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All about Egypt

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All about Egypt

The Arab Republic of Egypt, commonly known as Egypt is located primarily in North-Eastern Africa.

It covers an area of about 1,020,000 square kilometers and includes the Sinai Peninsula, but the majority of the country is located in North Africa. It shares land boundaries to the west with Libya, to the south with Israel on the northeast. It is bordered by the Mediterranean and Red Seas.

to the north and east

The majority of Egypt’s population lives along the banks of the Nile River where the land is rich and fertile. However, a significant percentage of the land is part of the Sahara Desert and so has very few inhabitants.

Egypt is famous for its ancient civilization and some of the world’s most stunning ancient monuments. The Pyramids at Giza, the Temple of Karnak and the Valley of the Kings attract many visitors. The southern city of Luxor contains an exceptionally large number of ancient artifacts. Today, Egypt is widely regarded as the main political and cultural center of the Arab and Middle Eastern regions.

Contents

1 Ancient Egypt

1.1 History of ancient Egypt:

1.1.1 History of Greek and Roman Egypt: 332 BC to 639 AD

1.1.2 History of early Arab Egypt: 639 to 1517

1.1.3 History of Ottoman Egypt: 1517 to 1805

2 EGYPTOLOGY

3 Egyptian Art

3.1 Art

3.2 Architecture

3.3 Papyrus

3.4 Pottery

3.5 Statues

3.6 Hieroglyphs

3.7 Literature

3.8 Paintings

4 Egyptian Antiquities

4.1 Shabtis

4.2 Amulets

4.3 Cosmetics

4.4 Egyptian Museum

5 Ancient Egyptian Food

6 Egyptian Mythology

6.1 Egyptian Gods

6.2 Death

6.3 The monotheistic period

6.4 Temples

7 Egyptian Mysticism

8 Egyptian Pyramids

9 Mysteries of the Pyramids

9.1 Mastabas and Step Pyramids:

9.2 Bent Pyramid:

9.3 Smooth-sided pyramids:

Ancient Egypt

Egypt has the longest continuous history, as a unified state, of any country in the world. The need to have a single ruler to manage the waters of the Nile led to the creation of the world’s first state about 3000 BC. Its geography made it a difficult country to attack, and during the days of the pharaohs, Egypt was independent and self-contained.

Once Egypt did succumb to foreign rule, however, it proved unable to escape from it, and for 2,300 years Egypt was governed by a long list of foreign governments: Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Turks and British.

History of ancient Egypt:

The history of Ancient Egypt proper started sometime around 3300 BC. As an independent state it lasted until about 1300 BC. Nevertheless, archaeological evidence indicates that there may have been an advanced Egyptian culture for a long time. A grain-grinding culture was replaced along the Nile in the 10th millennium BC by one of the hunters, fishermen and gathering peoples using stone tools. Research also testifies to human habitation in the southwest corner of Egypt, near the Sudan frontier, before 8000 BC.

The changes in temperature and/or overgrazing around 8000 BC caused the drying out of Egypt’s fertile fields, finally creating the Sahara Desert around 2500 BC. Early tribes migrated naturally to the Nile where they established a prosperous agricultural economy and a more organized society. There is evidence of cereal production in the East Sahara during the 7th century BC. By 6000 BC, ancient Egyptians were herding cattle in the southwest corner of Egypt, and building large buildings using mortar by 4000 BC.

The Dynastic Periods: 3000 BC to 332 BC

Egyptian history is broken into a number of different periods according to the dynasty of the ruling pharaoh.Egyptian chronology is in a constant transitional state, with most of the terms in question, and dates in disputeHere are the main dynastic periods:

Predynastic Period (Prior to 3100 BC)

Early Dynastic Period (1st–2nd Dynasties)

Old Kingdom (3rd–6th Dynasties)

First Intermediate Period (7th–11th Dynasties)

Middle Kingdom (12th–13th Dynasties)

Second Intermediate Period (14th–17th Dynasties)

New Kingdom (18th–20th Dynasties)

Third Intermediate Period (21st–25th Dynasties) (also known as the Libyan Period)

Late Period (26th–31st Dynasties)

History of Greek and Roman Egypt: 332 BC to 639 AD

When Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 BC, Greek influence took root for the next 900 years. Then after 300 years, Egypt was incorporated into the Roman Empire and ruled first from Rome and then from Constantinople. In 639 AD, the Arabs took over.

History of early Arab Egypt: 639 to 1517

From 639 to 1517 Egypt was part of the Arab world, ruled at first by governors acting in the name of the Umayyad Caliphs in Damascus. In 747 the Umayyads were overthrown and the unity of the Arab world was broken. Although Egypt remained under the Abbasid Caliphate, the Tulunids and the Ikhidis were able to establish semi-independent dynasties. Cairo was established as capital in 969 when Egypt was conquered by the Tunisian Ismaili Shia Fatimid dynasty. This dynasty lasted until 1174, when Egypt came under Saladin ‘s rule, the Ayyubid dynasty of which lasted until 1252. The Ayyubites were defeated by their Turkish bodyguards, known as the Mamluks, who ruled under the Abbasid Caliphs regime until 1517, when Egypt became part of the Ottoman Empire.

History of Ottoman Egypt: 1517 to 1805

Egypt was conquered by the Ottomans in 1517, but it was always a difficult province for the Ottoman Sultans to control. It remained dominated by the semi-autonomous Mamluks until it was conquered by the French in 1798. After the French were expelled, Albanian Muhammad Ali of Egypt and his descendants pulled Egypt even further out of Ottoman control. It lasted until 1882 when the British invaded and Egypt became a colony of Britain.

The reign of Mehemet Ali and his successors was a period of rapid reform and modernization. Egypt became one of the most developed states outside of Europe. Unfortunately, massive government expenditures led to bankruptcy, and Egypt fell under the control of the British.

History of Modern Egypt: since 1882

The History of Modern Egypt is generally considered as beginning in 1882, from the time it became a British colony. In 1922, Egypt was officially granted independence, but British troops remained in the country and true self-rule did not occur until 1952 when Colonel Gamal Abdul Nasser rose to power. Nasser’s one party state has seen many changes but has remained in place, firstly under Anwar Sadat, and until the present day, under Hosni Mubarak.

EGYPTOLOGY

Egyptology is the scientific study of Ancient Egypt. Someone who studies Ancient Egypt is an Egyptologist. Egyptology explores Ancient Egyptian culture – its language, literature, history, religion, art, economics, and ethics, from the 5th millennium BC up to the end of Roman rule in the 4th century AD.

Modern Egyptology is generally thought of as beginning in the year 1822. That was when Jean-François Champollion first deciphered Egyptian hieroglyphics. He used the Rosetta Stone, a dark granite stone which provided modern researchers with translations of ancient text. Since 1802, the stone has been kept in the British Museum since.

Egyptian archeology is in a constant state of transition, with differences of opinion as to dating and terminology. Archeologists may suggest solutions to many of these questions; others may never be solved.

Here are some of the questions that Egyptologists are trying to answer:

Who were the first pharaohs of Egypt?

Where did the Egyptians come from?

Was the Pharaoh really seen as a god or was the position he held just viewed as divine?

What were the pyramids used for? How were the pyramids built?

Are the Pyramids of Giza lined up with stars?

How old is the Sphinx?

What was the purpose of the Sphinx?

Which pharaoh was the Sphinx meant to resemble?

Why did the Egyptians mummify their dead?

Is there a connection between Moses and Akhenaten?

Why did the Egyptians use hieroglyphs?

Why did Plato write about Atlantis?

Egyptian Art

Art

Ancient Egyptian art refers to two-dimensional and three-dimensional art produced from 3000 BC in Egypt and used until the 3rd century. It is the symbolism of the past expressed in paintings and sculptures.

There was a strict set of rules about how to represent three-dimensional forms. More important to follow the rules than to make a pretty picture, the intention of most of the artwork was to provide company for the deceased in the Other World. An artist’s job was to paint everything of the present time as clearly and permanently as possible. Through these vivid works of art, we are able to experience vicariously the life and times of Egyptians who lived thousands of years ago. Over decades, the Egyptian way of portraying man, nature and the world remained much the same and a revered artist was who duplicated the most beloved styles of the past.

Architecture

Ancient Egyptian architects used bricks, fine sandstone, limestone, and granite, both sun-dried and kiln-baked. Wood was not used as a building material because there were very few trees available. Without the use of mortar, stones had to fit precisely together. As the height of the construction grew, ramps were necessary to move people and materials up. When the structure at the topwas completed, the artists decorated from the top down, removing the ramps as they descended.

As the time passes, primitive structures of clay and reeds evolved into magnificent monumental structures of granite, with very thick walls. The massive sloping exterior walls of pyramids contained only a few small openings. Brilliantly colored hieroglyphs and carvings decorated the structures, and included many motifs, like the scarab, sacred beetle, the solar disk and the vulture.

The belief in the existence of life beyond death resulted in a mammoth architectural style to house the mummified bodies. Construction of a burial monument was initiated as soon as a pharaoh was named, and it continued until he was deceased. The longer a pharaoh lived, the larger his tomb would be. King Tutankhamen’s tomb is fairly small – he died at a young age. Another amazing aspect of ancient Egyptian architecture is that there was no structural support, except the strength and balance of the structure itself.

Papyrus

The word “paper” comes from “papyrus,” a plant cultivated in the ancient Nile delta. The papyrus plant processing produced sheets of paper which were up to 30 feet long. The papyrus crafting method has been lost over time, and then rediscovered by an Egyptologist in the 1940s.

On papyrus are depicted all facets of ancient Egyptian life, including literary, political, historical and administrative records.

Pottery

Ancient Egyptians used steatite or soapstone to carve small pieces for vases and amulets, as well as images of gods and animals. They also discovered how to cover pottery with enamel, which they also used on some stonework.

Some pottery items represented interior parts of the body, and were deposited in burial chambers of the dead – the heart and lungs, liver and small intestines, which were removed before embalming. Smaller objects in enamel pottery in large number of were also deposited with the dead. They contained the names, titles, and offices of the deceased, as well as stories about them.

Statues

The ancient Egyptian sculpture art evolved in physical form to represent the ancient Egyptian gods and pharaohs, the divine kings and queens.

Very strict rules were followed while crafting statues: male statues were darker than female ones; in seated statues, hands were required to be placed on knees and specific rules governed the appearance of every Egyptian god. For example, the sky god, Horus, was to be represented with a falcon’s head, the god of funeral rites, Anubis, was to be shown with a jackal’s head. Artistic works were ranked according to exact compliance with all the conventions, which were followed so strictly that over three thousand years, very little changed in the appearance of statutes.

Hieroglyphs

A hieroglyphic script is made of a number of images and symbols. In Egyptian hieroglyphs, some symbols had independent meanings, and some were used in combination. In a similar fashion to the Roman alphabet, some hieroglyphs were used phonetically, or to convey multiple meanings. The script was composed in three ways: from top to bottom, left to right, and right to left. The ancient Egyptians continued to use this type of writing, from 3300 BC until the third century AD. Many of the period’s works of art contain hieroglyphs, and hereoglyphs themselves form an impressive part of ancient Egyptian art.

Literature

Ancient Egyptian art and literature were recorded on papyrus or on wall paintings.

Included, were subjects like hymns to the gods, mythological and magical texts, and mortuary texts. Biography, history, science, mathematics, medicine, philosophy, and stories, also tied art and literature together. A number of such stories from ancient Egypt have survived thousands of years. The most famous is Rhodopis, the oldest version of the story we call “Cinderella” today.

Paintings

We are fortunate to have Ancient Egyptian paintings which survived in the extremely dry climate. The purpose of the paintings was to make the afterlife of the deceased a pleasant place. Protective deities, introductions to the gods of the afterworld, beautiful scenes of life in the afterworld, were all subjects to be explored with paints and brushes.

Egyptian Antiquities

The history of Egypt is written in its artifacts. A timeframe of more than 3,000 years showcases diverse and detailed works of jewelry and sculpture. A variety of materials were used during different stages, from the polychrome (red, blue/green, yellow, black) decorations used on some shabtis (statuettes) around the end of l8th Dynasty and in the Ramesside Period, to the dark hard stone probably of the Middle Kingdom or 25th Dynasty,

Shabtis

The ancient Egyptians believed that for many, the afterlife would likely require them to labor in the fields. Those who could afford it, took funerary statues (shabtis, shawabtis and ushabtis) along to perform their tasks. In the Ramesside Period, the number of shabtis increased to include one for each day of the year, plus 36 overseers. Tutankhamun’s tomb had an additional 12 monthly overseers.

Amulets

Some amulets held magical properties that could be conferred on the wearer. They would be taken along to the afterlife to provide assistance on the journey, or give protection.

An animal shaped amulet could inspire particular qualities or behaviors the wearer wished to possess. Or, if it were molded like part of the anatomy, it might give special related powers in that way. Amulets also portrayed symbols of power such as the pharaoh’s scepters. The eye of Horus was a very powerful Egyptian amulet, worn by both living and dead, which could protect everything behind it from evil.

Amulets were made from a variety of materials including glass, semi-precious stones, bronze, gold, silver, and a ceramic composed of crushed sand or quartz called Egyptian faience.

Cosmetics

Egyptians lived in a land of intense sun, where it was necessary to keep their skin oiled so it would not dry out. To prevent the sun from scorching their hair, it was treated with a lump of moisturizing cream that would gradually melt and give the wearer a pleasant fragrance. Many of the containers in which the oils and creams were stored can be found in museum collections.

Egyptian Museum

In Cairo, Egypt, the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, generally known as the Egyptian Museum, is home to the world ‘s largest collection of pharaonic antiques. This has 136,000 items on display, with several hundreds of thousands more in the storerooms in its basement.

The Egyptian Museum is an outgrowth of the effort by the Egyptian government to limit the looting of antiquities sites and artifacts, by establishing the Egyptian Antiquities Service in 1835. The museum opened in 1858 in an annex of the palace of Ismail Pasha of Giza, who had retained Auguste Mariette, the French archaeologist, to assemble the collection. In 1900 the museum moved to its present location, a neoclassical structure on Tahrir Square in Cairo’s city center.

The highlight of the collection is often considered to be the tomb artifacts of the Pharaoh Tutankhamun, whose almost intact tomb Howard Carter found in the Valley of the Kings in 1923. The Royal Mummy Room, containing 27 royal mummies, is also highly prized.

Ancient Egyptian Food

Egypt’s Ancient Land was one of the world’s most rich plains, so it housed one of the world’s strongest cultures. Rich soil, created by the annual floods of the canal, deposited dense silt over the land often supplying two, or sometimes three, harvests a year. Herodotus, a famous Greek historian, once wrote that Egypt was the Gift of the Nile.

In most Egyptians, bread was the staple diet. The average kitchen was normally located on the back of the house, or on the roof. It was mostly outdoors but may have been partly shady. Egyptian food was cooked, using wooden utensils, in simple clay pots and stored in jars.

Beer became the popular beer, and made from barley as well. The Egyptians would add spices to improve the flavor and it has usually been preserved in labelled clay pots. The importance of beer to the ancient Egyptians should not be underestimated since it was so highly esteemed that it was regularly offered to the gods as a libation.

The wine was made from nearby vineyards for the upper classes. The workers would stomp the grapes after the harvest had been processed, and the juice would have been extracted. They made other wines from pomegranates or plums.

Though Ancient Egypt’s people in poverty enjoyed a relatively balanced diet including vegetables , nuts, and fish. But it was just the bigger farms that were feeding the livestock, mostly because the ordinary farmer had to use his small land to grow crops. Poultry was grilled to the table for the most part, but meat remained the luxury of the wealthy. Contains seasoning: cinnamon, pepper, cumin , coriander, sesame, dill, fennel, fenugreek, seeds etc.

All the great festivals of the year were religious and were organized by the priests of the temple. The biggest of these was the god Amun festival which lasted an entire month. The ritual parade would have followed songs, dancers, singers, acrobats, and jugglers. Much feasting and partying continued with the consumption of a lot of wine and beer. There would be; dancing, poetry, laughter and the visitors would dance to entertain the younger members of the party.

Even though the ancient people did not write down their recipes or use cook books, it is well known the ingredients required to produce most of the dishes, many of which are still used in Egypt today.

Egyptian Mythology

Egyptian mythology is how we describe the succession of beliefs held by the people of Egypt until the coming of Christianity and Islam. For nearly three thousand years, the Egyptians were, for the most part, believers in many gods.

Egyptian Gods

The early beliefs can be split into 5 distinct localized belief groups:

* the Ennead of Heliopolis, whose chief god was Atum

* the Ogdoad of Hermopolis, where the chief god was Ra

* the Chnum-Satet-Anuket triad of Elephantine, where the chief god was Chnum

* the Amun-Mut-Chons triad of Thebes, where the chief god was Amun

* the Ptah-Sekhmet-Nefertem triad of Memphis, unusual in that the gods were unconnected before the triad was formalized, where the chief god was Ptah.

As the leaders of the different groups gained and lost power, so the major beliefs merged and mutated. First, Ra and Atum became Atum-Ra, with Ra the dominant of the two, and then Ra became absorbed in his turn by Horus and Ra-Herakty. Ptah, on the other hand, was absorbed into Osiris after he had become Ptah-Seker, becoming Ptah-Seker-Osiris. The goddesses fared no better, with Hathor absorbing the details of the other goddesses initially, but ultimately absorbed into Isis. Meanwhile, the villains similarly assimilated, with Set, who was initially a hero, absorbing all the aspects of the other evil gods, which he was doomed to do after having been chosen as the favored god of the Hyksos.

By the time the Greeks influenced Egypt, all that remained was the trinity of Osiris, Isis, and Horus, and their enemy, Set, as exemplified by the Legend of Osiris and Isis. The trinity had absorbed so many of the prior cults, that each had its own center of worship – Abydos for Osiris, Dendera for Isis, and Edfu for Horus. Even at this stage, the amalgamation was continuing, with Osiris all but an aspect of Horus (and vice-versa), and heading rapidly towards monotheism. Nevertheless, monotheism had briefly existed before, as, in the 13th century, Akhenaten had attempted to introduce the monotheistic worship of Aten, the sun-disc itself, although it was ultimately rejected.

Death

Egyptians practiced embalming and mummification in order to preserve the individual’s identity in the afterlife. Originally, the dead were interred in reed caskets in the searing hot sand, which caused the remains to dry quickly, preventing decomposition. and were then buried. Later, wooden tombs were constructed, and the extensive process of mummification and associated burial rituals and rules began.

Embalming was developed by the Egyptians around the 4th Dynasty. All soft tissues were removed, and the cavities washed and packed with natron, a white, crystalline mineral salt.Then the body outside was buried also in natron. Because it was a stoneable offence to harm the pharaoh ‘s body, even after death, the person who made the cut with a rock knife in the abdomen was chased away ceremonially and had rocks thrown at him.

After coming out of the natron, bodies were coated inside and out with resin to preserve them, then wrapped with linen bandages, embedded with religious amulets and talismans. Royalty was usually placed inside a series of nested coffins, the outermost of which was a stone sarcophagus. The intestines, lungs, liver, and stomach were separately preserved, and stored in canopic jars protected by Horus’ Four Sons. Other creatures were also mummified, usually the representations of the Gods. Ibis, crocodiles, cats, Nile perch and baboons can be found in perfect mummified forms.

The Book of the Dead was a series of almost two hundred texts, songs and pictures written on papyrus and individually customized, which was buried alongside the body, or painted on the tomb walls, in order to ease passage into the underworld. One of the best examples of the Book of the Dead is The Papyrus of Ani, created around 1240 BC, which also contains many pictures of Ani and his wife on their journey through the land of the dead, in addition to the texts themselves.

Later on the belief emerged that the heart of the deceased’s soul would be weighed against a feather, and if found wanting in morality, would be eaten by the demon Ammit.

The monotheistic period

During the reign of Akhenaten a brief period of monotheism (Atenism) existed, centered on the Egyptian sun god Aten. Akhenaten banned all other god’s worship, and founded a new capital (Amarna). The religious reform only lasted until Akhenaten ‘s son, Tutankhamun, died, and then soon returned. In addition, removals of Akhenaten and Tutankhamun from the Wall of Kings are likely to be linked to the drastic religious reform.

According to some Egyptologists, it is incorrect to regard this period as monotheistic. tThese researchers state that people did not worship the Aten but worshiped the royal family as a pantheon of gods who received their divine power from the Aten. It is critical to determine this time as monotheistic, according to other Egyptologists.. A recent alternative interpretation resulting from interpreting specific knowledge items relating to biblical and Egyptian history (by Ahmed Osman) suggests that Moses and Akhenaten were the same entity.

The original Egyptian pantheon survived more or less as the dominant faith after the fall of the Amarna dynasty, until the establishment of Coptic Christianity and later Islam, even though the Egyptians continued to have relations with other monotheistic cultures ( e.g. Hebrews). Egyptian mythology put up surprisingly little resistance to the spread of Christianity, sometimes claiming that Jesus was originally based primarily on Horus, with Isis representing Mary.

Temples

Many temples are still standing today. Some remain in ruins with wear and tear, while some are completely destroyed. Pharaoh Ramses II was a particularly prolific builder of temples.

Some known temples include:

* Abydos (Great Temple of Abydos) – Adoration of the early kings, whose cemetery, to which it forms a great funerary chapel, lies behind it.

* Karnak – Once part of the ancient capital of Egypt, Thebes.

Egyptian Mysticism

Egyptian Mysticism is a complex set of rituals and behaviors which looks for strength and guidance from a variety of otherworldly beings. These “gods” are the representations of human characteristics and qualities, and provide the practitioner with a way of understanding and living within the world.

Ancient Egyptian Mysticism includes the “magic circle,” which is familiar to European Pagans, Hebraic Kabalists, Native Americans, and every other mystic. Participants stand in a circle to honor the four directions and the deities they worship, those of Egypt having been called, as a group, Neteru – to the East is Tuameteutev; to the South is Amset; to the West is Qeb Suv; and to the North is Hapi.

There are three cradle gods – Shai, Renenet, or Meskhenet – which can be invoked to assist with good fortune, luck, or new life.

Other rituals include efforts to integrate or resolve karmic issues brought from past lives or unconscious living. According to the Ancient Egyptians we live in nine dimensions, many so nebulous that we can only experience them during dreams. We can call forth an opportunity to learn and grow in this fashion.

There are rites for assisting others to find their paths as well as one’s own. Totems play a very important role in the Egyptian Mystical practices. Totems are “composite creatures,” or archetypes, containing living elements of Nature embedded within our Psyches or Souls. In the American Indian tradition, there are many totems, such as bear, raven, frog, and eagle.

The Egyptian list of totems is very extensive, and includes:

Heru, the Falcon of Spiritual Victory, is the totem for those who possess Christ-consciousness. Het-Heru, the Cow Goddess Of Spiritual Blessing, is for those who are deeply devoted to a life of blessing others.

Anpu, the Jackal of Soul-Guidance, looks over those who are natural-born counselors, therapists and Spiritual guides. Apis, the Bull of Fertility, is the symbol of security, wealth and fatherhood. Tehuti, the Ibis-headed Record-Keeper, is the one who keeps accurate records, who writes everything down. Amun, the Goat Of Everlasting Creativity, is profoundly connected to sexuality and creates solutions out of thin air. Nut, the Sky-Goddess, embodies everything revered about mothering and motherhood. Geb, the Earth-God, is the good and loyal husband. Ptah, the Great Designer, organizes and envisions great designs and is the patron of freemasonry. Bastet, who personifies the Maternal Instincts of the Cat, is the patroness of childhood and nursing. Ksheper, the Scarab-Beetle of Immortality, is the patron of inventors and creative writers. Nephthys, at the Altar Of Mercy, lovingly supports nuns, ministers, monks, and those who take care of our spiritual needs. Ra, the Eagle Of The Sun, represents the victory of light over darkness.

There are certain gods of destruction – Set, Osiris, Isis, and many others- which should never be invoked, because they are associated with death and annihilation.

Egyptian Pyramids

The Egyptian Pyramids are some of the largest man-made constructions ever built. They are one of the most impressive and abiding symbols of Ancient Egyptian civilization. Although in an Egyptian pyramidno ancient Egyptian rulers have been found buried, most archaeologists generally accept that they were constructed as burial monuments. The majority were completed during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods. Egyptian homes were built on the east bank of the Nile River, the land where the Sun rises. The pyramids were built on the west bank of the river, where the sun sets, because the Egyptians believed it was the land of the dead.

Since antiquity, the pyramids at Giza are probably the world’s most popular tourist destination. They were popularized in Hellenistic times when the Great Pyramid was listed as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Today out of all, it is the only one of the ancient Wonders still in existence.

Giza, lies on the southern outskirts of Cairo and is the location of the three most famous pyramids. The Pyramid of Khufu is known as the “Great Pyramid,” or the “Pyramid of Cheops.” The Pyramid of Khafre is somewhat smaller, as is the modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure. This is also the location of a number of smaller “queens” pyramids, as well as the Great Sphinx.

Mysteries of the Pyramids

The pyramids of Egypt are considered to be the last of the seven wonders of the ancient world. No one can say for sure when they were built. At any given time many archaeologists are studying them to try and unlock their secrets.

There are some who study the effects of pyramids on animate and inanimate objects. They postulate that the center of a pyramid has energy that affects whatever is held there. Razors stay sharper, foods stay fresh longer, even injuries heal more quickly. People who meditate claim that sitting in a pyramid while doing so, brings many benefits, from more energy to greater feelings of peace and tranquility. You can easily find plans to build your own pyramid. If you do, you will have the opportunity to see for yourself if these assertions are true.

Since the late 1890s there have been people who believed that the Great Pyramid of Giza holds the secrets to understanding Biblical prophecy. John Taylor, Charles Piazzi Smyth, Martin Gardner, Robert Menzies, Madame Helena Blavatsky, Charles Taze Russell, Erik von Daniken, and Edgar Cayce, each had theories as to the purpose of the pyramids and how they were constructed.

Throughout history people have had special places to bury their dead. Caves and mounds were some of the earliest. Then in Egypt and elsewhere, larger structures appeared. We call them pyramids, and they take three distinctive shapes.

Mastabas and Step Pyramids:

The first large structures built in Egypt were called mastabas made of dried mud bricks that looked like raised flat beds. Most of them have crumbled. About 2650 B. C., Imhotep, an architect, physician, master sculpture, scribe, and astronomer, built the first known pyramid for King Zoser. It began as a simple mastaba, but was added to twice more to give it six layers. At a height of 200 feet, this step pyramid looked like a series of giant terraces. It took several design changes for it to take its final form. Today the Saqqara Pyramid still stands where the ancient city of Memphis was.

Bent Pyramid:

The second type of pyramid is called the Bent Pyramid. The builder of the Bent Pyramid is thought to have been the Pharaoh Snefru (2680-2565 BC), who was the first ruler of the 4th Dynasty.

The unique feature of the Bent Pyramid is the angle change. The base of the Bent Pyramid rises at an angle of 52˚, but the upper half is changed to 43.5˚. No one knows for sure why, but it may have been that the builders wanted to reduce the volume and get finished faster. Or perhaps they realized that it would not be a safe structure. It was abandoned after being worked on for twenty years. The Bent pyramid is located in southern Saqqara among the pyramids of Dahshur.

Smooth-sided pyramids:

Smooth sided pyramids were built starting about 2600 B. C. The first, at Medum, began as a stepped pyramid. Later, the steps were filled in with loose rubble. Finally, the whole thing was encased in smooth limestone. This pyramid collapsed because the casing was not bonded strongly enough to the core. Medum lies approximately 40 miles south of Giza.

The most famous pyramids are those at Giza. They stand on the west bank of the Nile River outside Cairo. The ten pyramids at Giza include those of Kings Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure.

Khufu’s pyramid is called the Great Pyramid and a study of it shows how these gigantic structures were built. Since the ancient Egyptians had no machinery or iron tools, they used copper chisels and saws to cut huge limestone blocks. The limestone came from nearby, as well as from across the Nile River, and other distant quarries.

It took thousands of men to drag the blocks to the pyramid sites and begin the first layer. They built long ramps to drag the stones up to the next layer, until they reached the top. The whole thing was then covered with white casing stones laid so closely that the remarkable result was the look of a single white stone. Most of the coverings are gone now, but some remain at the bottom of the Great Pyramid.

#Ancient Egypt #Egypt #Egyptian Antiquities #Egyptian Art #Egyptian Food #Egyptian Museum #EGYPTOLOGY #Facts &amp; Paradoxes

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politicoscope · 5 years

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Abdalla Hamdok Biography and Profile

New Post has been published on https://www.politicoscope.com/abdalla-hamdok-biography-and-profile/

Abdalla Hamdok Biography and Profile

Abdalla Hamdok, born 1956 in south-central Kordofan province. Studied at a Sudanese military academy and later in Egypt and Jordan. Appointed Inspector General of the army in February by President Bashir. Named as head of TMC after removal of Mr Bashir. Coordinated sending Sudanese troops to Yemen as part of a Saudi-led coalition.

He took over the Deputy Executive Secretary of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) job since November 2011. He has over 30 years of experience as a senior policy analyst and economist addressing diverse development challenges of the African policy landscape, primarily in the fields of governance, institutional analysis, public sector reforms, regional integration and resource management.

From 2001 onwards, Mr. Hamdok headed successively ECA’s portfolio of activities on development policy management, the New Partnership for Africa’s Development and regional integration, and governance and public administration. By way of an interlude from 2003 to 2008, he served the International IDEA as Regional Director for Africa and the Middle East.

Earlier, Abdalla Hamdok held the positions of:

Chief Technical Advisor (1995-1997) at the International Labour Organization, Zimbabwe;

Principal Policy Economist (1997-2001) at the African Development Bank in Côte d’Ivoire;

Head of the Public Sector Group and Member of the management committee (1993-1995) at Deloitte & Touche Management Consultants, Zimbabwe;

senior official (1981-1987) at the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning of Sudan

Abdalla Hamdok Education Abdalla Hamdok holds a PhD and a Master of Arts from the School of Economic Studies, University of Manchester, United Kingdom, and a Bachelor of Science from the University of Khartoum, Sudan.

Abdalla Hamdok Prime Minister of Sudan Sudan’s new Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok was sworn in on Wednesday 21 August 2019 as leader of a transitional government, and vowed to make achieving peace and solving the country’s economic crisis a priority. The nomination is the first step towards the creation of a transitional government that will prepare for free elections after the overthrow of veteran autocratic president Omar al-Bashir in April following months of unrest. The development came after protracted negotiations between the Transitional Military Council (TMC), which has ruled Sudan since April, and the opposition alliance known as the Forces of Freedom and Change (FFC).

Sudanese economist Amin Hassan Sayed Ahmed said Hamdok had good connections in the African Union and United Nations and might help get Sudan removed from the U.S. list of state sponsors of terrorism, which has impeded Khartoum’s access to IMF and World Bank funding.

“I think he knows how to get in through the system, much more than anyone else who tried before,” said Sayed Ahmed.

“We wish Dr. Abdalla Hamdok success in one of the hardest periods in the history of our country and people, a period that the revolutionary Sudanese people are looking forward to and observing with hopefulness,” the Sudanese Professionals Association, the group that spearheaded the protest movement and is part of the FFC, said in a statement.

The appointment of the renowned economist came as General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, the outgoing head of the military council, was sworn in as leader of the new Sovereign Council that will run the country for three years until an election after decades of autocratic rule.

The nomination of Hamdok to the role underlines the daunting task of repairing an economy that was battered by years of U.S. sanctions and government mismanagement during Bashir’s 30-year rule.

A shortage of foreign currency, resulting in a cash crunch and long lines for fuel and bread, triggered the protests that helped push Bashir out. The dramatic changes in Sudan have evoked memories of the Arab Spring uprisings that swept across many of the region’s countries in 2011.

Those upheavals raised hopes of political and economic reforms in countries such as Egypt, where the army watched patiently from the sidelines and then capitalised on the turmoil to widen its influence in politics.

“The revolution’s deep-rooted slogan, ‘freedom, peace and justice’ will form the programme of the transitional period,” Abdalla Hamdok told reporters at a news conference in the capital Khartoum.

“I think with the right vision, with the right policies, we will be able to address this economic crisis,” Hamdok said after the swearing-in ceremony.

“We will have a plan that will address the immediate challenges through our recovery program, addressing the felt need by the people: issues of inflation, availability of commodities, wheat, fuel, medicine and all that.”

UK, US and Norway statement on the new Prime Minister in Sudan The Troika countries (United Kingdom, United States and Norway) congratulate Dr. Abdalla Hamdok on his appointment as prime minister by the Sovereign Council and welcome the extensive professional experience he brings to the role.

We welcome this step in creating a civilian-led government. As Prime Minister Hamdok begins the process of selecting ministers and identifying the government’s priorities, we look forward to working with Sudan’s new institutions.

At this historic moment, Sudan has a unique opportunity to establish peace within its borders, draft a constitution that enshrines human rights protections and empowers all Sudanese, including women and youth, and create the infrastructure for free and fair elections.

We encourage all sides to engage in good faith to deliver these goals, in particular urging the armed movements to engage constructively with the new Government to achieve peace.

We will continue to support Sudan’s civilian-led transitional government as it conducts an investigation of the violence perpetrated against peaceful demonstrators and holds those responsible to account.

The appointment of a civilian-led government presents an opportunity to rebuild a stable economy and create a government that respects human rights and personal freedoms. Prime Minister Hamdok will have the Troika’s support in achieving these objectives.

Abdalla Hamdok Quick Facts

From 1981 to 1987, he was a senior official at Sudan’s Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, before taking on a number of leadership roles at several different institutions including the African Development Bank and the International Labour Organization.

He last served as deputy executive secretary of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, a post he held since November 2011.

He holds a bachelor of science from the University of Khartoum and a doctorate in economic studies from the University of Manchester in the UK.

Abdalla Hamdok was sworn in as Sudan’s new prime minister, leading the country’s transitional cabinet months after a mass protest movement forced the military removal of long-time authoritarian President Omar al-Bashir.

Abdalla Hamdok Biography and Profile

#Abdalla Hamdok Biography #Abdalla Hamdok Biography and Profile #Prime Minister of Sudan #Sudan #Sudanese Political Leader #Sudanese Prime Minister

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csrgood · 4 years

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Tetra Tech's Tim Michael Discusses Quality Assurance Oversight for International Development Projects

International Development

With more than 35 years of experience in project management, engineering, and infrastructure development, Tim Michael is a director in Tetra Tech’s international infrastructure sector. Tim has led projects through all phases of feasibility, facility, and infrastructure development for the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) in South Sudan, Ethiopia, and Afghanistan and for the Millennium Challenge Corporation in Tunisia.

As the Chief of Party for the USAID Feeder and Trunk Roads Program in South Sudan and the USAID Engineering Services and Construction Oversight Program in Ethiopia, Tim has implemented critical infrastructure solutions and provided high-quality assurance and oversight to monitor the success and sustainability of projects. Tim is an expert in quality assurance oversight and accommodating the needs of both clients and end customers.

Why is quality assurance oversight more important in an international development context?

Quality assurance oversight helps the client manage safety, quality, schedule, and cost during the riskiest period in the entire project life cycle—construction. In developed countries, contractors are highly experienced with tried-and-true systems in place. In developing countries, contractors lack the same foundation and typically work to a different standard. They may compromise on materials based on what is available or use outdated processes because they have not been exposed to international standards or cost-effective techniques. Our job is to introduce innovative approaches to local contractors that support using the best materials possible while substantially complying with the specifications and design standards. By emphasizing construction oversight, our clients proactively improve the quality of work and reduce risks by mitigating issues that can undermine the overall structure, usability, and safety of a building.

In Ethiopia, we used a hierarchy of resident and regional engineers to monitor remote construction sites that provided our client with visibility on project progress, improved contractors’ accountability, and enabled sustainability. For example, when contractors are encouraged to install pre-engineered steel concrete forms, they improve their approach and deliver a better product more efficiently. Better yet, it is less expensive for the contractors, incentivizing them to adopt the improved approach on their next project. In total, Tetra Tech oversaw the successful completion of 32 health centers for the USAID Engineering Services and Construction Oversight Project, and continues overseeing projects across Ethiopia and Djbouti through the USAID Engineering Services and Construction Oversight-2 project, where we have already advanced our systems to leverage real-time mobile data collection and reporting.

How does quality assurance oversight experience add value to a project?

When our engineers with quality assurance experience contribute to design development, we can apply lessons learned sooner. We provide an informed perspective on the most sustainable approach in a given region and knowledge gained from the end user or community in a way that is impossible when working solely from the United States. Then, we support and validate the client’s procurement approach to help make documents context appropriate. Every country has its own approach, and we tailor standard bid document packages to make sure the process is successful and follows best and innovative practices. Once construction begins, our clients depend on us to head off problems, catch mistakes early, and explain the consequences of contractors’ actions when necessary.

Without us, contractors often overlook details in drawings and specifications because they are less familiar with modern practices. Contractors cut costs on materials because they are unaware of how higher quality materials improve the longevity of a building or how international design standards improve safety. We maintain our presence through construction closeout and the warranty period to ensure everything continues to work properly. Even with a high level of oversight, warranty work is extremely important in a developing country because the contractor is still learning and small issues with materials and workmanship are much more likely to occur. For example, do window fixtures stay attached and do doors continue to latch well?

To expect perfection from a contractor in a developing country the first time around is unreasonable and will delay implementation, so the warranty period allows a final chance to correct the marginal issues that occur. This is the final key step in delivering a highly sustainable project. Our clients expect quality that contractors have never been accountable for before. Our mentorship helps improve the contractors’ management capacity and quality standards; after working with a contractor for just a year, the difference is striking.

How have you integrated capacity building and gender into quality assurance oversight activities?

We support the professional growth of newly educated women engineers to promote broad-based, inclusive economic growth. Getting this field experience through an international architecture-engineering firm, such as Tetra Tech, can empower women to serve and lead the engineering sector. Most importantly, gender integration in developing countries provides opportunities where previously there were none. Field experience is good for any engineer, but, after providing women opportunities for construction experience, they are even better equipped to excel past their colleagues when they return to an office engineering position. Furthermore, women on our teams have proven to have excellent communication skills, which improve our relationships with contractors and strengthen project documentation.

We mentor local contractors and project staff, building their capacity to meet the international engineering standards needed for construction oversight. We introduce them to innovative techniques, like electronic reporting, and expose them to lessons learned that are difficult for young engineers to find in developing countries. This experience improves their productivity, supports professional advancement, and provides the tools needed to deliver a highly sustainable project and become more competitive.

source: https://www.csrwire.com/press_releases/45449-Tetra-Tech-s-Tim-Michael-Discusses-Quality-Assurance-Oversight-for-International-Development-Projects?tracking_source=rss

#CSR #corporate social responsibility #social good #philanthropy #employee engagement #workplace givi

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expomahal-blog · 5 years

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TechnoDrive 2019 at Ukraine(Kiev) 2019-April

ll medical equipments and supplies for hospitals & clinics use contact links, all medical equipments Events, disposables directory, devices and supplies for laboratories Meetings, pharmaceutical & cosmetics industry (raw material Trade Shows, chemicals network, packing materials directory, etc?) Expos, compensatory devices and special needs B2C ideas, hospital services B2C opportunities, marketing (life insurance business ideas, one day surgery center Exhibitions, hair transplant center companies contacts, private hospitals Exhibitors Directory, ozone therapy B2C opportunities, obesity & thinness centers Exhibitors Directory, health care providers). companies contacts, owners of private (hospitals-medical centers-laboratories) network, senior doctors in government hospitals companies, procurements and maintenance managers for (private hospitals-medical centers-laboratories) Expos, the owners of medical facilities under finishing and processing business ideas, engineers business opportunities, consultants business contacts, construction companies contacts list, decoration and delivery on the key business ideas, businessmen and investors in the medical field network, medical union members business opportunities, procurements and advisor of the ministry of health which look for new suppliers business opportunities, all companies operating in the medical supplies in the arab world and african countries through updated database for example: sudan Business events, yemen business opportunities, syria Trade Fairs, jordan contacts list, uae Exhibitors, saudi arabia B2C ideas, and south africa. Exhibitors Directory 2019, April, Uzbekistan, Tashkent

Stomatology Uzbekistan 2019 at Uzbekistan(Tashkent) 2019-April

Stomatology Uzbekistan 2019 trade show event mainly focuses on:

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related products/services/industry/business. This trade show opens top business opportunities to exhibit products and services from ll medical equipments and supplies for hospitals & clinics use contact info, all medical equipments companies, disposables companies list, devices and supplies for laboratories Fairs, pharmaceutical & cosmetics industry (raw material business contacts, chemicals B2C opportunities, packing materials Trade Shows, etc?) Business events, compensatory devices and special needs companies list, hospital services business ideas, marketing (life insurance business, one day surgery center business contacts, hair transplant center info, private hospitals network, ozone therapy B2C opportunities, obesity & thinness centers business opportunities, health care providers). info, owners of private (hospitals-medical centers-laboratories) B2B ideas, senior doctors in government hospitals Shows, procurements and maintenance managers for (private hospitals-medical centers-laboratories) companies list, the owners of medical facilities under finishing and processing events, engineers network, consultants Trade Fairs, construction companies info, decoration and delivery on the key directory, businessmen and investors in the medical field Shows, medical union members business, procurements and advisor of the ministry of health which look for new suppliers Exhibitors, all companies operating in the medical supplies in the arab world and african countries through updated database for example: sudan directory, yemen Meetings, syria B2B ideas, jordan business ideas, uae Meetings, saudi arabia business opportunities, and south africa. B2B ideas industry.

Find More Details about Stomatology Uzbekistan 2019 event...

We help you to grow your business by providing the required contact details of all companies participating in this event and you can download the same data in excel format using the above links. Location of the Event:Uzbekistan(Tashkent) Year-Month:2019-April Official Website:Event Website source https://www.expomahal.com/2019/06/technodrive-2019-at-ukrainekiev-2019.html

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trivenimarketing · 15 days

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Building and project management involves the coordination, supervision, and management of construction projects from start to finish. This discipline ensures that a project is completed on time, within budget, and to the specified quality standards. It encompasses a wide range of activities, including planning, scheduling, resource allocation, risk management, and communication with stakeholders.

#Site construction service in South Sudan #Construction field management in South Sudan #Building and project management in South Sudan #Construction project management

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adalidda · 3 years

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Illustration Photo: Bhim Sara B.C from Bhew Chula village in Gurans Rural Municipality in Dailekh district of Nepal, has two Ghaitaâ (a rainwater harvest water tank). As the village is on the top of mountain. It has been facing water scarcity over many years. The rainwater harvesting system is supplies water in the monsoon season, which is used for both drinking and household work. But during the dry season she either has to walk hours for water or pay vehicles to carry water from other water sources nearest. (credits: Nabin Baral / IWMI / Flickr Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.0 Generic (CC BY-NC 2.0))

SUEZ Foundation Funding for Access to Essential Services in Emerging and Developing countries

For Afghanistan, Pakistan, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Gambia, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Bangladesh, Burma, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Laos, Maldives, Mongolia, Nepal, Pacific Islands, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cyprus, Georgia, Kosovo, Moldova, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Russia, Serbia, Ukraine, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Venezuela, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Syria, Tunisia, West Bank and Gaza, Yemen

The SUEZ Foundation supports concrete actions in favor of

access to essential services (water, sanitation and waste) for underprivileged populations in developing countries social integration of vulnerable people, through employment and training, in France; social cohesion through education, culture and sports in France; emergency aid in France and abroad.

It bases its action on a set of principles:

The active involvement of the populations concerned, which is the first step towards their autonomy, The reinforcement of knowledge and skills, through awareness and training of all stakeholders: populations and local actors, The sustainability of projects, Support for innovation, Co-commitment with partners, in a relationship based on mutual respect, listening and co-construction.

Access to Essential Services in emerging and developing countries in Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean, primarily where SUEZ and its subsidiaries are present

For a first endowment with a new partner, it can be up to 50,000 € maximum. Otherwise, our endowments for these projects go up to a maximum of 80,000 €.

The Foundation considers both one-time and multi-year projects.

▪ Development aid projects for the most vulnerable (access to water, sanitation, and waste management)

▪ Projects in informal urban peri-urban and rural areas if support from local authorities of the project is secured.

▪ Project including a training component on the improvement of services and their management, staff training, and actions to sensitize residents to hygiene and health issues.

▪ Emergency projects, supporting emergency and post-emergency humanitarian operations in the field of access to essential services (water, sanitation, waste).

However, it only supports associations, organizations or institutions that have demonstrated the relevance and impact of their action and the sustainability of their results in previous projects.

Application Deadline: October 30, 2021

Check more https://adalidda.com/posts/nLHKf3mS6mfhx8RkP/suez-foundation-funding-for-access-to-essential-services-in

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thespearnews-blog · 7 years

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The Rwandan's occupation and land grabbing strategy since 1950 [part 1]

New Post has been published on http://thespearnews.com/2017/08/13/the-rwandans-occupation-and-land-grabbing-strategy-since-1950-part-1/

The Rwandan's occupation and land grabbing strategy since 1950 [part 1]

The Banyarwanda and the land issues are insuperable

The current land grabbing legalization drive through constitutional amendment is part of a long term Tutsi occupational strategy hatched from the 1950s immediately the Rwandan asylum seekers were accommodated in Uganda.

The segmented strategy consists of assimilation into the indigenous communities, building a strong military base, winning political and administrative powers and taking over economic and financial might which is all archived over subduing indigenous tribes.

This strategy targets occupation of an entire region (Uganda, DRC, South Sudan and parts of Tanzania)

This is a long article detailing the history and facts linking Museveni Tutsi/Rwanda merciless strategies to grab land and literally wipe out all indigenous societies in the above region.

Under the guise of commercial farming, Museveni’s scheme is to deprive indigenous communities of their land and hoard them into urban centres so that they lose their respective community identities to the advantage of Banyarwanda refuges.

Background: The refuge influx

Between the 16th and 19th Centuries, there existed the state of Mpororo which stretched to parts of the present day Ankole, Kigezi and Rwanda. Its ruling family has close ties with the ruling families of the Tutsi in the ancient kingdom of Rwanda.

The collapse of the State of Mpororo gave rise to the Kingdom of Ankole which incorporated some of Mpororo territories.

In the pre-colonial Kingdom of Rwanda, Tutsi occupied higher strata in the social system while the Hutu occupied a lower strata. The Kingdom was ruled by a Tutsi monarchy and the Tutsi were cattle keepers while the Hutu were cultivators. A Hutu could be assimilated into Tutsi if he accumulated wealth in terms of cattle in a process called Kwihutura and a poor Tutsi could be regarded as a Hutu. By comparison, the Tutsi are the equivalent of Hima in Ankole or Balangira in Buganda while the Hutu are the equivalent of Bairu in Ankole and Bakopi in Buganda.

During the Partition of Africa by colonialists, some Banyarwanda were left out of the original Rwanda empire. Those who remained under the Belgium Congo in areas of Mulenge Hills came to be known as Banyamulenge and those in areas of Rushuru and Misisi came to be known as Banyarushuru and Banyamisisi respectively.

Those near the Bufumbira ranges came to be known as Bafumbira when the present-day Kisoro was added to Uganda in 1918. In the early 1920s some Banyarwanda, mainly Hutu and a few Tutsi, escaped Belgian colonial repression and Tutsi enforced labour and fled to Uganda. These were mainly petty Tutsi cattle herders and majority Hutu agriculturalists. The estimated 120,000 migrants settled mainly in the South Western region of Buganda and some parts of Ankole and Kigezi as farm laborers. The 1921 census report identified Banyarwanda as a tribe in Uganda after Kisoro had been added on Uganda in 1918.

In 1926 the Belgian colonialists in Rwanda made some reforms in labour laws where by, subjects were allowed to seek employment abroad.

Many Banyarwanda, more especially Hutu who were under the yoke of forcefully working for Tutsi under the Ubuhake arrangement left Rwanda for Tanzania, Uganda, and Congo. The exodus of Banyarwanda continued through the 1930s and 1940s but this time as economic immigrants.

They were coming in search of economic survival by way of casual labour and settled in Buganda, Ankole, Busoga, Kigezi, Tooro, and Bunyoro. They worked on fields of agriculture, construction, local government, industries, ginning, cattle herding, forestry, fishing, Kilembe Copper Mines, sugar and cotton plantations in Busoga etc.

Hutus assimilated in Buganda while Tutsi assimilated in Ankole through intermarriage with Hima. They took on local names and clans, spoke the local languages, intermarried and acquired land as tenants (Bakopi).

Together with their Burundian cousins, they were actively involved in the Baganda led Bataka Movement that was agitating for land rights. It was a coalition of indigenous Baganda peasants, tenants and labourers (Abapakasi) seeking land rights. In the 1940s, almost 35% of migrants in Buganda were from Burundi and Rwanda.

From the foregoing, it can be authoritatively argued that up to the late 1950s Banyarwanda in Uganda were of two categories.

First were the indigenous Banyarwanda who had been made part of Uganda by colonial boundaries demarcations like in the case of those from Kisiro who chose to call themselves Bafumbira.

Then there were the migrants who came to look for economic opportunities and mostly settled in Buganda and Ankole.

Between 1952 and 1959, the Belgian colonialists began putting in place political reforms in preparation for relinquishing their hold on Rwanda.

The Tutsi formed a Union Nationale Du Rwanda (UNAR) as a pro monarchy movement. The Hutu had earlier formed the Party for the Emancipation of Hutu (PARMHUTU). The reforms by Belgians challenged the status quo of the Tutsi establishment/monarchy.

In early November 1959, Tutsi UNAR youth wingers attacked a prominent Hutu Sub Chief, Mbonyiumutwa, but he managed to escape. However, rumours spread that he had been killed. Consequently, Hutu resorted to reprisal attacks against the Tutsi. The violence marked the start of an uprising that has been branded a Hutu Peasant Revolution. It marked the beginning of the end of Tutsi domination and opened a new chapter of Hutu/Tutsi ethnic tensions.

Hundreds of Tutsi were killed, property was destroyed and thousands fled to Congo and Uganda. The Belgians worked with the Tutsi monarchy to take control of the late ugly 1959 situation.

Prior to the arrival of Banyarwanda refugees in late 1959, earlier during the same year government conducted a census that revealed that Banyarwanda in Uganda were the sixth largest ethnic group after Baganda, Iteso, Banyankole, Basoga, and Bakiga.

This earlier Banyarwanda migrants’ arrival provided a local texture into which the new arrivals, refugees could merge. The demand for labour and the physical appearance had helped intermarriage but the tag of foreigners endured thus they were a prey to political machinations.

In October 2009 during the AU summit on refugees in Kampala, Museveni argued that; ” why don’t we think of refugees outside camps because land will not always be there”.

Earlier before 2009, the Belgians in Rwanda had notified their British counterparts in Uganda about a planned exodus of Tutsi from Rwanda to Uganda.

The British colonialists passed Legal Notice No. 311 of 1959 declaring any such people unwelcome and illegal in Uganda. The Governor, Sir Charles Hartwell addressed the LEGCO (Parliament) thus

“…there was no political persecution in Rwanda. The Tutsi who are fleeing Rwanda were either misinformed about the situation in Rwanda or were political criminals.”

Members of the LEGCO from the areas where the fleeing Tutsi were settling, Ankole and Kigezi, the likes of Hon. Bikangaga, Hon Katiiti and Hon Babiiha supported the protectorate government. However, the LEGCO members from the north and eastern regions like Hon. Milton Obote, Hon. Obwangor, and Hon. Nadiope vehemently opposed the protectorate government.

On 29th February 1960, Dr. Milton Obote moved a motion on the floor of LEGCO calling for the revocation of Tutsi Immigration Rule, thus;

“…. the rule of terror was so bad that the people of Rwanda wanted to seek safety somewhere. A number of them wanted to be refugees in Uganda. But I wish the house to know that they did not come as ordinary immigrants. They were running away from acts of violence which were the order of the day in their country. Indeed, these people are kinsmen of the people of Ankole of Uganda and the only thing that anyone of them could do was to go to his fellow brother to seek for his safety. I am pleading for the whole of the Batutsi tribe who came to Uganda to seek for safety. I am pleading for the case of a people who are now being ruled by another race. I am pleading for the principle of offering asylum to those who need it.”

Those against, argued that

“…….it was impossible to accommodate such a big number of illegal immigrants with their cattle anywhere in the country, especially since western Uganda was already overstocked, overgrazed, lacked water, and the cattle the Tutsi brought with them were diseased and would spread disease in the country.” The motion was defeated.

In 1961 the UN supervised elections in Rwanda were won by the Hutu party, PARPEHUTU. Violent ethnic clashes ensued and more refugees fled to Uganda, Tanzania, Congo and Burundi.

Around that time, the British in Uganda were also grappling with political violence and instability in some parts of Buganda, Bukedi, Bugisu, and Tooro. However, Refugee Reception Centres were set up at Kamweezi in Kigezi and Kizinga in Rwampara.

Some refugees dodged these reception centres by simply going straight to their relatives who had arrived much earlier and settled in Ankole and Kigezi.

In 1960 the Uganda government put in place a law, Control of Alien Refugee Act 1960 which prevented these refugees from accessing citizenship by naturalization.

S.18 stipulated that;

“No period spent in Uganda as a refugee shall be deemed to be a qualification for being a resident of Uganda.”

In Rwanda, the Tutsi King, Kigeri was deposed and he fled to Uganda where he was a guest of the Kabaka of Buganda, Muteesa who at that time was the President of Uganda.

In July 1961 Tutsi refugees in Uganda under the umbrella organisation, INYENZI attacked Rwanda but were repulsed. They attacked again in May 1962 and were repulsed again. The Uganda government warned the refugees against using Uganda as a base to attack Rwanda.

In all the attacks, the Tutsi inside Rwanda were left vulnerable to reprisal attacks and hence more were fleeing.

In 1962 the government set up the first refugee camps at Nakivaale in Ankole. The deposed Rwanda King’s loyalists, ABADAHEMUKA linked with the Kabaka’s party, KY (Kabaka Yeka) at a time when there was friction between Buganda and the central government over lost counties.

In March 1963, Prime Minister, Milton Obote warned refugees against incursions into Rwanda thus;

“If hospitality is abused, we have no alternative but to withdraw the protection we granted to these people.”

In late 1963, the then Minister of Community Development, Kalule Ssetalla told Parliament that thousands of Tutsi refugees had been continuing to pour into Uganda with tens of thousands of their heads of cattle.

During the same year, government set up Oruchinga and Ibuga refugee camps in Ankole and Kasese, respectively. The following year, in 1964, four more camps were set up at Kahunge, Rwamwanja and Kyaka in Tooro and Kyangwali in Bunyoro.

With the fall out between the central government and Buganda Kingdom, the UPC government under Prime Minister Obote expelled the Tutsi King Kigeri who relocated to Kenya. The pressure had also come from Hutu refugees for the government to prevail over Tutsi invasion of Rwanda.

The law of refugees was also amended to prohibit anyone from keeping refugees without permission from government. Refugees were also required to stay in designated refugee settlements. The Director of Refugees was also given powers to deport any refugee who violated the law and those who did not meet the asylum criteria.

In setting up the camps, the government had anticipated that the refugees would stay for a short time and return to Rwanda.

Between 1960 and 1964, half of an estimated 120,000 Tutsi who fled Rwanda came to Uganda. Some 40,000 went to Burundi, 60,000 went to Congo, 35,000 came to Uganda and 15,000 went to Tanzania. By 1967 about 300,000 Tutsi and a few Hutu elites had fled Rwanda. In 1968 Oxfam International appealed to the International community for a special fund to help in the repatriation of Banyarwanda refugees.

The refugees did not show any interest of repatriating and the government got convinced that they were bent on remaining in Uganda. The then Information Minister, Adoko Nekyon, told the OAU summit in Lagos, “……Uganda has no alternative but to send these people away, unless Uganda receives help.” He added that the same refugees were selling off government assistance to buy arms and to raise money for King Kigeri’s upkeep in Kenya.

The hospitality and generosity by locals also ran out due to a number of factors. In Buganda, the peasants called on government to expel Banyarwanda whom they accused of taking their land.

In Ankole, the rivalry was based on the ethnic connection between the low caste, Baitu/Hutu and the high caste Hima/Tutsi alliances.

The predominantly Catholic DP (Democratic Party) alliance with the predominantly Catholic Banyarwanda refugees against the predominantly Protestant UPC was another factor.

The UPC government banned Banyarwanda refugees from having ID cards and taking on government jobs. UPC also planned for a countrywide census of indigenous Banyarwanda but before it could be implemented, Iddi Amin overthrew the UPC government in 1971.

The violent political crisis in Rwanda triggered a fresh exodus of Tutsi refugees from Rwanda. Between 500,000 – 600,000 Banyarwanda Tutsi refugees were spread throughout the Great Lakes region but not all of them were registered under the UNHCR. Uganda had only 82,000 registered refugees.

Iddi Amin invited, welcomed, and hosted King Kigeri from Kenya and settled him in Kampala. Banyarwanda refugees were allowed to join the public service, the security forces including the dreaded Public Safety Unit (PSU) and State Research Bureau (SRB) where a number of Banyarwanda was dominant. It is a fact that the Banyarwanda spies under the Iddi Amin regime helped in containing the activities of the anti-Iddi Amin dissidents and in particular the 1972 invasion from Tanzania.

Note: The forward base of the Tanzania based dissidents had been Kagera region which is another Banyarwanda stronghold. The Banyarwanda refugees in the security agencies terrorised and murdered perceived regime opponents. It’s during the Iddi Amin regime that a number of Banyarwanda refugees managed to get out of refugee settlements and acquire land, jobs and business enterprises and guns.

In 1978, Iddi Amin blamed the Banyarwanda refugees for sabotaging government’s political and economic policies. He reverted to the 1971 order by deposed President Obote for all refugees to register with government and to be confined in settlement camps. As had been the case with Obote in 1971, even before Iddi Amin could implement this directive, he was overthrown in April 1979.

Meanwhile, Museveni who had been involved in anti-Amin campaigns had managed to recruit a Munyarwanda refugee, Fred Rwigyema in 1976 from Mbarara High School whom he took to Tanzania as part of his 28 man FRONASA that he claims to have got training in Mozambique. In 1978 when the Tanzanian troops crossed the Uganda/Tanzania border against Iddi Amin, Museveni recruited a number of Banyarwanda refugees from the refugee settlements of Nakivaale and Oruchinga. By the time the war against Iddi Amin ended, Museveni’s FRONASA had a sizeable number of Hima and Banyarwanda refugees.

During the process of reconstructing the new post Iddi Amin Uganda army, it was agreed that Banyarwanda refugees should be eliminated on account of their being non-citizens. Consequently, a number of Banyarwanda refugees including Fred Rwigyema were dropped.

Paul Kagame survived because at that time he was attending a military intelligence course. But still a sizeable number of Banyarwanda refugees remained in the UNLA because it was difficult to accurately tell a Munyarwanda Tutsi from a Munyankole Hima. Museveni who was the Minister of Defence retained these rejected Banyarwanda refugee soldiers as his private army. . . .

The 1980 and Museveni’s refuge revenge-bush war recruitment. Read part two Wednesday. Museveni and refuge agenda

By Nangalama .. . .The article first appeared at The perilofafrica.com

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NGO Website Development

BRAC, an international development organisation based in Bangladesh, is the largest non-governmental development organisation in the world, in terms of number of employees as of September 2016.[3][4][5] Established by Sir Fazle Hasan Abed in 1972 after the independence of Bangladesh, BRAC is present in all 64 districts of Bangladesh as well as 13 other countries in Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

BRAC employs over 100,000 people, roughly 70 percent of whom are women, reaching more than 126 million people.[6][7] The organisation is 70–80% self-funded through a number of social enterprises that include a dairy and food project, a chain of retail handicraft stores called Aarong, seed and Agro, and chicken. BRAC has operations in 14 countries of the world.[6][non-primary source needed]

Sir Fazlé Hasan Abed, founder of BRAC

Known formerly as the Bangladesh Rehabilitation Assistance Committee and then as the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee and now Building Resources Across Communities,[8] BRAC was initiated in 1972 by Sir Fazlé Hasan Abed at Shallah Upazillah in the district of Sunamganj as a small-scale relief and rehabilitation project to help returning war refugees after the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971.[9] In nine months, 14 thousand homes were rebuilt as part of the relief effort and several hundred boats were built for the fishermen. Medical centres were opened and other essential services were ensured.[10][non-primary source needed]

By 1974, BRAC had started providing micro credit and had started analysing the usefulness of credit inputs in the lives of the poor. Until the mid-1970s, BRAC concentrated on community development through village development programmes that included agriculture, fisheries, cooperatives, rural crafts, adult literacy, health and family planning, vocational training for women and construction of community centres. A Research and Evaluation Division (RED) was set up by Mushtaque Chowdhury in 1975 to analyse and evaluate its activities and provide direction for the organisation to evolve. In 1977, BRAC shifted from community development towards a more targeted approach by organising village groups called Village Organisations (VO). This approach targeted the poorest of the poor – the landless, small farmers, artisans, and vulnerable women. Those who own less than half an acre of land and survive by selling manual labor were regarded as BRAC's target group. That same year BRAC set up a commercial printing press to help finance its activities. The handicraft retail chain called Aarong, was established the following year.[11]

In 1979, BRAC entered the health field by establishing a nationwide Oral Therapy Extension Programme (OTEP), a campaign to combat diarrhoea, the leading cause of the high child mortality rate in Bangladesh.[12][page needed]Non Formal Primary Education was started by BRAC in 1985.[13]

In 1986, BRAC started its Rural Development Programme that incorporated four major activities – institution building including functional education and training, credit operation, income and employment generation and support service programmes.[citation needed]

In 1991, the Women's Health Development program commenced. The following year BRAC established a Centre for Development Management (CDM) in Rajendrapur.[citation needed]

Its Social Development, Human Rights and Legal Services programme was launched in 1996.[citation needed]

In 1998, BRAC's Dairy and Food project was commissioned.[citation needed] BRAC launched an Information Technology Institute the following year.[citation needed]

In 2001, BRAC established a university called BRAC University.[14]

BRAC has done what few others have – they have achieved success on a massive scale, bringing life-saving health programs to millions of the world's poorest people. They remind us that even the most intractable health problems are solvable, and inspire us to match their success throughout the developing world. Bill Gates, Co-chair, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Global Health Award, 2004

Microfinance, introduced in 1974, is BRAC's oldest programme. It spans all districts of Bangladesh.[15][16] It provides collateral-free loans to mostly poor, landless, rural women, enabling them to generate income and improve their standards of living.[15][16] BRAC's microcredit program has funded over $1.9 billion in loans in its first 40 years.[citation needed] 95% of BRACs microloan customers are women.[1] According to BRAC, the repayment rate is over 98%.[17]

BRAC founded its retail outlet, Aarong (Bengali for "village fair") in 1978 to market and distribute products made by indigenous peoples. Aarong services about 65,000 artisans, and sells gold and silver jewelry, hand loom, leather crafts, etc.[11]

BRAC is one of the largest NGOs involved in primary education in Bangladesh.[18] As of the end of 2012, it had more than 22,700 non-formal primary schools with a combined enrolment of 670,000 children.[17][non-primary source needed] Its schools constitute three-quarters of all NGO non-formal primary schools in the country.[18]

NGO Website Development

BRAC's education programme provides non-formal primary education to those left out of the formal education system, especially poor, rural, or disadvantaged children, and drop-outs.[1] Its schools are typically one room with one teacher and no more than 33 students. Core subjects include mathematics, social studies and English. The schools also offer extracurricular activities.[18] They incentivise schooling by providing food, allowing flexible learning hours, and conferring scholarships contingent on academic performance.[19]

Bangladesh has reduced the gap between male and female attendance in schools.[19] The improvement in female enrolment, which has largely been at the primary level, is in part attributable to BRAC.[18] Roughly 60% of the students in their schools are girls.[1]

BRAC started providing public healthcare in 1972 with an initial focus on curative care through paramedics and a self-financing health insurance scheme. The programme went on to offer integrated health care services.[citation needed]

A BRAC community health worker conducting a survey in the Korail slum, Bangladesh

BRAC's 2007 impact assessment of its North West Microfinance Expansion Project testified to increased awareness of legal issues, including those of marriage and divorce, among women participants in BRAC programs. Furthermore, women participants' self-confidence was boosted and incidence of domestic violence were found to have declined.[20] One of the most prominent forms of violence against women, acid throwing, has been decreasing by 15-20% annually since the enactment in 2002 of legislation specifically targeting acid violence.[21]

BRAC conducted one of the largest NGO responses to Cyclone Sidr which hit vast areas of the south-western coast in Bangladesh in mid-November 2007.[citation needed] BRAC distributed emergency relief materials, including food and clothing, to over 900,000 survivors, provided medical care to over 60,000 victims and secured safe supplies of drinking water. BRAC is now focusing on long-term rehabilitation, which will include agriculture support, infrastructure reconstruction and livelihood regeneration.[22][non-primary source needed]

BRAC has a collaboration with Nike's Girl Effect campaign to launch a new program to reach out to teenagers in Uganda and Tanzania.[23][non-primary source needed]

Not to be confused with the outlawed German association Internationale Humanitäre Hilfsorganisation e.V. or the Netherlands-based Internationale Humanitaire Hulporganisatie Nederland.

IHH Humanitarian Relief Foundation[2] (Turkish: İHH İnsani Yardım Vakfı; full Turkish name: İnsan Hak ve Hürriyetleri ve İnsani Yardım Vakfı,[3] in English: The Foundation for Human Rights and Freedoms and Humanitarian Relief) or İHH is a conservative Turkish NGO, whose members are predominantly Turkish Muslims, active in more than 100 countries.[4]

Established in 1992 and officially registered in Istanbul in 1995, İHH provides humanitarian relief in areas of war, earthquake, hunger, and conflict.[5] The İHH holds Special Consultative Status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council since 2004[6][7] Current president of the İHH is Fehmi Bülent Yıldırım.

The İHH was owner and operator of three flotilla ships involved in the convoy intended to breach the blockade of Gaza in 2010. These ships included the MV Mavi Marmara, a passenger vessel that served as the flagship of the convoy.[8][9] As Israeli naval forces boarded the ship in order to prevent breach of the blockade, passengers attacked the boarding forces with clubs, knives and firearms. Nine passengers aboard the Mavi Marmara, many of them members of the İHH,[10] were killed [11][12][13][14]

The Istanbul-based Foundation for Human Rights and Freedoms and Humanitarian Relief (İHH) is an Islamic charity group that was formed to provide aid to Bosnian Muslims in the mid-1990s. It has been involved in aid missions in Pakistan, Ethiopia, Lebanon, Indonesia, Iraq, Palestine, Sudan, Somalia, Ghana, Mongolia, China, Brazil, Argentina and other places.[15]

The organization is active in Turkey, the Middle East, Europe, Africa, South America, Central Asia, South Asia, and the Caucasus.[16] İHH has held Special Consultative status as an NGO (non-governmental organization) in the United Nations Economic and Social Council since 2004.[6][7] İHH is the organizer of Africa Cataract Project which aims to fight against blindness in Africa.

The IHH aims to reach every region hit by wars, disasters, poverty and human rights abuses, and believes that civilian initiatives play a complementary role beside intervention by states and international organizations in resolving humanitarian problems. It is also their goal to deliver humanitarian aid to all people and take necessary steps to prevent any violations against their basic rights and liberties.[17]

These goals are achieved through the delivering of foodstuffs, clothes and tents to crisis regions hit by wars, conflicts, and natural disaster to meet urgent needs of victims. The foundation further provides health services in drought and aridity-stricken regions where poverty and deprivation have become chronic, and carries out long-term projects that aim at enabling local peoples stand on their own feet.[17] For those wanting to work with the organization, some emphasized activities include take active part in their activities, making donations or fund-raising, organizing seminars, and distributing posters.[18]

Trustees of the organization include:[19]

The Foundation for Human Rights and Freedoms and Humanitarian Relief belongs to a number or organizations, including the UN's Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) in the special consultative status, the Organization of Islamic Conference's (OIC) Humanitarian Forum, the Council of International Organizations for Relief in Iraq, the Union of Non-governmental Organizations of the Islamic World (UNIW), and the Turkish Foundation for Volunteer Organizations (TGTV). The group has also received the following recognitions:

The İHH provides social aid, Muslim cultural aid, educational aid, sanitary aid, emergency aid programs in 120 countries.[22] It provides health care and water wells in Africa and runs the Africa Cataract Project, begun in 2007, in ten African countries. İHH has made it possible for thousands of people who are suffering from cataracts but who do not have the economic means to be treated to see again. İHH built 1174 water wells in Africa.[23] İHH sent two cargo planes to Haiti with 33 tons of humanitarian aid supplies after the 2010 Haiti earthquake.[16]

In December 2007, Today's Zaman wrote that "various civil society organizations such as Kimse Yok Mu? (Is Anybody There?), Deniz Feneri (Lighthouse), the Foundation for Human Rights and Freedoms and Humanitarian Relief (İHH) and Can Suyu assisted thousands of charitable donors in reaching out to poverty-stricken residents of the Kurdish-dominated eastern and southeastern regions of Turkey."[24]

World Bulletin wrote in August 2009 that hundreds of water wells were dug and fountains were built in an aid effort under the leadership of Foundation for Human Rights and Freedoms and Humanitarian Relief (İHH) across African countries.[25] Several Turkish nongovernmental organizations, such as Kimse Yok Mu? (Is anybody there?), the Humanitarian Aid Foundation (İHH) and Deniz Feneri (lighthouse), also provided aid to storm survivors in Bangladesh.[26]

İHH previously sent packages containing flour, legumes, oil and sugar to 350 families residing in Zewaya Dugda, one of the poorest regions in the Ethiopia. The UN announced that around 6 million children in Ethiopia faced risk of acute under-nutrition and urged countries to send aid.[27]

After the earthquake in Indonesia, Doctors Worldwide and The Foundation for Human Rights and Freedoms and Humanitarian Relief (IHH) sent volunteers and aid to Indonesia.[28] İHH opened mosques, dug waterwells, distributed Qur'ans, organized iftars, aiding orphans and refugees in Darfur.[29]

In Gaza, the İHH is renovating the port, funding a Turkish-Palestinian school and plans to build a hospital and apartments for Gazans made homeless during the Gaza War.[30]

IHH has been involved with the United Nations in a number of ways. For example, the Foundation for Human Rights and Freedoms and Humanitarian Relief attended the 44th Session of the Commission for Social Development and contributed to the panel discussion for the eradication of poverty. The group has attended other meetings, including:[17]

Refugees (UNHCR)

The project aims at performing 100.000 free cataract surgery operations in ten African countries: Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Chad, Niger, Togo, Benin, Gana, Mali, and Burkina Faso. Volunteer Turkish surgeons and nurses take part in the project and travel to African countries for surgery. One of the objectives of the program is to offer free eye care for needy people. The Turkish International Cooperation and Development Agency and Turkey's and Sudan's Ministries of Health are supporting the project. All surgeries are broadcast live on the project website and the IHH website.[31][32]

In 2011, IHH worked with Turkish aid groups like Kimse Yok Mu, the Turkish Red Crescent (Kızılay) and Doctors Worldwide in Somalia. IHH aid reached a total of 376,777 people. Relief efforts, totaling TL 2,420,612, included food and medicine distributions, digging 70 water wells, health screenings, fitr (alms) donations and iftars (fast-breaking meals). With regards to its work in Somalia, one worker said that "the İHH already has been working in Somalia for the last 15 years in the fields of education and social and medical care. As for the food crisis, the activities will continue for at least another three years because the drought has spread and it sounds like it's not over. But as for other fields, the İHH is there and the activities will continue." He continued that "in order to help families of orphans to make a living and stand on their own two feet, we gave the families of 40 orphans sewing machines and cows, while we gave another 20 families sesame and flour milling machines. In addition, the İHH offered medical examinations to 400 orphans and treated 137 children with various diseases."[33]

In 2010, the ship Gazze set sail for Pakistan to deliver humanitarian aid to the people affected by floods in the country. The ship carried 3,000 tons of humanitarian supplies including, medicine, food, generators, clothes and tents.[34][35]

In 2011, IHH worked with the Khubaib Foundation to distribute relief goods amongst 500 flood stricken families in Lakki Marwat, a southern district of Pakistan. Some of the items included 270 containers which contained both food and non-food items. This was among clothes, shawls, footwear, and food items including rice, beans, canned food, power milk and children's cereal that were also distributed.[36]

In response to the humanitarian situation during 2011 Libyan civil war, IHH sent a cargo ship carrying nine containers, 141 tons of humanitarian aid including medication, food packages, infant formula, milk powder, hygiene kits and clothing.[37][38] The ship set sail from Turkey and dropped anchor in Malta.

The IHH worked with the Istanbul Peace Platform to host a conference focused on China's traditionally Turkic Muslim region of Xinjiang and which aimed to highlight the remote region's problems in the wake of July 2009 communal clashes. Official government sources said nearly 200 people were killed and 1,600 wounded in July 2009 riots in Xinjiang's capital, Ürümqi, in the worst ethnic unrest in China in decades. Beijing claimed the riots were orchestrated by overseas activists for the rights of Uighurs, historically Xinjiang's largest ethnic group. Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has called the violence in Xinjiang “a kind of genocide.”[39]

Further information: Reactions to the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

The IHH Humanitarian Relief Foundation sent a rescue team of 5 to the Japan. IHH deputy chairman Yaşar Kutluay said "we sent our team to Japan which also went to Haiti due to the earthquake and to Pakistan due to the floods and lastly went to Tunisia and Libya due to the recent developments. Our team will contact with Japanese authorities to organize relief works. Our team will bring sonar system and search and rescue equipments."[40]

NGO Website Development

The IHH aid team conducted relief efforts in Sendai which was most heavily devastated by the earthquake and took relief to around 5.000 people. Güzel said Sendai has turned into a ghost city in the aftermath of the quake disaster and ensuing tsunami and it may take long years for Japan to recover from the aftereffects of the disaster. Güzel noted that the humanitarian crisis in Japan may deteriorate if international aid is not provided to the country.[41]

As reported on March 28, 2015, the IHH secured the release of two Czech tourists, Antonie Chrástecká and Hana Humpálová, following two months of intense negotiations. They were kidnapped near Taftan, Pakistan, by an al Qaeda-linked armed group on March 13, 2013, while travelling overland from Europe to India.[42]

Mavi Marmara with Turkish and Palestinian flags, campaign banner, and the text "This is a humanitarian aid ship" in Turkish, English, Arabic, and Hebrew. Main article: Gaza flotilla raid

In January 2010, the Free Gaza Movement and İHH announced a joint venture to send ten vessels to the Gaza strip in the spring of 2010, a flotilla to be further joined by organizations from Greece, Ireland and Sweden.[43]

On 30 May 2010, a flotilla of six ships carrying 663 activists from 37 nations rendezvoused near Cyprus and set sail for Gaza.[44][45] The stated intention of the Gaza flotilla, like for earlier flotillas organized by the Free Gaza Movement, was to break through Israel's blockade of the Gaza strip and to deliver humanitarian supplies.[46][47] The İHH spent more than $2 million on the ships.[48] İHH activists were set apart from other activists involved in the mission by a willingness to resist Israeli forces.[10]

On 31 May 2010, after the IHH refused that the Israel Defense Forces will check the ship's cargo in Ashdod port, Israeli forces intercepted the fleet in the international waters. On the MV Mavi Marmara, one of the ships owned and operated by the İHH, boarding Israeli forces came under coordinated armed attack. In the clashes, nine activists were killed (Eight Turkish nationals and a Turkish-American), and dozens of activists and seven Israeli commandos were wounded. On three other ships, activists showed passive resistance, which was suppressed by Israeli forces without deaths or injuries, and two others were taken without incident. The activists were subsequently arrested and detained in Israel before being deported. Widespread international condemnation of the raid followed, Israel-Turkey relations were strained, Israel subsequently eased its blockade of the Gaza strip, and Egypt lifted its blockade, opening its Rafah Border Crossing with the Gaza Strip.[49]

On 18 June 2010, the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs released video footage of a rally on board the Mavi Marmara the day before the raid in which the İHH President Fehmi Bülent Yıldırım declared to dozens of activists: "And we say: 'If you [Israel] send the commandos, we will throw you down from here to the sea and you will be humiliated in front of the whole world'", as participating passengers chant "millions of martyrs marching to Gaza!"[50]

In September 2011, a United Nations report, after analysis of both Turkey and Israeli national investigations, concluded that the Israeli blockade was legal, but that Israel army used excessive force in this incident. The report also mentioned "serious questions about the conduct, true nature and objectives of the flotilla organizers, particularly IHH."[UN Palmer Report 2011, p. 4.]

İHH abstained from the 2011 flotilla, citing outstanding damage to the Mavi Marmara.

In September 2011, Istanbul Deputy Public Prosecutor Ates Shasan Sozen told the Turkish daily Today's Zaman that the IHH identified and submitted a list of 174 IDF soldiers to the Prosecutor's Office.[51][52]

Main article: Reactions to the Gaza flotilla raid

The flotilla event generated mixed perceptions of IHH. The group was described as a humanitarian[53][54][55] group and as a charity following the flotilla event;[56][57] however, the group was also challenged for alleged affiliations with organizations such as Hamas.[58] Critics charged the allegations arose after the raid simply because of the scale of the political fallout from the raid.[59] IHH maintained that the best way to judge it was its behavior and responded that "we collected US$1 million (Dh3.7m) for victims of the Haiti earthquake, and we delivered our aid in a church there." Other IHH officials said the organisation is opposed to violence and relies on donations from the Turkish public, up to 80 per cent of which come from poor families.[59]

Some of the allegations included that IHH has been banned in Germany, that IHH has raised funds for jihadi fighters in Bosnia, Chechnya, and Afghanistan, that French intelligence has documented calls between the group and an Al Qaeda boarding house in Milan, Italy, as well as Algerian militants in Europe, and that IHH reportedly played an "important role" in the Millennium bomb plot against LAX airport, Los Angeles.[60]

That IHH was banned in Germany later turned out to be a mixup between the Turkish İnsan Hak ve Hürriyetleri and the banned German Internationale Humanitäre Hilfsorganisation e.V.. The U.S. government said it "cannot validate" any relationship or connection between İHH and al-Qaida.[61] Turkish authorities made no further efforts after the raid regarding support for Bosnian, Chechen and Afghan fighters[59] and IHH replied that there was an acquittal in the court case and nothing ever came of the charges.[62] Testimony regarding IHH and the Millennium bomb plot was thrown out in court by a judge because it would "necessarily be based upon hearsay".[63]

An IHH board member responded in the Los Angeles Times that IHH provides charity in more than 100 countries. He stated there was no proof that IHH has any connections to Al Qaeda or its affiliates, and also said that its involvement with Bosnia and Chechnya amounted to food, clothes and medicine. Those who "accuse us of terrorism are the very people who kill innocent victims," said Ali Cihangir, an IHH board member, referring to the Israeli raid on the Mavi Marmara that left nine Turkish activists dead. "There are political reasons countries are saying this about us."[72]

According to The Times, a Free Syrian Army commander said that a boat carrying weapons docked in Syria in September 2012 and "was registered to members of the IHH, which has ties to the Muslim Brotherhood". Samar Srewel, an FSA activist who had helped to organize the consignment, told The Times: “It was clear from that second what was happening. The Muslim Brotherhood, through its ties in Turkey, was seizing control of this ship and the cargo. This is what they do. They buy influence with their money and guns.”[73][74]

On 18 March 2016, Russia's UN Ambassador Vitaly Churkin sent a letter to the UN Security Council saying that three Turkish humanitarian organizations (NGOs) sent weapons and supplies to extremists in Syria on behalf of Turkey's MIT intelligence agency during the Syrian Civil War. The three NGOs were the Besar Foundation, the Iyilikder Foundation and the Foundation for Human Rights and Freedoms (IHH).[75]

Anadolu Agency reported that two employees of IHH, were detained for alleged links to al-Qaida, in a Turkish anti-terrorism police raids on 13 January 2014. IHH spokesman said that police searched its office in Kilis, near the border with Syria, and detained one of its employees. Another IHH employee was detained in Kayseri after a police raid at his home.[76]

The IHH has repeatedly supported the (re-)conversion of the Hagia Sophia, a former Christian Cathedral which was converted into a Mosque after the Ottoman conquest of Istanbul and is now a Museum and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, into a Mosque, and in 2015 IHH organised and led political rallies in Istanbul, in an effort to support its cause.[77]

Another alternative was of Harry ending up with Ginny Weasley, Ron's younger sister, whose obvious crush on him served as a plot-line starting in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets. In Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Hermione informs Harry that Ginny has "given up" on him. In the subsequent Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, however, Harry develops a crush on Ginny, convinced that he has missed his opportunity with her. In the end Ginny turns out to never have given up on Harry after all, but merely taken Hermione's advice to try to date other boys to boost her self-confidence. Though their romantic relationship becomes one of the few sources of comfort in Harry's difficult life, he makes a decision to end it for fear that Voldemort would learn of it and target Ginny. Rowling later commented that she had planned Ginny as Harry's "ideal girl" from the very beginning.

An interview with J.K. Rowling conducted by fansite webmasters Emerson Spartz (MuggleNet) and Melissa Anelli (The Leaky Cauldron) shortly after the release of Half-Blood Prince caused significant controversy within the fandom. In the interview, Spartz stated that Harry/Hermione fans were delusional, to which Rowling responded that they were "still valued members of her readership", but that there had been "anvil-sized hints" for future Ron/Hermione and Harry/Ginny relationships, and that Harry/Hermione shippers needed to re-read the books. This incident resulted in an uproar among Harry/Hermione shippers, some of whom announced that they would return their copies of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince and boycott future Harry Potter books, leveling criticism at Spartz, Anelli, and Rowling herself. Many of them complained that both sites had a Ron/Hermione bias and criticized Rowling for not including a representative of their community. The uproar was the subject of an article in the San Francisco Chronicle.[19]

Rowling's attitude towards the shipping phenomenon has varied between amused and bewildered to frustrated. In that same interview, she stated:[20]

The release of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in July 2007 saw an epilogue, nineteen years after the events at the focus of the series, where Harry and Ginny are married and have three kids, Lily, James, and Albus, and Ron and Hermione are also married and have two, Rose and Hugo. This has been received negatively by some fans, especially those who ship non-canon pairings. A result has been the "EWE" tag added to the summaries of fan-fiction, meaning "Epilogue, What Epilogue?"[citation needed]

Harry/Hermione shippers were somewhat vindicated in an interview with Rowling in February 2014 in Wonderland Magazine in which she stated that she thought that realistically "in some ways Harry and Hermione are a better fit [in comparison to Ron and Hermione]" and that Hermione and Ron had "too much fundamental incompatibility." She stated that Hermione and Ron were written together "as a form of wish fulfillment" as way to reconcile a relationship she herself was once in. She went on to say that perhaps with marriage counseling Ron and Hermione would have been all right.[21] She also went on to say in a talk at Exeter University that Harry's love for Ginny is true,[22] thereby denying any canon relationship between Harry and Hermione.

The 1995–2001 action/fantasy TV series Xena: Warrior Princess often saw "shipping wars" that turned especially intense due to spillover from real-life debates about homosexuality and gay rights.

Shortly after the series' debut, fans started discussing the possibility of a relationship between Xena and her sidekick and best friend Gabrielle. Toward the end of the first season, the show's producers began to play to this perception by deliberately inserting usually humorous lesbian innuendo into some episodes. The show acquired a cult following in the lesbian community. However, Xena had a number of male love interests as well, and from the first season she had an adversarial but sexually charged dynamic with Ares, the God of War, who frequently tried to win her over as his "Warrior Queen." Gabrielle herself had once had a male husband, and his death deeply affected her.

According to journalist Cathy Young, the quarrel between online fans of the show about whether there should be a relationship between Xena and Gabrielle had a sociopolitical angle, in which some on the anti-relationship side were "undoubtedly driven by bona fide bigotry", while some on the pro-relationship side were lesbians who "approached the argument as a real-life gay rights struggle" in which "denying a sexual relationship between Xena and Gabrielle was tantamount to denying the reality of their own lives".[23] She added:

In 2000, during the airing of the fifth season, the intensity and sometimes nastiness of the "shipping wars" in the Xena fandom was chronicled (from a non-subtexter's point of view) by Australian artist Nancy Lorenz in an article titled "The Discrimination in the Xenaverse" in the online Xena fan magazine Whoosh!,[24] and also in numerous letters in response.[25]

The wars did not abate after the series came to an end in 2001. With no new material from the show itself, the debates were further fueled by various statements from the cast and crew. In January 2003, Lucy Lawless, the show's star, told Lesbian News magazine that after watching the series finale (in which Gabrielle revived Xena with a mouth-to-mouth water transfer filmed to look like a full kiss) she had come to believe that Xena and Gabrielle's relationship was "definitely gay."[26] However, in the interviews and commentaries on the DVD sets released in 2003–2005, the actors, writers and producers continued to stress the ambiguity of the relationship, and in several interviews both Lawless and Renee O'Connor, who played Gabrielle, spoke of Ares as a principal love interest for Xena. In the interview for the Season 6 episode "Coming Home", O'Connor commented, "If there was ever going to be one man in Xena's life, it would be Ares."

In March 2005, one-time Xena screenwriter Katherine Fugate, an outspoken supporter of the Xena/Gabrielle pairing, posted a statement on her website appealing for tolerance in the fandom:

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The company produces, pursues and sells as a shipping company ships worldwide. China Shipping Group Company, founded on the 1 July 1997, is the holding company of China Shipping Development. Among the rest, the companies China Shipping Container Lines und China Shipping Haisheng also belong to the Parent company. The main business focus of the company involves coastal, ocean and Yangtze River cargo transportation, ship leasing, cargo forwarding and cargo transport agency, purchase and sale of ships, repair and development of containers, ship spare parts purchase and sale agency, consultancy and transfer of shipping technology.[1]

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Call them for Best offers India and International.

Contact Details

404, B-70, Nitin Shanti Nagar Building,

Sector-1, Near Mira Road Station,

Opp. TMT Bus Stop,

Thane – 401107

NGO Website Designing

Troika Tech Services

WordPress Development Company in Mumbai

#websites #designing #services #development #designers #decorating #professional #business #ngo

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mumbaipunetaxiservices-blog · 7 years

Text

NGO Website Development

Sir Fazlé Hasan Abed, founder of BRAC

In 1991, the Women's Health Development program commenced. The following year BRAC established a Centre for Development Management (CDM) in Rajendrapur.[citation needed]

Its Social Development, Human Rights and Legal Services programme was launched in 1996.[citation needed]

In 1998, BRAC's Dairy and Food project was commissioned.[citation needed] BRAC launched an Information Technology Institute the following year.[citation needed]

In 2001, BRAC established a university called BRAC University.[14]

NGO Website Development

A BRAC community health worker conducting a survey in the Korail slum, Bangladesh

BRAC has a collaboration with Nike's Girl Effect campaign to launch a new program to reach out to teenagers in Uganda and Tanzania.[23][non-primary source needed]

Not to be confused with the outlawed German association Internationale Humanitäre Hilfsorganisation e.V. or the Netherlands-based Internationale Humanitaire Hulporganisatie Nederland.

Trustees of the organization include:[19]

In Gaza, the İHH is renovating the port, funding a Turkish-Palestinian school and plans to build a hospital and apartments for Gazans made homeless during the Gaza War.[30]

Refugees (UNHCR)

Further information: Reactions to the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

NGO Website Development

Mavi Marmara with Turkish and Palestinian flags, campaign banner, and the text "This is a humanitarian aid ship" in Turkish, English, Arabic, and Hebrew. Main article: Gaza flotilla raid

İHH abstained from the 2011 flotilla, citing outstanding damage to the Mavi Marmara.

Main article: Reactions to the Gaza flotilla raid

Rowling's attitude towards the shipping phenomenon has varied between amused and bewildered to frustrated. In that same interview, she stated:[20]

The 1995–2001 action/fantasy TV series Xena: Warrior Princess often saw "shipping wars" that turned especially intense due to spillover from real-life debates about homosexuality and gay rights.

In March 2005, one-time Xena screenwriter Katherine Fugate, an outspoken supporter of the Xena/Gabrielle pairing, posted a statement on her website appealing for tolerance in the fandom:

Best Website Desinging Companies in India are as follows:-

Call them for Best offers India and International.

Contact Details

404, B-70, Nitin Shanti Nagar Building,

Sector-1, Near Mira Road Station,

Opp. TMT Bus Stop,

Thane – 401107

NGO Website Designing

Troika Tech Services

WordPress Development Company in Mumbai

#websites #designing #services #development #designers #decorating #professional #business #ngo

0 notes

clearperception-blog1 · 7 years

Text

NGO Website Development

Sir Fazlé Hasan Abed, founder of BRAC

In 1991, the Women's Health Development program commenced. The following year BRAC established a Centre for Development Management (CDM) in Rajendrapur.[citation needed]

Its Social Development, Human Rights and Legal Services programme was launched in 1996.[citation needed]

In 1998, BRAC's Dairy and Food project was commissioned.[citation needed] BRAC launched an Information Technology Institute the following year.[citation needed]

In 2001, BRAC established a university called BRAC University.[14]

NGO Website Development

A BRAC community health worker conducting a survey in the Korail slum, Bangladesh

BRAC has a collaboration with Nike's Girl Effect campaign to launch a new program to reach out to teenagers in Uganda and Tanzania.[23][non-primary source needed]

Not to be confused with the outlawed German association Internationale Humanitäre Hilfsorganisation e.V. or the Netherlands-based Internationale Humanitaire Hulporganisatie Nederland.

Trustees of the organization include:[19]

In Gaza, the İHH is renovating the port, funding a Turkish-Palestinian school and plans to build a hospital and apartments for Gazans made homeless during the Gaza War.[30]

Refugees (UNHCR)

Further information: Reactions to the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

NGO Website Development

Mavi Marmara with Turkish and Palestinian flags, campaign banner, and the text "This is a humanitarian aid ship" in Turkish, English, Arabic, and Hebrew. Main article: Gaza flotilla raid

İHH abstained from the 2011 flotilla, citing outstanding damage to the Mavi Marmara.

Main article: Reactions to the Gaza flotilla raid

Rowling's attitude towards the shipping phenomenon has varied between amused and bewildered to frustrated. In that same interview, she stated:[20]

The 1995–2001 action/fantasy TV series Xena: Warrior Princess often saw "shipping wars" that turned especially intense due to spillover from real-life debates about homosexuality and gay rights.

In March 2005, one-time Xena screenwriter Katherine Fugate, an outspoken supporter of the Xena/Gabrielle pairing, posted a statement on her website appealing for tolerance in the fandom:

Best Website Desinging Companies in India are as follows:-

Call them for Best offers India and International.

Contact Details

404, B-70, Nitin Shanti Nagar Building,

Sector-1, Near Mira Road Station,

Opp. TMT Bus Stop,

Thane – 401107

NGO Website Designing

Troika Tech Services

WordPress Development Company in Mumbai

#websites #designing #services #development #designers #decorating #professional #business #ngo

0 notes

hotelregalenclave-blog · 7 years

Text

NGO Website Development

Sir Fazlé Hasan Abed, founder of BRAC

In 1991, the Women's Health Development program commenced. The following year BRAC established a Centre for Development Management (CDM) in Rajendrapur.[citation needed]

Its Social Development, Human Rights and Legal Services programme was launched in 1996.[citation needed]

In 1998, BRAC's Dairy and Food project was commissioned.[citation needed] BRAC launched an Information Technology Institute the following year.[citation needed]

In 2001, BRAC established a university called BRAC University.[14]

NGO Website Development

A BRAC community health worker conducting a survey in the Korail slum, Bangladesh

BRAC has a collaboration with Nike's Girl Effect campaign to launch a new program to reach out to teenagers in Uganda and Tanzania.[23][non-primary source needed]

Not to be confused with the outlawed German association Internationale Humanitäre Hilfsorganisation e.V. or the Netherlands-based Internationale Humanitaire Hulporganisatie Nederland.

Trustees of the organization include:[19]

In Gaza, the İHH is renovating the port, funding a Turkish-Palestinian school and plans to build a hospital and apartments for Gazans made homeless during the Gaza War.[30]

Refugees (UNHCR)

Further information: Reactions to the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

NGO Website Development

Mavi Marmara with Turkish and Palestinian flags, campaign banner, and the text "This is a humanitarian aid ship" in Turkish, English, Arabic, and Hebrew. Main article: Gaza flotilla raid

İHH abstained from the 2011 flotilla, citing outstanding damage to the Mavi Marmara.

Main article: Reactions to the Gaza flotilla raid

Rowling's attitude towards the shipping phenomenon has varied between amused and bewildered to frustrated. In that same interview, she stated:[20]

The 1995–2001 action/fantasy TV series Xena: Warrior Princess often saw "shipping wars" that turned especially intense due to spillover from real-life debates about homosexuality and gay rights.

In March 2005, one-time Xena screenwriter Katherine Fugate, an outspoken supporter of the Xena/Gabrielle pairing, posted a statement on her website appealing for tolerance in the fandom:

Best Website Desinging Companies in India are as follows:-

Call them for Best offers India and International.

Contact Details

404, B-70, Nitin Shanti Nagar Building,

Sector-1, Near Mira Road Station,

Opp. TMT Bus Stop,

Thane – 401107

NGO Website Designing

Troika Tech Services

WordPress Development Company in Mumbai

#websites #designing #services #development #designers #decorating #professional #business #ngo

0 notes

politicoscope · 5 years

Text

Abdalla Hamdok Biography and Profile

New Post has been published on https://www.politicoscope.com/abdalla-hamdok-biography-and-profile/

Abdalla Hamdok Biography and Profile