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newnarrative · 4 years ago

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Green Energy Boondoggle

The “Green” Energy Boondoggle

By NewNarrative

One of the more popular narratives in the U.S. today concerns “green energy” and the elimination of the use of fossil fuels. This topic is popular in the media throughout the U.S as well as here in California. One simply cannot read a newspaper these days without finding a reference to the greatness and future of solar power. But has anyone considered what they are saying when they demand for the push to end fossil fuels? Or do they think about how much it will cost to build all of these new clean power facilities? What about what the REAL cost to the environment is?

Make no mistake, clean energy has its place. Reducing green house gasses is a noble cause. But before we rush headlong into destroying the economy (see below), let’s look at some facts about solar power and specifically energy uses here in California.

Today, solar power represents a mere 7% of the State’s total retail energy usage. Currently, 41% of the state’s energy consumption is dedicated to transportation (fossil fuels), and another 24% of the State’s energy, mostly fossil fuels, is used for industrial uses. With this in mind, one begins to see that the goal of the elimination of fossil fuels, while well-meaning, does not begin to address the end of fossil fuels.

Fossil fuels are essential in the operation of many solar facilities. Solar panels are comprised of a number of rare and extremely toxic and hazardous materials that are used in their manufacture. Some of the materials used to make solar panels release in excess of 20,000 times the amount of green house gasses as the CO2 they are meant to help eliminate. Additionally, there is significant waste in the manufacturing process used to create the solar panels. Finally, the panels represent a huge problem at the end of their lives as there are currently no laws in the U.S. concerning how these toxic panels are safely recycled or what they will do to the environment when they are put into landfills. Source: California Energy Commission

It is useful then, to gain an understanding of the place that solar has in California, how much solar capacity the State has, and how much energy in total the State needs. Without the proper perspective, it becomes easy to fall in line with the narrative.

California Solar Production Compared to Other Sources

Currently there is one major solar facility in San Bernadino County, California known as SEGS. SEGS is a actually series of facilities that were initially built in the late 1990’s and commissioned in 2004, where it started with a capacity of 50 MW. The complex has since grown to a capacity of 354 MW spread over several sites. These sites initially were built utilizing Solar Thermal Energy but that has since evolved into a photovoltaic complex.

The facilities that make up SEGS now consist of a total of 9 solar power plants spread throughout the Mojave Desert. The original site was a Solar Thermal Energy Facility, which when it was built was the world’s second largest. This type of facility uses sunlight to heat oil to 400 degrees C (or more) which is then used to transfer the heat to water to create the steam needed to spin turbines, thereby creating electricity. This type of facility is located at Harper Lake and Dagget and employs about 140 people. Source: Solargenix Energy

One of the initial problems with Solar Thermal Energy is the use of fossil fuels. In 1999, at the SEGS Dagget facility, a 900,000 gallon tank of therminol (a type of mineral oil), which is a heat transfer liquid used to transfer solar heat to the steam tanks, caught fire and burned for hours. Firefighters had to rush to keep the fire from spreading the other nearby tanks that contained sulfuric acid and caustic soda. It seems that not all solar plants generate electricity without the use of other fossil fuels. Source: LA times

The largest U.S. Solar Thermal Energy facility is a Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) facility located at Ivanpah (Mojave Desert, near the California- Nevada border). At a cost of $2.2 billion to build (of which $1.6 billion was federally guaranteed money), this facility uses 173,000 mirrors designed to concentrate sunlight to the top of three towers in which boilers are placed to transfer the heat to boil water which spin the turbines used to generate electricity. This facility was, at the time of its initial construction, the largest such facility in the world, and it has never lived up to its potential due to the high construction cost and numerous incidents and glitches in its operation. These glitches include a fire started by the mirrors directing heat to the wrong part of the solar tower, starting a fire which caused the shutdown of that portion of the facility, and the thousands of birds killed each year as they fly through the beam of heat generated by the mirrors. The complexity of the facility also leaves open the possibility of any number of piping or, other mechanical issues that impair full production. Source: BrightWorks

The cost per KWh from various solar facilities such as mentioned here is also about two to three times that of the cost to produce electricity versus the more practical Photo Voltaic facility at SEGS. As a side note, this facility created 1000 construction jobs to build the plant and has 89 permanent positions on site. Source: US Department of Energy

According to the US Department of Energy, the cost to build a solar plant based on the most recent numbers (2015) is more than four times as much as the cost to build a natural-gas fired plant. Natural gas facilities last between 30 and 50 years, while a solar plant only has a life expectancy of 20 years. Source: US Department of Energy

The cost to build a Solar Thermal Energy facility or a Photovoltaic facility, is considerably more that the cost to build a natural gas facility, as noted by the chart below.

As of 2018, the total percentage of solar energy produced in California represented just 14% of the state’s electricity needs, while energy from coal was 15%. Electricity from nuclear power has fallen to 9.4% from the sole facility at Diablo Canyon, where production has remained constant as other sources of electricity have risen. As a side note, Diablo Canyon is slated to be shut down in 2024, which will make California’s energy shortfall worse.

The combined totals of wind, solar, small hydro, geothermal and biomass produce 32.3% of the state’s total energy output, but that number reached 43.6% with the addition of large hydro electricity production. Electricity from natural gas remains the top source of electricity with a total of 46.5% of the state’s total production. Source: California Energy Commission

One other important fact is that currently, California imports 32% of its power from other states. The total electrical generating capacity in the State of California is around 54,000 MW. Remove the +/-10,000 MW from Diablo Canyon and the total magnitude of the problem begins to emerge. If California produced 100% of the power it needed, it would need an additional 17,000 MW of capacity. To achieve 100% “green” power from solar it would take roughly 20 square miles of panels! That is a lot of panels.

An essential component of the solar conversation has to do with how the solar panels are manufactured.

Solar Panels – How They Are Made

There are two types of solar power plants, photo voltaic (PV) and heat generating. PV facilities use solar panels like the ones on your house to convert sunlight directly into electricity, whereas heat generating facilities use reflective panels to heat a liquid which is then sent to a turbine which in turn spins to create electricity.

The manufacture of the solar panels and what happens to them once they have reached their life expectancy is of some concern. According to ChemService Inc., an industry standards magazine, the manufacture of solar panels is, like fracking, reliant on a variety of chemicals in order to work successfully and efficiently. The panels use silicon like they use for semiconductors, except that even pure silicon is not pure enough to make a solar panel efficient, so the raw silicon must be treated with a chemical-rich process.

First the silicon is mixed with copper and Hydrochloric acid to produce Tricholosilane gas, which is then reduced with hydrogen to make Silane gas. The Silane gas is heated into molten silicon which leads to silicon crystals that can be reformed and used for PV cells and micro chips. This process is very energy intensive and materially wasteful, with about half of the initial pure metallurigical silicon lost in the process. Silicon dust represents safety dangers and Silane gas is incredibly explosive (it ignites when it mixes with oxygen).

Some other chemicals used to make solar panels include Cadnium, Nitrogen Trifluoride and Sulfur Hexafluoride. Cadnium is a naturally occurring earth metal, produced from smelting zinc, copper or lead ore. The EPA has noted that inhaling or being exposed to Cadmium can lead to cancerous and noncancerous damage to lungs and other organs. Cadnium is also very expensive, and like silicon only about half of the cadmium is used in the PV making process - so

the rest is waste. Finally the risk of any type of breach or leak of cadmium into the water supply would be very harmful.

While solar panels do not generate greenhouse gasses when they operate, the manufacturing process of solar panels does. Two additional chemicals used in the manufacture of solar panels includes Nitrogen Trifluoride and Sulfur Hexafluoride. Nirgoen Trifluoride is 17,000 times stronger than CO2 while Sulfur Hexafluoride is 22,800 times more potent than CO2. These gasses are released into the atmosphere during the manufacturing process. Source: ChemService Inc. Magazine

Finally, there is the matter of what to do with the solar panels once they have reached the end of their life expectancy. Currently, there are no laws in the US (as there are in Europe) with regard to the disposal of the used panels. Most panels go to a recycler first, who will remove any copper wires and the aluminum frame. But the rest of the panel is essentially chemically-laden glass which is toxic and potentially lethal.

According to the International Renewable Energy Agency there is a solar e-waste glut coming with an anticipated 78 million metric tons of waste being generated by 2050 with another 6 million metric tons each year thereafter. This is an environmental problem that has yet to be addressed. Source: Renewable Energy Agency

World Wide Manufacturers of Solar Panels

The drive toward 100% clean energy, and specifically from solar, represents a boon to the companies who manufacture the panels, or the polysilicon crystals used to make those panels. The list that follows represents the top ten solar manufacturers and their country of origin as of 2019.

1. JinkoSolar, - Shanghai China

2. Canadian Solar – Guelph, Canada

3. Loom Solar – Faridabad, Haryana

4. Trina Solar – Changzhou, China

5. SunPower Corp – San Jose, CA

6. Hanwha Q Cells – Seoul, South Korea

7. JA Solar – Beijing, China

8. First Solar – Tempe Arizona

9. SF-PV - Changzhou, China

10. Yingli Solar – Baoding, China

Source: SolarClap.com

As of June 2019, only two of those companies, Sun Power and First Solar, are located in the U.S., meaning that in order to continue to work toward 100% “clean energy”, that the panels or components will be purchased largely from China or from elsewhere around the world. It is not clear if all of the panels manufactured by Sun Power or First Solar are made in the U.S., but it is likely that the polysilicon crystals are not.

Add to that fact that the construction, maintenance and operation costs of solar facilities exceed

that of most gas-fired energy facilities, and that the solar panels themselves represent a toxic

disposal problem that has yet to be addressed, and a new picture starts to emerge – that the

true cost of the shift to solar has not been adequately addressed or publically discussed.

While the move to “clean energy” is noble on its face, there is much to be said for energy independence. The U.S. has a 1000 year supply of fossil fuels. The thought that fossil fuels can / should be eliminated to “save the world” is short-sighted at best, and an outright lie at the worst.

Goal of 100% Carbon Free by 2045

California has a stated goal of producing 60% “clean energy” by 2030, and 100% clean energy by 2045. This information comes from CA SB 100, “The Clean Air Act”, a report produced by the California Energy Commission. A close look at this document reveals that this goal only applies to the RETAIL sector. So we are looking at 100% (or green energy) being used to serve the needs of 7% of the total energy market. It’s all about misdirection. Smoke & mirrors. A narrative put forth by well-meaning politicians and the media. Let’s all (not) get on the bandwagon.

According to the Wall Street Journal, 80% of the world’s solar components are made in China. The push to build more solar facilities in the U.S. represents what could be the single largest transfer of wealth to other countries in the history of this great nation. Those panels require extremely toxic chemicals in their manufacture, some of which release extraordinarily high levels of greenhouse gasses.

Finally, the disposal of the used panels represents yet another hurdle, as there are currently no laws or regulation as to their disposal. 78 million metric tons represents 172 TRILLION pounds of toxic waste. How green is that?

It is becoming clear that solar by itself is not the answer to producing “clean” energy. Nuclear power is clean. Nuclear facilities last a long time, and despite the bad rap that has been placed on these facilities, there have been very few issues here in the U.S. Hydro power is efficient and clean, but there is not enough of it. Biomass as an industry that is still in its infancy, but one that has potential to become an important part of the creation of green energy. Natural gas is dominant and relatively clean, especially in California, and will remain the go-to source for electrical power for a long time to come.

With all of this in mind, we need more transparency when it comes to having an honest and realistic discussion about green energy. Unionizing a labor force is not the answer, especially when the competition (China) is using forced labor to make solar panels. We must also be honest about the cost, which is rarely discussed. Any rational discussion about green energy should focus on the resources we already have in the U.S. If we have a 1000 year supply of natural gas, it seems that it would be far more cost effective to utilize what already works.

Timelines to generate 100% clean energy are nothing more than a push to lower the United States and California specifically into a second class society at the effect of the New World Order. The total cost for the conversion of California’s energy to solar is in the trillions. The footprint of these facilities is considerably larger than gas-fired power plants. Solar facilities do not last as long as other types of facilities. Disposal of used panels is a problem.

With regard to “going green”, the cost is clearly not worth it.

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synopsischemitech · 3 years ago

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How are Chlorine and Caustic Soda Made?

Chlorine occurs naturally but not in its elemental (gas) form (as Cl2). Caustic soda (usually as NaOH) is produced as a liquid. These are produced by passing an electrical current through brine (common salt dissolved in water). This is called electrolysis, a process which has been known for over 120 years to produce caustic soda.

Electrolysis

The process of manufacture in a caustic soda plant uses electricity and salt.

The hydrogen is used to produce hydrochloric acid, ammonia, hydrogen peroxide, or is burned for power and/or steam production. (Wikipedia)

Only part of the caustic soda product is withdrawn from the cathode compartment. The remaining caustic is diluted to ~32% and returned to the cathode compartment. The caustic solution that remains leaves the cell at about 30% concentration before often being further concentrated to 50% away from the cell. Typically, this is done with a falling film evaporator.

In the membrane process, the ion exchange membrane acts as a barrier to all gas and liquid flows, and only allows the passage of sodium ions between compartments. The sodium ions pass in hydrated form to produce sodium hydroxide in the cathode where hydrogen is given off. Chlorine gas is liberated at the anode. The membrane is a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene or a similar fluorinated monomer. (ICIS) Only part of the caustic soda product is withdrawn from the cathode compartment. The remaining caustic is diluted to ~32% and returned to the cathode compartment.

Uses

Caustic Soda or Sodium Hydroxide has many different uses such as unblocking drains and making soap. Caustic soda main uses include being used as a drainpipe cleaner, unblocks drains, removes built up grease from ovens, used to make soap and detergents. It is a versatile product to have around the house as it has so many uses.

Sodium hydroxide and chlorine are manufactured together to produce chlorine bleach. The reason that drains cleaners contain sodium hydroxide is that it converts gats and grease that clog pipes into soap, which then dissolves in water. Making it a very effective drain cleaner.

Caustic Soda in the soap manufacturing industry is commonly used to make solid soaps. Many individuals now make their own soaps using caustic soda.

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curesonearth · 6 years ago

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A Complete Guide to Medical Use of Peppermint

Peppermint (Mentha x Piperita L.), once thought to be a unique species, is now considered a hybrid of two other members of the mint family: water mint (Mentha aquatica L.) and spearmint (Mentha spicata L.).2'3 Although it is native to Europe, peppermint is now an important aromatic/medicinal crop grown throughout North American temperate zones, especially in the states of Indiana, Wisconsin, Oregon, Washington and Idaho. This perennial grows to a height of approximately 1 meter or 40 inches, spreads by surface runners, and has pink-to-purple flowers. In addition, it has a square stem characteristic of all members of the mint family.

Parts Used

The leaf, as an infusion and as an essential oil, is the part used medicinally.

Traditional Use

Both the peppermint leaf, often taken as a tea and the essential oil, which is distilled from the leaves, have a long history of medicinal use. Peppermint is considered a carminative. Peppermint leaf tea has been used for indigestion, nausea, diarrhoea, colds, headache and cramps. The most common use of peppermint oil today is as a flavouring agent in a variety of oral products, including toothpaste, chewing gum and after-dinner mints. This review will primarily deal with the use of peppermint when taken orally or applied topically and not on its use as an aromatherapy agent.

Current Medicinal Use

Peppermint is now primarily used for its digestive actions in the treatment of such conditions as irritable bowel syndrome and indigestion. It is also used in the management of nausea.

Relevant Research

Preventative and Therapeutic Effects

VOLATILE OIL: (-)-menthol and its esters (acetate and isovalerate), (+)- and (-)-menthone, (+)-isomenthone, (+)-neomethone, (+)-menthofuran, eucalyptol, (-)-limonene.

MISCELLANEOUS: flavonoids, phytol, tocopherols, carotenoids, betain, choline, azulenes, rosmarinic acid, tannins.

Note: Menthol makes up 29-48% of the essential oil, but is considered to be a distinctly different agent, not to be confused with the volatile oil of peppermint. Although menthol can be obtained from peppermint oil, the high price of peppermint oil makes this use very uncommon. Today, menthol is usually produced synthetically by the hydrogenation of thymol. Synthetic menthol differs from that produced from peppermint in that it is racemic.

COMMON USES

Peppermint is reputed to have anti-spasmodic, carminative, anti-emetic, diaphoretic, hepatic and antiseptic properties. As with all carminatives, oral consumption is considered useful in the treatment of many digestive disorders especially nausea, vomiting, bloating, nervous bowel and indigestion.", 12 It is also commonly used to treat colds and flus.

GASTROINTESTINAL EFFECTS

According to a 1990 study of a variety of over-the-counter (OTC) products conducted by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States, there is not sufficient evidence to demonstrate that peppermint oil is effective as a digestive aid. However, this conclusion was based solely on evidence submitted by the manufacturers of the OTC products being reviewed. Tyler heavily criticizes this review.6 In contrast, the German Commission E's review of the scientific literature has concluded that there is sufficient evidence to demonstrate that peppermint and its volatile oil are effective spasmolytic and that they promote gastric secretions and the flow of bile.

Several studies have found that in order for peppermint oil to alleviate effectively the symptoms of a variety of bowel conditions, including irritable bowel and spastic colon, the oil must reach the colon in its original state (i.e., metabolized state). Thus, most peppermint oil products sold for this purpose in Canada are enteric-coated. Gelatine-coated capsules release the peppermint oil in the stomach where it is metabolized before reaching the colon.

Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Irritable bowel presents with symptoms such as abdominal pain, feelings of distention, and "variations in bowel habits." Several clinical trials have demonstrated the clinical effectiveness of enteric-coated peppermint oil (most often the brand Colpermin®) in relieving these symptoms. In one double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial (n=18), enteric-coated peppermint oil capsules (1-2 caps three times daily depending on the severity of symptoms) given between meals significantly decreased patients' symptoms when compared with a placebo (peanut oil).

In another randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in 42 children (all over 8 years of age) with irritable bowel syndrome, enteric-coated peppermint oil capsules (Colpermin® consisting of 187 mg of peppermint oil per dose) were found to reduce the severity of pain after a two-week treatment period. Patients weighing more than 45 kg received 2 peppermint oil or placebo capsules daily and those weighing between 30 and 45 kg received 1 capsule three times daily. If you are thinking of buying peppermint supplement then you should read this guide which will actually help you to buy any kind of supplement.

Anti-Spasmodic

Several in vitro studies have demonstrated peppermint oil's ability to relax smooth muscle via blockade of the calcium channel transport mechanism.19,2° One research team reported that colon spasms during endoscopy were relieved within 30 seconds when diluted suspension of peppermint oil injected along the biopsy channel of the colonoscope in 20 patients. They called for a prospective clinical trial for this indication, but our literature search found none to date. Several clinical studies have noted that the addition of peppermint to barium enema sus-pension decreased the incidence of spasm. One double-blind study (n=141) found that peppermint oil (added to barium sulphate suspension) was significantly effective at relieving colonic muscle spasm during double-contrast barium enema examination. The authors suggest that this simple, safe and inexpensive technique could decrease the need for intravenous spasmolytic agents during barium enema procedures.

Miscellaneous Gastrointestinal Effects

One double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study (n=6) found that peppermint oil decreases colonic motility in humans." Another double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial (n=45) found that a peppermint oil (90 mg)/Caraway oil (50 mg) combination significantly reduced the symptoms of non-ulcer dyspepsia after four weeks of treatment.25 Promising results were reported from another four-week randomized, controlled trial comparing a peppermint oil (90 mg) / Caraway oil (50 mg) combination with cisapride (30 mg daily) in 120 outpatients with functional dyspepsia. In this case, both treatment regimens were found to be equally effective and well tolerated.

ANTI-MICROBIAL ACTIVITY

Anti-Bacterial

In vitro testing indicates that peppermint inhibits the growth of a variety of bacteria including S. aureus, B. brevis, B. circulars, Citrobacter sp., E. colt, Klebsiella sp., S. Typhi, S. Typhirnurium, S. boydii, S. flexneri, and V. cholerae. In addition, peppermint oil was found to be ineffective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The clinical significance of these findings is unknown.

Anti-Fungal

Peppermint is reported to inhibit the growth in vitro of a variety of fungi, including: C. albi-cans, C. neoformans, S. schenkii, A. citrii, A. fumigatus, A. oryzae, F. oxysporum, F. solani, H. compactum, M. phaseolina, S. rolfsii, and T. mentagrophytes.27 The clinical significance of these findings is unknown.

Anti-Viral

Peppermint is reported to have activity against herpes simplex virus and Newcastle disease in vitro.9 The clinical significance of this is unknown.

MISCELLANEOUS EFFECTS

Peppermint oil has traditionally been used externally for a wide range of indications, including headaches. One double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized, crossover clinical trial (n=32) reports that a combination of peppermint oil (10 g), eucalyptus oil (5 g) and ethanol (ad 100 g) significantly increased cognitive performance as well as produced mental and pericranial muscle relaxation. In addition, peppermint oil (10 g) in combination with ethanol (ad 100 g) produced a significant analgesic effect.

ADVERSE EFFECTS

Regular consumption of peppermint leaf tea is considered safe; however, excessive use of the volatile oil (>0.3 g or 12 drops) may cause problems.6 Clinical trials of enteric-coated peppermint oil capsules for a variety of gastrointestinal complaints report few side effects. Heartburn and esophageal reflux can occur if the peppermint oil is accidentally released in the stomach." In addition, a burning sensation during defecation (thought to be due to unabsorbed menthol reaching the rectum) has occasionally been observed when peppermint oil is taken in high doses. Reducing the dose reduces this adverse effect.

There have also been several reports of contact-sensitivity to the peppermint in a variety of oral products, including toothpaste. Symptoms include burning sensation in the mouth, recurrent oral ulceration, stomatitis, glossitis, gingivitis, and perioral dermatitis.

One case report describes the veno-occlusive disease in an 18-month-old boy who had regularly consumed a tea believed to contain peppermint and coltsfoot.

(Tussilago farfara L., Asteraceae) for the previous 12 months. Analysis of the tea revealed that the tea contained Adenosyles alliariae (Gouan) Kern., Asteraceae, rather than the reported coltsfoot. The peppermint was not thought to play any role in the toxicity of the product.

Cardiac fibrillation has been reported in patients whose condition was controlled with quinidine following the use of mentholated cigarettes or consumption of peppermint candy.

CAUTIONS/CONTRAINDICATIONS

Peppermint should generally be given between meals and it should not be taken by patients with achlorhydria (i.e., patients with no hydrochloric acid in gastric juices). Generally, peppermint (tea and topical application to nostrils) should be avoided in young children or infants because the menthol may cause a choking sensation. In addition, oral consumption of peppermint oil should be avoided in situations of glucose-6 phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency since menthol may be implicated in this condition.

DRUG INTERACTIONS

No known drug interactions.

DOSAGE REGIMENS

ENTERIC-COATED PEPPERMINT OIL CAPSULES (0.2 mL peppermint oil/capsule): 1-2 capsules three times daily between meals.

TINCTURE (1:5 in 45% ethanol): 2-3 mL three times daily away from meals.

TEA: Mix 160 mL (2/3 cup) of boiling water with 1.5 g (1 tablespoonful) of recently dried leaves and steep for 5-10 minutes. This amount is taken on an empty stomach three to four times daily to relieve an upset stomach.

#medical use of peppermint #why peppermint #peppermint for IBS

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annieboltonworld · 6 years ago

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Juniper Publishers- Open Access Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources

Evaluation of Green Clover Leaves as Green and Economic Sorbent for Removal of High Levels of Iron from Different Water Sources

Authored by Hassouna MEM

Abstract

Green clover powdered leaves and their modified forms with lactic acid and tri sodium citrate have been used as low cost and eco-friendly adsorbents for the removal of iron from aqueous media. Samples were collected from different water supplies (surface, tap and ground water).The different factors affecting the adsorption procedure such as: adsorbent dose, stirring time and pH have been optimized for the sake of realizing maximum removal efficiency. The removal efficiency of the unmodified green clover was increased with the increase of the pH value until reaching its maximum uptake in the range 4-7. Both the sodium citrate and lactic acid modified green clover powders showed maximum uptake in the pH range 5-6. The removal process was slow in the first 35 min. then the uptake% was gradually increased till equilibrium after 50 min in case of unmodified green clover, the tri sodium citrate modified form showed equilibrium after 40 min. and the lactic acid modified one reached equilibrium after 50 min. Desorption processes proved the possibility of regeneration and reuse of the adsorbent.Modified forms displayed better adsorption capacity and capability comparable with that of the crude leaves. The removal process was applied on some samples of wastewater successfully.

Keywords: Water sources; Heavy metals; Fe; Green clover leaves; Economic sorbent; Adsorption

Introduction

Air, food, soil and water were narrated to be the media where heavy metals such as copper, cadmium, nickel, lead, and zinc are introduced into the environment [1-4]. Heavy metals cause serious health disease, including reduced growth and development, cancer, organ and nervous system damage. In severe cases, it leads to death [5]. These heavy metals are reported to be hazardous resulting in damage to ecosystems as well as human health [6,7] especially if their concentration is more than the accepted limit [8]. Their higher sources include contaminant water discharged from hospitals [9], several industries such as Cd–Ni battery, metal plating and alloy manufacturing [10-13]. Chemical precipitation, ion exchange, electrodialysis, solvent extraction, coagulation, evaporation and adsorption are among the most known techniques for the removal of metal ions from aqueous solutions [14-17].Iron is one of the earth’s most spreading resources making up about 5% of the earth crust. It is one of the major heavy metal impurities that are commonly present in many water sources which cause several problems for the human health [18]. There are many methods for removal of iron from ground water, viz., oxidation with chlorine and potassium permanganate, treatment with limestone, liquid–liquid extraction, ion exchange, chemical precipitation, bioremediation, activated carbon and other filtering materials [19-23]. Many of these methods became not economically feasible for the removal processes.In recent years, the need for safe and economical methods has necessitated the use of low cost agricultural by-products such as sugarcane bagasse [24-26], rice husk [27,28], sawdust [29,30], coconut husk [31], oil palm shell [32], black gram husk [33], neem bark [34] , tea waste, turkish coffee and walnut shell. Some more adsorbents like papaya wood [35], maize leaf [36], teak leaf powder [37], coraindrumsativum [38], lalang (Imperata cylindrica) leaf powder [39], peanut hull pellets [40], sago waste [41], saltbush (Atriplex canescens) leaves [42,43], tree fern [44-45], grape stalk wastes [46], etc. Sorption methods are considered flexible and easy to operate with much less sludge disposal problems and economically feasible [47,48].However, the expense of individual sorbents varies depending on the degree of processing required and local availability. In general, an adsorbent can be termed a low cost one if it requires little processing, abundant in nature, an agricultural waste or is a by-product or a waste material from an industry. On the other hand, plant wastes can be used in their crude form, or in most cases, require to be modified or treated for being applied for the cleansing of heavy metals. Thus, the present study was forwarded towards the use of green clover powdered leaves as economic sorbent in both crude and modified forms with tri sodium citrate and lactic acid for removal of iron from different water sources. The different factors affecting the adsorption procedure such as: adsorbent dose, stirring time and pH have been optimized to achieve maximum removal efficiency.

Experimental Materials and Methodsa) Chemicals

Ferrous ammonium sulphate (Aldrich), Hydrochloric acid (BDH), 1, 10 Phenanthroline(Aldriin 0.1M HCL,) Tri sodium Citrate(Aldrich) and Hydroxylamine hydrochloride(Aldrich).b) ReagentsGreen clover leaves are collected from the agricultural Egyptian fields. The leaves are washed, air dried and then are finely powdered in a mixer till being near the nano size. The final product is applied as the crude green clover leaves powder for the removal of iron from water samples according to the proposed procedure.100 g of the crude green clover powder are refluxed with 500 ml of 0.5M lactic acid solution over a boiling water for 6h.The produced precipitate was separated, repeatedly washed with DDW till free from acid then dried in an oven at 60ºC for two hrs. After cooling in a desiccator to room temperature, it is finely grinded once again.100 g of the crude green clover powder are, similarly, refluxed with 500 mL of 0.5 M trisodium citrate solution over a boiling water bath for 6 h. The produced precipitate was separated, repeatedly washed with DDW till free from both the sodium and citrate ions, then dried and grinded.UV/Vis. Spectrophotometer (Shimadzu UV/Vis. Perkin Elemer Lambada 3B Spectrophotometer using 1cm Quartz cell” was used in the determination of residual iron in the effluents after the adsorption processes); Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer AA 240FS, Agilent Technologies, used for rapid and confirmational determination of iron; pH meter (The pH measurements were carried out using the microprocessor pH meter BT 500 BOECO, Germany, which was calibrated against two standard buffer solutions at pH4 and 9 and Mechanical Shaker (with up to 200 rpm with speed control was used).The morphologies of the prepared samples and composites were investigated using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), X-Ray diffractometer was used to investigate the phase structure of the investigated samples under the following conditions which were kept constant in all the analysis processes Cu: X-ray tube, scan speed = 8/min, current = 30 mA, voltage = 40 kV and preset time = 10s.The residual iron in the solution is determined spectrophotometrically after its reduction to Fe (II). In a 25 ml volumetric flask, add 0.5 ml of the 10% hydroxylamine solution, 2 mL 10% tri sodium citrate solution then transfer 5 ml of the standard Fe (II) solution. The pH is in the range 3-4. Add 2.5 ml of 0.2 % 1, 10 phenanthroline solution, dilute to the mark with DDW and mix thoroughly. After 5 min the absorbance of the solution is measured at 512 nm against a blank.The concentration of residual iron in the solution after the adsorption process is directly measured at λmax equals 372.0 nm with detection limit of 50μg/L using a mixture of Acetelyne –Nitrous Oxide flame.To investigate the effect of pH on the uptake % (adsorption) of iron from aqueous media by the crude green clover leaves powder, aliquots of 25 mL containing 20 ppm of the metal ion are transferred to a group of 100 mL conical flasks each containing 0.1 g of the crude adsorbent. Adjust the pH of each flask to a value ranging from 2-10, respectively using 0.1M NaOH and HCl solutions and stir for 1hr. Centrifuge the contents of each flask and determine the residual iron content in the supernatant solution. The sorption percentage of the metal ion by the green clover leaves powder is calculated from the relation:Uptak e (%) = [(Co-C) / Co] ×100Where Co and C are the initial and final concentrations of metal ion respectively. The optimum pH was found to be in the range 4-7.When the same procedure was parallely repeated using the sodium citrate and lactic acid modified powder instead, the optimum pH was in the range 5-6.Aliquots of 25 mL solution containing 20 ppm iron are transferred to a group of 100 mL conical flasks. Adjust the pH of each flask to the optimum value. Varying amounts of the crude green clover leaves powder in the range 0.05 - 0.35 g are added to each flask, respectively. The mixtures were stirred for 1h. The residual iron content in the supernatant soln. separated by centrifugation is determined spectrophotometrically.A group of 100 mL conical flasks, each of which is charged with 0.2g of the crude green clover leaves powder and aliquots of 25 mL solution containing 20 ppm of iron at the optimum pH and the shaking time is changed for different intervals of time (10-80 min.) for each flask in its role, respectively.Applying the optimum conditions of the weight of green clover leaves powder, pH and stirring time in a group of flasks. Aliquots of 25 ml solution containing varying concentrations of iron in the range 10-100 ppm are added to the flasks, respectively. The same procedure is applied and the residual iron content is determined from which the uptake percent is calculated.Different volumes of iron samples in the range from 10-100 mL were used.Results and DiscussionCellulosic materials and their derivatives have shown quite good metal ion adsorptive capacity. Among all the heavy metal removal techniques reported so far, adsorption technique using cellulose-based agricultural waste products appears to be most attractive since it is an effective and relatively simple method for removal of heavy metal ions. However, the leaves and pseudostem are usually discarded as waste products of the food and herbalism industries.The use of plant’s leaves is reported in literature for the removal of various heavy metals from wastewater e.g., adsorption of thallium(I) ions using eucalyptus leaves powder [10], the adsorption of lead by maize leaf [36], Cu(II) by teak leaves powder [37], Pb by Lalang (Imperata cylindrica) leaf powder [39], Zn(II) by leaves of saltbush(Atriplex canescens) [42,43] , by cypress and cinchona leaves [49], Cr(VI) by black tea leaves [50] and biosorption of Cu(II), Pb(II), and and Cu(II) ions in aqueous solutions using Mangifera indica (Mango) leaf powder [51].Hence, the thinking of trying green clover leaves fine powder as a low cost adsorbent for the treatment of a real local problem viz., the flourishing existence of iron (and manganese) in the ground water of some wells at El-Wasta, a town which lies 35 Km to the north of Beni-Suef Governorate.Different factors that affect the adsorption process have been extensively studied to improve the uptake % of iron from the aqueous solutions.The pH of the aqueous solution plays the most important role in the adsorption process. It not only influences the speciation of metal ions but also the charges on the sorption sites. The results indicated low sorption efficiency at low pH values (pH=2-3). This was attributed to the high concentration and high mobility of H+, which are preferentially adsorbed rather than metal ions [52,53]. The removal efficiency of the sorbent is increased by increasing the pH value until reaches its maximum uptake at the range 4-7 by the unmodified green clover. The sodium citrate and lactic acid modified green clover powders showed maximum uptake at pH range 5-6 (Figure 1). Heavy metal biosorption onto specific and non specific biosorbents is pH dependent; other researchers [54] found that an increase in adsorption is a result of increasing the pH of the solution (Figure 1).The amount of removed metal ions by adsorption depends on the time after which equilibrium is reached, this is expressed as the equilibrium time. The results indicate that removal was slow in the first 35 min then the uptake % was gradually increased till equilibrium at 50 min for the unmodified powder. While the powder modified with tri sodium citrate shows equilibrium after 40 min and the lactic acid form reached equilibrium after 50 min. The rate of biosorption seems to occur in two steps, the first one is very rapid surface biosorption, while the second is slow intracellular diffusion (Figure 2).The biosorbent dose is considered the most important parameter affecting the removal efficiency. For the unmodified powder, a dose of 0.35 g sorbent has achieved an uptake of 91% of iron at optimum pH conditions. While for the tri sodium citrate modified form, a dose of 0.25 g achieved an uptake % of iron of 97.5%. Correspondingly, 0.25 g of the lactic acid modified one achieved iron removal of 93.5% (Figure 3)At lower concentrations the adsorption sites utilized the available metal ion more rapidly when compared to higher concentrations where the metal ions need to diffuse to the sorbent surface by intra particle diffusion. The maximum metal uptake was 92 % in the case of the unmodified green clover, 94% for lactic acid modified powder and 97% in the case of tri sodium citrate modified form at metal ion concentration of 10 ppm (Figure 4).At optimum conditions the volume of 25 mL achieved the best adsorption percentage with all tested green clover leaves powders. It is clear from the figure that iron removal decreases with the increase of volume (Figure 5)Structures and morphologies of the crude green clover powder, its loaded composites with lactic acid and trisodium citrate ones are studied by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (Figure 6). Anchor scan parameters, graphics and the peak list for every xrd scan. These scans assure the successful loading (modifying) of the crude green clover leaves powder with the two modifiers viz., lactic acid and trisodium citrate. Modification succeeded in increasing the removal percentage, but hasn’t had any improvement effect on selectivity.XRD scans assures the successful loading of the crude powder with the two modifiers used.Adsorption studies applying the three adsorbents, under study, proved that they are nonselective towards heavy metals that may be present in wastewaters as pollutants. The spiking of the iron authentic samples with different concentrations of other metal ions e.g., Fe(III), Mn(II), Ni(II) and Cu (II) resulted in additive concentrations of the collection of metal ions present in a solution without any discrimination among them.However, the non selectivity of such types of adsorbents is frequent in the literature, their tolerance is attributed to being low cost and available. Current work in our laboratory is devoted for the development and applications of selective and low cost adsorbent.The adsorbed iron ions on the adsorbent surface are treated with 25 mL 0.1M HCl and stirred for 1h. The amount of iron ions remained in the solution after filtration or centrifugation was measured using the recommended spectrophotometric method and the percentage desorption (Rb) was calculated according to the relation:where Ct is the experimental concentration in the solution at time t (ppm), Ca is the adsorbed concentration of sorbate onto the adsorbent.i. Effect of pH on desorption of iron: In strong acidic media at pH range(1.4-2.2)the three forms of the green clover leaves powder showed high desorption percentages, on increasing the pH values desorption percentage decreases (Figure 7).ii. Stirring Time: The desorption percentages % were gradually increased till equilibrium at 35 min for the unmodified and lactic acid modified powders, while the powder modified with tri sodium citrate shows equilibrium after 40 min. A value of 89% has been recorded for the unmodified green clover powder, 93% for the trisodium citrate modified form and 91% for lactic acid one (Figure 8).iii. Real samples: Water samples collected from tap water, Bahr Youssef water, ground water and Ibrahemia water, samples were subjected to the adsorption procedure as illustrated previously and the residual iron is analyzed by two methods of finish viz., colorimetry and AAS (Table 2).ConclusionGreen clover leaves powders proved to be potential biosorbents for the removal of iron from aqueous solutions being available low cost material. Results of desorption study also confirmed that there is a possibility to regenerate and reuse the biosorbent again.

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pinkledstone · 5 years ago

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Steel Rolling Production Line From TINVO

The purpose of steel rolling production line is to obtain the required shape, such as steel plates, strip steel, wire rods and various sections, another aspect, in order to improve the internal quality of steel like common automotive plates, bridge steel, boiler steel, pipeline steel, etc. Steel rolling is a continuous and uninterrupted operation. The steel strip runs fast on the roller table with automated equipment bringing high efficiency. Depending on the different temperatures in the rolling method, the steel rolling can be classified into hot rolling and cold rolling. According to the different relationships between the relative movement of the rolling stock and the roll during rolling, it can be divided into vertical rolling, horizontal rolling, and diagonal rolling. In the hot rolling production line, the billet is heated to become soft and is sent into the rolling mill by the roller table, finally rolled to the size required by the users. Compared with hot rolling, the processing line in a cold rolling mill is more scattered. The steel coils sent by the hot rolling mill must undergo three consecutive technical treatments and the oxide film must be removed with hydrochloric acid. Through the cold rolling mill, the uncoiler opens the steel coil and then the steel strip is carried to a five-stand continuous rolling mill to be rolled into a thin strip coil.

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The steel rebar production line is used for the production of Φ8-Φ32mm round bar, low-alloy steel and carbon structural steel. It is composed of heating furnace, continuous Rolling mills and cooling bed. The auxiliary equipment includes pinch roller, swinging head scissors, chain type cooling bed, 100 hydraulic metal cutting machine and rolling table. The rebar production line is for sale at TINVO with powerful working team and technology support, best metallurgical design institute and lifelong after-sales & maintenance support.

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anitakumarigrewal · 5 years ago

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Optimum Utilization of the Butyl Acrylate Globally Market Outlook: Ken Research

The butyl acrylate is a chemical utilized which effectively utilized in the manufacturing. The butyl acrylate can be introduced in the numerous reactions. The Acetylene, 1-butyl alcohol, nickel carbonyl, carbon monoxide and hydrochloric acid can react to create butyl acrylate. Additional synthesis of the butyl acrylate includes the reaction of the butanol with the methyl acrylate or acrylic acid. In addition, the butyl acrylate is a clear colorless liquid with an appearances fruity odor. It is voluntarily miscible with the most organic solvents. It is readily polymerized and displays an effective variety of advantages reliant on the selection of the monomer and reaction situations.

According to the report analysis, ‘Global Butyl Acrylate (Cas 141-32-2) Market Status (2015-2019) and Forecast (2020-2024) by Region, Product Type & End-Use’ states that in the worldwide market of butyl acrylate (CAS 141-32-2) market there are several companies which presently functioning in the same domain for ruling across the globe, leading the fastest market growth and registering the greatest value of market share during the calculated duration while increasing and developing the applications of the butyl acrylate, advancing the specifications and productivity of the product, spreading the consciousness related to all the profit making benefits of the butyl acrylate and decreasing the side effects of this includes Dow, BASF, LG Chem, Nippon Shokubai (JP), Mitsubishi Chem, Formosa, Idemitsu, Jurong, Huayi, CNOOC, Basf-YPC, Shenyang Chem, CNPC, FPC-Ningbo, SATLPEC, Beijing Eastern, Kaitai, SANMU, Zhenghe Group, Yip's Chem, Wan Chio (CN), HongxinChem, WanhuaChem and several others.

The report offers comprehensive coverage of Butyl Acrylate (Cas 141-32-2) industry and foremost market trends. The market research involves the historical and forecast market data, demand, application details, price trends, and company shares of the leading Butyl Acrylate (Cas 141-32-2) by geography. The report separations the market size, by volume and value, on the basis of application type and geography.

Although, based on the type, the worldwide market of butyl acrylate (CAS-141-32-2) is sectored into High Purity (99.5%)and Common Purity (99%). Meanwhile, the segment of application involves Plastic Sheets, Textiles, Coatings, Adhesivesand several others.

Butyl acrylate is effectively utilized in the production of homopolymers and co-polymers such as acrylic acid and its salts, esters, amides, methacrylates, acrylonitrile, maleates, vinyl acetate, vinyl chloride, vinylidene chloride, styrene, butadiene and unsaturated polyesters. When utilized in latex paint formulations acrylic polymers have good water resistance, low temperature flexibility and outstanding weathering and sunlight resistance. Owing to which it is anticipated that the market of butyl acrylate will increase around the globe during the review duration.

Furthermore, based on the region, the market of butyl acrylate is sectored into Asia Pacific region, Europe, North America, Middle East and Africa and South America. Whereas, it is anticipated that with the effective development in the emerging region such as India and China and proficient advancement in the technology the Asia Pacific region dominate the great value of market share followed by North America owing the significant advancement in the infrastructure. Therefore, it is anticipated that the market of butyl acrylate will increase around the globe over the coming decades more positively.

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Global Butyl Acrylate (Cas 141-32-2) Market

Related Reports:-

Butyl Acrylate (Cas 141-32-2) Market Research: Global Status & Forecast by Geography, Type & Application (2015-2025)

Global Butyl Acrylate (Cas 141-32-2) Market Analysis 2013-2018 and Forecast 2019-2024

Ken Research

Ankur Gupta, Head Marketing & Communications

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+91-9015378249

#Global Butyl Acrylate Market

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aartisenblog · 6 years ago

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GET THIS BOOK

Author:

Buchel K. H.

Published in: Wiley-VCH Release Year: 2000 ISBN: 978-3527-2-9849-5 Pages: 669 Edition: Second Edition File Size: 29 MB File Type: pdf Language: English

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Description of Industrial Inorganic Chemistry

In the more than 10 years, since the publication of the first edition of the book “Industrial Inorganic Chemistry”, the structure of inorganic industrial chemistry has not changed fundamentally. In most sectors the “state of the art” has been expanded and refined. This is addressed together with the updating of the economic data in this new edition. The pressure for change in the meantime was due in particular to globalization of the World economy and the resulting pressure for cost reduction through new and optimalized processes and to an expanding knowledge of ecological requirements e.g. energy saving and new production and development principles such as quality assurance and responsible care.

To the extent that it is discernible in the products and processes, appropriate aspects have been incorporated in the revision, for example see membrane technology in the chloralkali and hydrochloric acid electrolysis. Expansion of the sections on the products of silicon chemistry, silanes, heavy duty ceramics and photovoltaics reflects their increased importance. Chapter 6 over the Nuclear Fuel Cycle has been updated as regards technical developments and in particular as regards its societal and political context. In inorganic chemistry there have been important changes particularly in inorganic materials such as new composite materials and so-called nano-materials, in the area of photovoltaics and in catalysis. Since these have not yet been widely used industrially, they have not been covered in the second edition of Industrial Inorganic Chemistry book.

Content of Industrial Inorganic Chemistry

1 Primary Inorganic Materials 1

1.1 Water 1

1.1.1 Economic Importance 1

1.1.2 Production of Potable Water 2

1.1.2.1 Break-Point Chlorination and Ozonization 3

I. 1.2.2 Flocculation and Sedimentation 4

1 .I .2.3 Filtration 5

1.1.2.5 Activated Charcoal Treatment 7

1.1.2.6 Safety Chlorination 8

1.1.2.7 Production of Soft or Deionized Water 8

1.1.3 Production of Freshwater from Seawater and Brackish Water 10

1.1.3.1 Production by Multistage Flash Evaporation 10

References for Chapter 1.1 : Water 13

Removal of Dissolved Inorganic Impurities 5

Production using Reverse Osmosis 11

1.2 Hydrogen 14

I .2.1 Economic Importance I4

1.2.2 Hydrogen Manufacture I5

1.2.2. I Petrochemical Processes and Coal Gasification 15

1.2.2.2 Electrolysis of Water 16

I .2.2.3 Other Manufacturing Processes for Hydrogen I7

I .2.2.4

I .2.3 Hydrogen Applications 18

References for Chapter 1.2: Hydrogen 19

Production of Hydrogen as a Byproduct 18

Hydrogen Peroxide and Inorganic Peroxo Compounds 20

Economic Importance 20

Hydrogen Peroxide 20

Sodium Perborate and Sodium Carbonate Perhydrate 20

Alkali Peroxodisulfates and Sodium Peroxide 2 1

Production 21

Hydrogen Peroxide 21

Sodium Perborate 24

Sodium Carbonate Perhydrate 25

Alkali Peroxodisulfate 26

Sodium Peroxide 26

X Contents

1.3.3 Applications 27

1.3.3.2 Alkali Peroxodisulfates and Sodium Peroxide 28

References for Chapter 1.3: Hydrogen Peroxide and Inorganic Peroxo Compounds 28

Hydrogen Peroxide, Sodium Perborate and Sodium Carbonate Perhydrate 27

1.4.1 Ammonia 29

1.4.1.1 Economic Importance 29

1.4.1.2 Synthetic Ammonia Manufacture 29

1.4.1.2.1 General Information 29

1.4.1.2.2 Ammonia Synthesis Catalysts 30

1.4.1.2.3 Synthesis Gas Production 32

1.4.1.3 Ammonia Applications 43

References for Chapter I .4: Nitrogen and Nitrogen Compounds 43

1.4.2 Hydrazine 43

1.4.2.1 Economic Importance 43

1.4.2.2 Manufacture of Hydrazine 44

I .4.2.2.1 Raschig Process 44

1.4.2.2.2 Urea Process 45

1.4.2.2.3 Bayer Process 46

1.4.2.2.4 H,Oz Process 47

1.4.2.3 Applications of Hydrazine 48

References for Chapter 1.4.2: Hydrazine 49

I .4.3 Hydroxylamine 50

I .4.3.2 Manufacture 50

1.4.3.2.1 Raschig Process 5 1

References for Chapter 1.4.3: Hydroxylamine 53

1.4.4 Nitric Acid 53

1.4.4.1 Economic Importance 53

1.4.4.2 Manufacture 53

I .4.4.2. I Fundamentals of Nitric Acid Manufacture 53

1.4.4.2.2 Plant Types 57

1.4.4.2.3 Process Description 58

1.4.4.2.5 Tail Gases from Nitric Acid Manufacture 62

1.4.4.3 Nitric Acid Applications 64

References for Chapter 1.4.4: Nitric Acid 65

Nitrogen and Nitrogen Compounds 29

Conversion of Synthesis Gas to Ammonia 39

Integrated Ammonia Synthesis Plants 41

Economic Importance and Applications 50

Nitrogen(I1) Oxide Reduction Process 5 1

Nitrate Reduction Process (DSM/HPO-Stamicarbon) 52

Manufacture of Highly Concentrated Nitric Acid 59

1.5.1. I Raw Materials 65

Phosphorus and its Compounds 65

Phosphorus and Inorganic Phosphorus Compounds 65

Contents XI

1.5.1.2 Products 67

1.5.1.2.1 Phosphoric Acid 67

1.5.1.2.2 Phosphoric Acid Salts 75

1.5.1.2.3 Phosphorus 80

References for Chapter 1.5.1 : Phosphorus and Inorganic Phosphorus Compounds 90

1.5.2 Organophosphorus Compounds 9 1

1.5.2.1 Neutral Phosphoric Acid Esters 9 1

1.5.2.2 Phosphoric Ester Acids 94

1.5.2.3 Dithiophosphoric Ester Acids 94

1.5.2.6 Phosphonic Acids 99

References for Chapter 1.5.2: Organophosphorus Compounds 101

Products Manufactures from Phosphorus 85

Neutral Esters of Thio- and Dithio-Phosphoric Acids 95

Neutral Di- and Triesters of Phosphorous Acid 97

Sulfur and Sulfur Compounds 101

Sulfur 101

Occurrence 10 1

Economic Importance 102

Sulfur from Elemental Sulfur Deposits 102

Sulfur from Hydrogen Sulfide and Sulfur Dioxide 102

Sulfur from Pyrites 103

Economic Importance I04

Applications 104

Sulfuric Acid 104

Economic Importance 104

Starting Materials for Sulfuric Acid Manufacture 105

Sulfuric Acid from Sulfur Dioxide 105

Sulfuric Acid from Waste Sulfuric Acid and Metal Sulfates 1 13

Applications of Sulfuric Acid 115

100% Sulfur Dioxide 1 16

100% Sulfur Trioxide 117

Disulfur Dichloride I 18

Sulfur Dichloride 1 18

Thionyl chloride 119

Sulfuryl Chloride 1 19

Chlorosulfonic Acid 120

Fluorosulfonic Acid 120

Sulfurous Acid Salts 120

Sodium Thiosulfate, Ammonium Thiosulfate 12 1

Sodium Dithionite and Sodium Hydroxymethanesulfinate 122

Hydrogen Sulfide 124

Sodium Sulfide I24

Sodium Hydrogen Sulfide 125

Carbon Disulfide 126

References for Chapter 1.6: Sulfur and Sulfur Compounds 126

XI1 Contents

Halogens and Halogen Compounds 127

Fluorine and Fluorine Compounds I27

Fluorspar 127

Fluorspar Extraction 128

Qualities and Utilization of Fluorspar 128

Fluorapatite 130

Fluorine and Inorganic Fluorides I30

Fluorine 130

Hydrogen Fluoride I32

Aluminum Fluoride 138

Sodium Aluminum Hexafluoride (Cryolite) 140

Alkali Fluorides 141

Hexafluorosilicates 142

Uranium Hexafluoride 142

Boron Trifluoride and Tetrafluoroboric Acid 142

Sulfur Hexafluoride 143

Organofluoro Compounds by Electrochemical Fluorination I44 -

References for Chapter 1.7.1 : Halogens and Halogen Compounds 145

1.7.2.1 Economic Importance 146

1.7.2.2 Starting Materials 148

I .7.2.3 Manufacturing Processes 151

I .7.2.3.1 Mercury Process 152

1.7.2.3.2 Diaphragm Process 154

1.7.2.3.3 Membrane Process 157

1.7.2.4.1 Chlorine 159

1.7.2.4.2 Sodium Hydroxide 160

References for Chapter 1.7.2: Chloralkali-Electrolysis 161

References for Chapter 1.7.3: Hydrochloric Acid - Hydrogen Chloride 165

1.7.4 Chlorine-Oxygen Compounds 166

1.7.4.1 Economic Importance 166

I .7.4.2.1 Hypochlorite 167

I .7.4.2.2 Chlorites 170

I .7.4.2.3 Chlorates 170

I .7.4.2.4 Perchlorates and Perchloric Acid 172

1.7.4.2.5 Chlorine Dioxide 173

Chloralkali Electrolysis, Chlorine and Sodium Hydroxide 146

Evaluation of Mercury, Diaphragm and Membrane Processes 158

Applications of Chlorine and Sodium Hydroxide 159

Hydrochloric Acid - Hydrogen Chloride 162

Manufacture of Hydrogen Chloride 162

Economic Importance of Hydrogen Chloride and Hydrochloric Acid 163

Electrolysis of Hydrochloric Acid 163

Non-Electrolytic Processes for the Manufacture of Chlorine from Hydrogen Chloride 164

Manufacture of Chlorine-Oxygen Compounds I67

Applications of Chlorine-Oxygen Compounds 174

Contents XI11

References for Chapter 1.7.4: Chlorine-Oxygen Compounds 175

1.7.5.2.1 Bromine 176

1.7.5.2.2 Hydrogen Bromide I78

1.7.5.2.4 Alkali Bromates 179

References for Chapter I .7.5: Bromine and Bromine Compounds 18 1

1.7.6.2.1 Iodine 182

1.7.6.2.2 Hydrogen Iodide 183

1.7.6.2.3 Alkali Iodides 183

1.7.6.2.4 Alkali Iodates 184

1.7.6.3 Applications of Iodine and Iodine Compounds 184

References for Chapter I .7.6: Iodine and Iodine Compounds 185

Bromine and Bromine Compounds 175

Natural Deposits and Economic Importance 175

Manufacture of Bromine and Bromine Compounds 176

Alkali Bromides, Calcium Bromide, Zinc Bromide 179

Applications for Bromine and Bromine Compounds 179

Iodine and Iodine Compounds 18 1

Economic Importance I 8 I

Manufacture of Iodine and Iodine Compounds 182

Mineral Fertilizers 187

Phosphorus-Containing Fertilizers 187

Economic Importance I87

General Information 187

Importance of Superphosphate 188

Importance of Triple Superphosphate 188

Importance of Ammonium Phosphates I89

Importance of Nitrophosphates I89

Importance and Manufacture of Thermal (Sinter, Melt) and

Manufacture of Phosphorus-Containing Fertilizers I 90

Superphosphate 190

Triple Superphosphate 19 1

Ammonium Phosphates 192

Nitrophosphates 195

Basic Slag (Thomas) Phosphates 189

Nitrogen-Containing Fertilizers 196

Economic Importance 196

General Information 196

Importance of Ammonium Sulfate 197

Importance of Ammonium Nitrate 197

Importance of Urea I98

Manufacture of Nitrogen-Containing Fertilizers 199

Ammonium Sulfate 199

XIV Contents

2.2.2.2 Ammonium Nitrate 200

2.2.2.3 Urea 201

2.3 Potassium-Containing Fertilizers 205

2.3.1 Occurrence of Potassium Salts 205

2.3.3.1 Potassium Chloride 208

2.3.3.2 Potassium Sulfate 2 10

2.3.3.3 Potassium Nitrate 210

References for Chapter 2: Mineral Fertilizers 2 1 1

Economic Importance of Potassium-Containing Fertilizers 206

Manufacture of Potassium-Containing Fertilizers 208

Metals and their Compounds 213

Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals and their Compounds 213

Alkali Metals and their Compounds 2 13

General Information 213

Lithium and its Compounds 2 13

Natural Deposits and Economic Importance 2 13

Metallic Lithium 214

Lithium Compounds 2 14

Sodium and its Compounds 216

General Information 216

Metallic Sodium 217

Sodium Carbonate 2 18

Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate 222

Sodium Sulfate 223

Sodium Hydrogen Sulfate 225

Sodium Borates 225

Potassium and its Compounds 227

General Information 227

Metallic Potassium 227

Potassium Hydroxide 227

Potassium Carbonate 228

References for Chapter 3.1.1: Alkali Metals and their Compounds 229

3.1.2.1 General Information 230

3.1.2.3.1 Natural Deposits 231

3.1.2.3.2 Metallic Magnesium 232

3.1.2.3.3 Magnesium Carbonate 234

3.1.2.3.4 Magnesium Oxide 235

3.1.2.3.5 Magnesium Chloride 236

3.1.2.3.6 Magnesium Sulfate 237

Alkaline Earth Metals and their Compounds 230

Beryllium and its Compounds 23 1

Magnesium and its Compounds 231

Contents XV

3.1.2.4.1 Natural Deposits 237

3.1.2.4.2 Metallic Calcium 238

3.1.2.4.3 Calcium Carbonate 238

3.1.2.4.5 Calcium Chloride 240

3.1.2.4.6 Calcium Carbide 240

3.1.2.6.2 Barium Carbonate 243

3.1.2.6.3 Barium Sulfide 245

3.1.2.6.4 Barium Sulfate 245

References for Chapter 3. I .2: Alkaline Earth Metals and their Compounds 245

Calcium and its Compounds 237

Calcium Oxide and Calcium Hydroxide 239

Strontium and its Compounds 242

Barium and its Compounds 242

Natural Deposits and Economic Importance 242

Aluminum and its Compounds 246

General Information 246

Natural Deposits 247

Metallic Aluminum 248

Economic Importance 248

Manufacture 248

Applications 249

Aluminum Oxide and Aluminum Hydroxide 250

Economic Importance 250

Manufacture 250

Applications 25 1

Aluminum Sulfate 252

Economic Importance 252

Manufacture 252

Applications 253

Aluminum Chloride 253

Economic Importance 253

Manufacture 253

Applications 254

Sodium Aluminate 254

References for Chapter 3.2: Aluminum and its Compounds 255

Chromium Compounds and Chromium 255

Chromium Compounds 255

Economic Importance 255

Raw Material: Chromite 257

Manufacture of Chromium Compounds 258

Chromite Digestion to Alkali Chromates 258

Alkali Dichromates 260

Chromium(V1) Oxide (“Chromic Acid”) 262

Chromium(II1) Oxide 264

XVI Contents

3.3.2 Metallic Chromium 266

3.3.2.1 Economic Importance 266

3.3.2.2 Manufacture of Chromium Metal 267

3.3.2.2.1 Chemical Reduction 267

3.3.2.2.2 Electrochemical Reduction of Chrome Alum 267

References for Chapter 3.3: Chromium Compounds and Chromium 268

Basic Chromium(II1) Salts (Chrome Tanning Agents) 265

Applications for Chromium Compounds 266

Electrochemical Reduction of Chromium(V1) Oxide 268

3.4.1 Elemental Silicon 269

3.4.1.2 Manufacture 270

3.4.1.3 Silicon Applications 278

3.4.2 Inorganic Silicon Compounds 279

References for Chapter 3.4: Silicon and its Inorganic Compounds 281

Silicon and its Inorganic Compounds 269

General Information and Economic Importance 269

Ferrosilicon and Metallurgical Grade Silicon 270

Electronic Grade Silicon (Semiconductor Silicon) 272

3.5.1 Manganese Compounds 282

3.5.1.1 Economic Importance 282

3.5.1.2 Raw Materials 283

3.5.1.3.1 Manganese(I1) Compounds 284

3.5.1.3.3 Manganese(1V) Oxide 286

3.5.1.3.4 Potassium Permanganate 289

3.5.1.4 Applications of Manganese Compounds 292

3.5.2 Manganese - Electrochemical Manufacture, Importance and Applications 292

References for Chapter 3.5: Manganese Compounds and Manganese 293

Manganese Compounds and Manganese 282

Manufacture of Manganese Compounds 284

Manganese(I1,III) Oxide (Mn,Od) and Manganese(II1) Oxide (Mn,O?) 286

4 Organo-Silicon Compounds 295

4.1 Industrially Important Organo-Silicon Compounds, Nomenclature 295

Industrially Important Silanes 296

Organohalosilanes 296

Industrial Important Silicon-functional Organo-Silanes 298

Organoalkoxysilanes 299

Acyloxysilanes 300

Oximino- and Aminoxy-Silanes 300

Amidosilanes, Silazanes 301

Organohydrogensilanes 30 1

Contents XVII

4.2.3 Organofunctional Silanes 302

4.2.3.1 Alkenylsilanes 302

4.2.3.2 Halo-organosilanes 303

4.2.3.3 Organoaminosilanes 303

4.2.3.4 Organomercaptosilanes, Organosulfidosilanes 304

4.2.3.5 Other Organofunctional Silanes 304

References for Chapter 4.1 and 4.2: Organo-Silicon Compounds 305

Silicones 305

Structure and Properties, Nomenclature 305

Economic Importance 306

Linear and Cyclic Polyorganosiloxanes 307

Manufacture 307

Hydrolysis 307

Methanolysis 309

Cyclization 3 10

Polymerization 310

Polycondensation 3 I2

Industrial Realization of Polymerization 3 I3

Manufacture of Branched Polysiloxanes 3 14

Industrial Silicone Products 307

Silicone Oils 307

Products Manufactured from Silicone Oils 3 16

Silicone Rubbers 3 17

Room Temperature Vulcanizable Single Component Silicone Rubbers 3 I7

Two Component Room Temperature Vulcanizable Silicone Rubbers 3 19

Hot Vulcanizable Peroxide Crosslinkable Silicone Rubbers 320

Hot Vulcanizable Addition Crosslinkable Silicone Rubbers 320

Properties of Silicone Rubber 322

Silicone Resins 322

Silicone Copolymers, Block Copolymers and Graft Copolymers 323

References for Chapters 4.3 and 4.4: Silicones 324

Inorganic Solids 325

Silicate Products 325

Glass 325

Economic Importance 325

Structure 32.5

Glass Composition 326

Glass Manufacture 329

Glass Raw Materials 329

Melting Process 33 I

Melting Furnaces 332

XVIII Contents

5.1.1.5 Forming 334

References for Chapter 5.1 .l: Glass 337

5.1.2 Alkali Silicates 338

5.1.2.2 Manufacture of Alkali Silicates 338

5.1.2.3 Applications 340

References for Chapter 5.1.2: Alkali Silicates 340

Glass Properties and Applications 336

General and Economic Importance 338

Zeolites 340

Economic Importance 340

Zeolite Types 34 1

Natural Zeolites 344

Manufacture of Synthetic Zeolites 344

From Natural Raw Materials 344

From Synthetic Raw Materials 344

Modification of Synthetic Zeolites by Ion Exchange 346

Forming of Zeolites 346

Dehydration of Zeolites 347

Applications for Zeolites 347

As Ion Exchangers 347

As an Adsorption Agent 347

For Separation Processes 348

As Catalysts 349

Miscellaneous Applications 349

References for Chapter 5.1.3: Zeolites 350

Inorganic Fibers 351

Introduction 35 1

Definitions, Manufacture and Processing 35 1

Economic Importance 352

Properties 352

Classification and Applications 354

Physiological Aspects 354

Asbestos Fibers 356

General and Economic Importance 356

Occurrence and Extraction 359

Applications of Asbestos Fibers 361

Textile Glass Fibers 364

General and Economic Importance 364

Manufacture 366

Applications 369

Optical Fibers 370

Mineral Fiber Insulating Materials 372

General Information and Economic Importance 372

Manufacture 373

Applications 377

Contents XIX

5.2.6 Carbon Fibers 377

5.2.6.2 Manufacture and Applications 380

5.2.7 Metal Fibers 384

5.2.7.2 Boron Fibers 386

5.2.8 Ceramic Reinforcing Fibers 388

5.2.8.2 Oxide Fibers 389

5.2.8.3 Non-oxide Fibers 39 1

5.2.8.4 Whiskers 394

References for Section 5.2: Inorganic Fibers 395

General Information and Economic Importance 377

Steel and Tungsten Fibers 384

General information and Economic Importance 388

Construction Materials 396

General Introduction 396

Lime 397

Economic lmportance 397

Raw Materials 398

Quicklime 398

Slaked Lime 400

Wet Slaking of Quicklime 400

Dry Slaking of Quicklime 401

Lime Hydrate from Calcium Carbide 401

Steam-Hardened Construction Materials 402

Applications of Lime 402

Cement 403

Economic Importance 403

Composition of Cements 404

Portland Cement 405

Raw Materials 405

Composition of Portland Cement Clinkers 405

Manufacture of Portland Cement 405

Applications of Portland Cement 409

Slag Cement 409

Pozzolan Cements 410

Alumina Cement 41 I

Asbestos Cement 41 I

Miscellaneous Cement Types 41 1

Processes in the Solidification of Cement 4 12

Gypsum 415

Economic Importance 4 I5

Modifications of Calcium Sulfate 416

Natural Gypsum 4 18

Natural Anhydrite 420

Fluoroanhydrite 420

Byproduct Gypsum 420

xx Contents

5.3.4.6.3 Phosphogypsum 421

5.3.6 Expanded Products 425

5.3.6.1 General lnformation 425

5.3.6.2.1 Raw Materials 425

References for Chapter 5.3: Construction Materials 43 1

Byproduct Gypsum from the Manufacture and Purification of Organic Acids 420

Byproduct Gypsum from Flue Gas Desulfurization 42 1

Processes in the Setting of Plaster 423

Coarse Ceramic Products for the Construction Industry 424

Expanded Products from Clays and Shales 425

Gas-forming Reactions in the Manufacture of

Manufacture of Expanded Products 429

Expanded Products from Glasses (Foam Glass) 430

Applications of Expanded Products 430

Expanded Products 428

Enamel 430

General Information 432

Classification of Enamels 433

Enamel Frit Manufacture 437

Raw Materials 437

Smelting of Frits 437

Enameling 438

Production of Coatable Systems 438

Coating Processes 439

Wet Application Processes 439

Dry Application Procesres 440

Stoving of Enamels 441

Applications of Enamel 442

References for Chapter 5.4: Enamel 442

Ceramics 443

General Information 443

Classification of Ceramic Products 443

General Process Steps in the Manufacture of Ceramics 444

Clay Ceramic Products 445

Composition and Raw Materials 445

Extraction and Treatment of Raw Kaolin 447

Manufacture of Clay Ceramic Batches 447

Forming Processes 448

Casting Processes 449

Plastic Forming 450

Forming by Powder Pressing 45 1

Drying Processes 452

Firing of Ceramics 452

Physical-Chemical Processes 452

Contents XXI

Firing Conditions 454

Glazes 455

Properties and Applications of Clay Ceramic Products 455

Fine Earthenware 45.5

Stoneware 456

Porcelain 456

Rapidly Fired Porcelain 457

Economic Importance of Clay Ceramic Products 458

Specialty Ceramic Products 458

Oxide Ceramics 458

General Information 458

Aluminum Oxide 460

Zirconium Oxide 46 I

Beryllium Oxide 462

Uranium Oxide and Thorium Oxide 462

Other Oxide Ceramics 463

Electro- and Magneto-Ceramics 464

Titanates 464

Ferrites 465

Refractory Ceramics 468

Definition and Classification 468

Alumina-Rich Products 470

Fireclay Products 470

Silicate Products 47 1

Basic Products 472

Specialty Refractory Products 473

Economic Importance 473

Nonoxide Ceramics 474

Economic Importance 475

Manufacturing Processes for Silicon Carbide 475

Refractory Silicon Carbide Products 477

Fine Ceramic Silicon Carbide Products 477

Fine Silicon Nitride Ceramic Products 478

Manufacture and Properties of Boron Carbide 480

Manufacture and Properties of Boron Nitride 48 1

Manufacture and Properties of Aluminum Nitride 482

References for Chapter 5.5: Ceramics 482

Metallic Hard Materials 484

General Information 484

General Manufacturing Processes and Properties of Metal Carbides 485

Carbides of the Subgroup of the IVth Group 487

Titanium Carbide 487

Zirconium Carbide and Hafnium Carbide 488

Carbides of the Subgroup of the Vth Group 488

Vanadium Carbide 488

XXII Contents

5.6.5.1 Chromium Carbide 489

5.6.5.2 Molybdenum Carbide 489

5.6.5.3 Tungsten Carbide 489

5.6.7 Metal Nitrides 492

5.6.8 Metdl Borides 493

5.6.9 Metal Silicides 494

References for Chapter 5.6: Metallic Hard Materials 495

Niobium Carbide and Tantalum Carbide 488

Carbides of the Subgroup of the VIth Group 489

Cemented Carbides Based on Tungsten Carbide 490

Thorium Carbide and Uranium Carbide 491

Carbon Modifications 496

Introduction 496

Diamond 496

Economic Importance 496

Mining of Natural Diamonds 497

Manufacture of Synthetic Diamonds 498

Properties and Applications 500

Natural Graphite 500

Economic Importance 500

Natural Deposits and Mining 502

Properties and Applications 503

Large Scale Production of Synthetic Carbon and Synthetic Graphite 505

Economic Importance 505

General Information about Manufacture 505

Manufacture of Synthetic Carbon 506

Raw Materials 506

Processing 507

Densification and Forming 507

Carbonization 508

Graphitization of Synthetic Carbon 509

General Information 509

Acheson Process 509

Castner Process 5 10

Other Graphitization Processes 5 10

Purification Graphitization 5 1 1

Impregnation and Processing of Carbon and Graphite Articles 5 1 1

Properties and Applications 5 12

Special Types of Carbon and Graphite 5 13

Pyrolytic Carbon and Pyrolytic Graphite 5 13

Glassy Carbon and Foamed Carbon 5 I5

Graphite Foils and Membranes 5 16

Carbon Black 5 17

Economic Importance 5 18

Manufacture 5 I8

Contents XXIII

5.7.6.2.1 General Information 51 8

5.7.6.2.4 Posttreatment 523

5.7.6.3 Properties and Applications 524

5.7.7 Activated Carbon 527

5.7.7.1 Economic Importance 527

5.7.7.2 Manufacture 528

5.7.7.2.1 General Information 8

References for Chapter 5.7: Carbon Modifications 534

Pyrolysis Processes in the Presence of Oxygen 519

Pyrolysis Processes in the Absence of Oxygen 522

Activated Carbon by “Chemical Activation” 529

Activated Carbon by “Gas Activation” 530

Reactivation and Regeneration of Used Activated Carbon 532

Applications of Activated Carbon 532

Fillers 535

General Information 535

Economic Importance 536

Natural Fillers 536

Silicon-Based Fillers 536

Other Natural Fibers 538

Beneficiation of Natural Fillers 538

Synthetic Fillers 539

Silicas and Silicates 539

Pyrogenic Silicas 539

Wet Chemically Manufactured Silicas and Silicates 540

Posttreatment of Silicas 541

Glasses 542

Cristobalite 542

Aluminum Hydroxide 542

Carbonates 543

Sulfates 544

Other Synthetic Fillers 545

Properties and Applications 545

References for Chapter 5.8: Fillers 546

Inorganic Pigments 548

General Information and Economic Importance 548

White Pigments 552

General Information 552

Titanium Dioxide Pigments 553

Economic Importance 553

Raw Materials for Ti02 Pigments 553

Manufacturing Processes for TiOz Pigments 555

Applications for Ti02 Pigments 558

Lithopone and Zinc Sulfide Pigments 559

XXIV Contents

Zinc Oxide White Pigments 560

Manufacture 560

Applications 561

Colored Pigments 561

Iron Oxide Pigments 561

Natural Iron Oxide Pigments 561

Synthetic Iron Oxide Pigments 563

Chromium(II1) Oxide Pigments 567

Manufacture 567

Properties and Applications of Chromium(II1) Oxide 569

Chromate and Molybdate Pigments 570

Mixed-Metal Oxide Pigments and Ceramic Colorants 571

Cadmium Pigments 573

Cyanide Iron Blue Pigments 575

Ultramarine Pigments 577

Corrosion Protection Pigments 578

Luster Pigments 580

Metal Effect Pigments 580

Nacreous Pigments 581

Interference Pigments 581

Luminescent Pigments 581

Magnetic Pigments 582

General Information and Properties 582

Manufacture of Magnetic Pigments 584

References for Chapter 5.9: Inorganic Pigments 586

Nuclear Fuel Cycle 587

Economic Importance of Nuclear Energy 587

General Information about the Nuclear Fuel Cycle 591

Availability of Uranium 592

Nuclear Reactor Types 594

General Information 594

Light-water Reactors 594

Boiling Water Reactors 594

Pressurized Water Reactors 595

Graphite-Moderated Reactors 595

Gas-Cooled 595

Light-Water Cooled 597

Heavy-Water Reactors 597

Fast Breeder Reactors 598

Contents XXV

Nuclear Fuel Production 599

Production of Uranium Concentrates (“Yellow Cake”) 600

Uranium from Uranium Ores 600

Leaching Processes 600

Separation of Uranium from the Leaching Solutions 602

Manufacture of Marketable Uranium Compounds (“Yellow Cake”) 603

Uranium from Phosphate Ores and Wet Phosphoric Acid 605

Uranium from Seawater 606

Conversion of Uranium Concentrates to Uranium Hexafluoride 607

General Information 607

Wet Process for Uranium(V1) Fluoride Manufacture 607

Dry Process for Uranium(V1) Fluoride Manufacture 609

*%-Enrichment 609

Reconversion of Uranium(V1) Fluoride into Nuclear Fuel 6 I0

Into Uranium(1V) Oxide 610

General Information 610

Uranium(1V) Oxide by Wet Processes 61 1

Uranium(1V) Oxide by the Dry (IDR) Process 6 I2

Manufacture of Uranium(1V) Oxide Pellets 61 2

Other Uranium Nuclear Fuels 6 13

Fuel Element Manufacture 614

Disposal of Waste from Nuclear Power Stations 615

General Information 6 15

Stages in Nuclear Waste Disposal 617

Interim Storage of Spent Fuel Elements 6 17

Reprocessing of Spent Fuel Elements 617

Further Processing of Uranium and Plutonium Solutions 620

Treatment of Radioactive Waste 621

Permanent Storage of Radioactive Waste 623

References for Chapter 6: Nuclear Fuel Cycle 624

Company Abbreviations Index 627

Subject Index 63

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