity. As far as therapeutic use of Rasausadhies is concerned, there is a controversy on its safety. In every stage of processing necessary modern parameters like Chemical analysis, Atomic absorption, Infrared- spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction technique and Metallographic techniques have been used and studied. In this paper an important mineral drug Abhraka bhasma (Biotite Mica) has been studied by adopting modern tools as well as Ayurvedic standardization methods and compared the results. Pharmaceutical study The bhasma preparation of minerals and metals is a long time consuming process for the preparation of all the bhasmas for which Vanyopalas (naturally available cow dung cake) are used as fuel in conventional putas. Now a days it has become very difficult to get such type of Vanyopalas in required amount to give the specific and constant temperature. At the same time due to advancement of science and technology a sophisticated electric furnace is being used, through which one can maintain the desired temperature for required duration. However, there is distrust whether the putas could be replaced with electric furnace for the preparation of bhasmas. In this regard there are ample references available in the Ayurvedic classics with different types of Sodhana, Bhavana, Marana procedures by using various drugs and also there is variations in type and number of putas are being used. Hence, it is necessary to find out a standard bhasma preparation with suitable methods. Table.1. Showing the comparative study of Abhraka bhasma (Dhanyaabhraka) prepared by various techniques.

Total weight of cow dung cakes was used in Varaha puta : 12kg The temparature of Varaha puta was recorded with Thermocouple and the same type of temparature has been given through electric furnace for 2nd & 4th methods. The above table shows that the 4th method of preparation by employing bhavana with Guda (Jaggery) and Eranda patra swarasa through electric furnace had shown a suitable method in comparison to other methods.   Analytical study The analytical study is necessary to find out adulteration/ substitution as well as presence of free partcles that will have an effect on the quality and safety of the drug. Chemical analysis Samples of Abhraka bhasma at different stages of pharmaceutical preparation along with a crude Abhraka has subjected to chemical study in a view to determine the important chemical constituents qualitatively and quantitatively. Qualitative analysis Table.2. Showing the chemical constituents of Abhraka bhasma

It has been observed that the elements like Fe, Al, Mg & K were found in all most all the samples.     Quantitative analysis Table.3. Showing percentage of chemical constituents of Abhraka bhasma

As far as chemical constituents are concerned, it has been observed that the percentage of Fe, Al and Mg elements was increased gradually because of the drugs used in Sodhana & Bhavana. It was also noticed that some of the elements like Ba, Mn, Cr, K, Fl and Ti were also found in traces. X-Ray diffraction study This technique has used to standardize the structural charaterization and to identify the parental metal particles if any, present in the Abhraka bhasma. In this study, Abhraka bhasma prepared by using of electric furnace method and conventional puta method has taken and carried out by the X-rd technique (PW-1710) equipped with Graphite monochromator. On the basis of various phase formations among the elemental compositions the X-rd pattern was indexed and observed 20, d-values were noted. From this pattern the peaks were indexed on the basis of standard ASTM chart to find out the structural characterization of Abraka Bhasma. Table.4. X-Ray diffraction study of Abhraka bhasma prepared by electric furnace method 2 θ d- Value Intensity hkl Phase 21.634 4.1076 25 011 Fe3Al 23.410 3.7999 25 312 Al3Fe 27.721 3.2180 88 002 Mg2Si 36.995 2.4298 37 111 Mgo 64.464 1.4454 50 004 FeO 38.480 2.3394 18 433 Al3Fe 62.941 1.4766 54 445 FeO 50.006 1.8239 72 012 Fe3Al 75.844 1.2543 13 515 Mg2Si   Table.5. X-Ray diffraction study of Abhraka bhasma prepared by conventional puta method 2 θ d- Value Intensity hkl Phase 21.824 4.0723 19 011 Fe3Al 23.419 3.7984 17 312 Al3Fe 27.855 3.2028 100 002 Mg2Si 63.035 1.4747 50 113 Mgo 64.464 1.4454 50 004 FeO 36.252 2.4766 123 423 Al3Fe 62.941 1.4766 54 445 FeO 64.541 1.4439 47 004 Fe3Al 75.899 1.2523 18 515 Mg2Si The final product of Abraka bhasma after 10th puta prepared by electric furnace method and conventional puta method, which clearly shows the multi physic formations such as Fe3 Al, The final product of Abraka bhasma after 10th puta prepared by electric furnace method and conventional puta method, which clearly shows the multi phasic formations such as Fe3A1, A13Fe, Mg2Si, MgO, FeO etc. It was observed that there is no much difference between the two samples of bhasmas at the level of structural characterization. Metallographic study It is an advanced scientific parameter being used to study the microstructure of Rasaushadhies, to identify parent metal particles and the mature compound formed during preparation. The various samples of Abhraka bhasma have been subjected to metallographic study. It has been observed that, the formation of intergranular cracks and precipitation of some compound of Abraka after Shodhana process. Conclusion. The following observations are made during the study. Gud (Jaggary) and Eranda swarasa are the best and suitable media for the preparations of Abraka Bhasma. By this media, bhasma can be prepared within 10 putas. There is no difference in physical and chemical properties between the bhasmas prepared by Electric furnace and conventional puta Chemically Abraka bhasma contains Fe, Al, Mg and other elements like K, Ba, Ti, Mn, Fl, Cr, etc, in traces. Al3Fe, Mg2Si, MgO, FeO, In the Metallographic study, the micro structures of Abraka bhasma shows the typical compound formation with oxidation of Fe, Mg, Al, and other elements, and also some semi fused masses formed due to the fusion of ash of organic herbs and compounds. With this study it can be concluded that the modern techniques like Chemical Analysis, X-ray diffraction, Metallographic study, etc. are much suitable parameters for standardization of Rasaushadies. Acknowledgement: The authors are thankful to Dr.C.B.Jha, Professor & HOD, Dept. of Rasashastra, IMS, BHU, Prof.V. B. Pandey, Dept.of Medicinal chemistry, Prof. J.S. Kachhawaha, Dept.of Metallurgy, for their valuable guidance. Read the full article

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Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Market to Record High Demand by 2017 – 2022

Geographically, this report split global into several key Regions, with sales (K MT), revenue (Million USD), market share and growth rate of Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters for these regions, from 2012 to 2022 (forecast), covering

United States

China

Europe

Japan

Southeast Asia

India

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 Global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters market competition by top manufacturers/players, with Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters sales volume, Price (USD/MT), revenue (Million USD) and market share for each manufacturer/player; the top players including

Eastman Chemical

Sartomer

TCP Global

MasterBond

Special Chem

3M

Akzonobel

DuPont

Air Products and Chemicals

Altana AG

Evonik Industries

Arkema

BASF

DOW Corning Corporation

Eastman Chemical

On the basis of product, this report displays the production, revenue, price, market share and growth rate of each type, primarily split into

Silane Coupling Agents

Metallo-organic Compound

Modified High-molecular Polymer

Other

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 On the basis on the end users/applications, this report focuses on the status and outlook for major applications/end users, sales volume, market share and growth rate for each application, including

Coating & Paint

Ink

Other

 Table of Contents:

1 Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Market Overview

1.1 Product Overview and Scope of Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters

1.2 Classification of Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters by Product Category

1.2.1 Global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Market Size (Sales) Comparison by Type (2012-2022)

1.2.2 Global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Market Size (Sales) Market Share by Type (Product Category) in 2016

1.2.3 Silane Coupling Agents

1.2.4 Metallo-organic Compound

1.2.5 Modified High-molecular Polymer

1.2.6 Other

1.3 Global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Market by Application/End Users

1.3.1 Global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Sales (Volume) and Market Share Comparison by Application (2012-2022)

1.3.2 Coating & Paint

1.3.3 Ink

1.3.4 Other

1.4 Global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Market by Region

1.4.1 Global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Market Size (Value) Comparison by Region (2012-2022)

1.4.2 United States Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Status and Prospect (2012-2022)

1.4.3 China Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Status and Prospect (2012-2022)

1.4.4 Europe Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Status and Prospect (2012-2022)

 2 Global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Competition by Players/Suppliers, Type and Application

2.1 Global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Market Competition by Players/Suppliers

2.1.1 Global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Sales and Market Share of Key Players/Suppliers (2012-2017)

2.1.2 Global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Revenue and Share by Players/Suppliers (2012-2017)

2.2 Global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters (Volume and Value) by Type

2.2.1 Global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Sales and Market Share by Type (2012-2017)

2.2.2 Global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Revenue and Market Share by Type (2012-2017)

2.3 Global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters (Volume and Value) by Region

2.3.1 Global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Sales and Market Share by Region (2012-2017)

2.3.2 Global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Revenue and Market Share by Region (2012-2017)

2.4 Global Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters (Volume) by Application

 3 United States Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters (Volume, Value and Sales Price)

3.1 United States Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Sales and Value (2012-2017)

3.1.1 United States Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Sales and Growth Rate (2012-2017)

3.1.2 United States Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Revenue and Growth Rate (2012-2017)

3.1.3 United States Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Sales Price Trend (2012-2017)

3.2 United States Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Sales Volume and Market Share by Players

3.3 United States Nonchlorinated Polyolefin Adhesion Promoters Sales Volume and Market Share by Type

…..

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