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billion-heartbeats · 4 years

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“We the People”: The Indian Republic

72nd Republic day- unfinished agenda is staring!

Is Democracy in peril?

America and India are the two largest democracies in the world. Alarming analogies are being drawn between the storming of US capitol on 6th January 2021 and breaching of the Red fort in Delhi on 26th January 20201. The storming of the United States Capitol was a riot and violent attack. The revolt- observed world over is a warning bell. Many of those who stormed were racists and Proud Boys members’ of Trumps stop the steal and save America rally. The unnerving sight of Confederate flag that emerged during the storming of US capitol by Trump mobs brought back bloody memories of civil war.

The Nishan sahib on the other hand is a holy religious flag of Sikh community. The farmers’ protest has been consistently identified with religious flags. But the climbing on to poles, waving the flag from the ramparts of Red Fort and later hoisting the Nishan Sahib, at the Red Fort on the 72nd Republic Day of India has sent shock waves across India and the world! The shocking visuals will be forever etched in the memory of Indians. Did the protesting farmers forget that on 15 August 1947, Nehru, raised the Indian national flag above the Lahori Gate and that every year the PM hoists the Indian “tricolour flag” at the Red fort?

Is Democracy in India- in peril?

On foot and in tractors, the protesters were part of a huge rally planned for India's Republic Day. The storming of the red fort has made the 72nd republic day of India as the 'republic of fear'. Red fort is a Symbol of the sanctity of our democracy.

Red Fort was breached; 120 and odd Police Personnel injured with some in ICU. There were actually armed insurrectionists in an inflammatory state of madness marching menacingly up the steps of Red Fort- never seen before! January 26, 2021 was an unforgettable crackpot day not just for us but for a flabbergasted world watching the grotesqueness at play in the red fort! The security infrastructure guarding the historical place, where the Prime Minister unfurls the National flag was feeble and unprepared. Supporters of Khalisthan movement and anti-national forces have infiltrated the Farmers protest.

Now, I am a common man.

The Common Man is a cartoon character created by Indian author and cartoonist R. K. Laxman. For over a half of a century, the Common Man has represented the hopes, aspirations, troubles and perhaps even foibles of the average Indian. Clad in a dhoti and a plaid jacket, the puzzled Common Man is no dupe: his sharp observations never missed details of the political circus.

Are we a successful nation?

Yes and NO!

We seem to be suffering from a colonial hangover! Seven decades after Independence, the legacy of the British Empire continues to define India in many ways, in terms of the institutions and regulations we inherited and chose to persist with. Westminster model of democracy has failed us as reflected in the unfinished agenda of free India.

India is a paradox

Within India there live many India-s including Rural Bharath and an Urban India and to quite a few others the Hindustan! The rich and content India, the poor and weak India, the mediocre India, the ailing India, the rejoicing India, the satiated India, the starving and famished India, the India that reaches out to the space, the India that struggles hard to write it’s name. India dreams to develop into a superpower but a third of the world’s poor still live here. India is one of the fastest developing economies in the world but also a home to the largest number of malnourished children.

Parliamentary democracy

In India, parliamentary democracy actually means appealing to caste and communal vote banks. It only has further entrenched them. Cash, caste and charisma- in that order, win you elections. Still elections are declared Free and fair. The Parliamentary Democracy has failed to deliver the basic necessities of life to the majority of Indians even after 72 yrs.

Respect for ourselves guides our morals; Respect for others guides our manners. Respect is one of mankind’s most noble sentiments. The highest levels of respect are always earned – never given. “As a citizen - I should be an Honest Person, Understand the Values and have Good Manners and Proper Conduct and Learn to accept responsibility for my own actions. This is the only way we can develop and help India develop.

Within two years of independence in 1947 and through open and spirited debate, India produced a constitution that guarantees “fundamental rights and a federal and parliamentary system with a significant role for the Supreme Court. But we are into an illusion. The superstructures of democratic government—a parliament and prime minister, periodic elections, constitutionally-guaranteed freedoms—hide the realities of on-the-ground rule by local landlords, bureaucracy, and party and industrialists, buttressed by a culture of caste-based inequality, and sustained by India’s continuing poverty. A democratic India has not been able to match Communist China’s ability to bring about an economically stable society!

Unfinished agenda

Macro achievements

Right after independence up to mid-1960s, we had to import food grains. Today India is self-sufficient in food production and exports various food grains. We are largest producers of fresh fruits, milk, pulses and oil seeds, largest producers of wheat, rice, and sugarcane.

India is one of four largest military powers with nuclear capability in the world today. We have a sophisticated missile program. We have developed one of the most envious space programs in the world. To this day, we have launched successful Lunar and Mars missions; all thanks to Indian Space Research Organization. Indian science is transforming India!

Despite its impressive economic growth, India still faces large challenges to overcome. Wealth at the top has not trickled down to the bottom. In 2017, 81% of the population still lived on less than Rs 140.00 a day. In the same year almost 30% of adults were illiterate and only 7% of Indians graduated.

Eradicate Extreme Hunger and Poverty

Can the Indian government declare that in the next 5 years India will be in the list of 50, “NO-hungry” countries? That is the greatest freedom the government can offer! The Global Hunger Index- India is 103rd of 119 surveyed for 2018. Nearly 6oo million go hungry every day.

International poverty line is US$ 1.25 per day and as per the World Bank report 32.7% of the population in India lives below the poverty line whereas 68.7% survive on less than US$ 2 per day. 45% of children in India are malnourished. India has achieved the poverty reduction target. However, progress is uneven.

Corruption has corrupted India!

While India remains the most corrupt country in this region, with 69 per cent bribery rates, Japan came out as the least corrupt nation, with a 0.2 per cent bribery rate. Many Indians believe that God accepts money in return for his favors. So, they believe, there is nothing is wrong in bribery!

Religion is transactional in India. Outside the temple walls, such a transaction is called “bribe”. India’s temples collect so much that they don't know what to do with it. Billions are gathering dust in temple vaults. Corruption breeds corruption. It has ceased to carry any stigma!

Corruption is regarded as the biggest reasons of poverty in India. Corruption in the Public Distribution System is the worst of its kind. The leading source of corruption in India is entitlement programs and social spending schemes that are meant for the welfare of our society.,

Child labor!

We have five million children in the labor market, says official figures. Their actual numbers may be four times as many. As a nation, we have failed each one of them. The debate on child labor should have been settled with the Constitutional amendment recognizing the right to education as a fundamental right. The problem is anything but over!

Education-

India has nearly achieved Universal Primary Education. 96 % of all children between the ages of 6-14 are enrolled in school. There are 229 million students enrolled in different accredited urban and rural schools of India. The quality of its education is in crisis. 95 percent of children attend primary school- just 40 % attend the secondary schools and Gross enrolment rate in Higher education is- 20%. 7% come out as graduates and only 20% of these are employable!

The number of graduates coming out of technical colleges is over 700,000. However, according to one study, 75% of technical graduates and more than 85% of general graduates lack the skills in the high-growth global industries.

In January 2019, India had over 900 universities and 40,000 colleges. Our university system is, in many parts, in a state of disrepair. Almost two-thirds of our universities and 90% of our colleges are rated as below average. The new National Education Policy 2020 introduced by the central government is going to bring profound changes to education in India.

The second freedom struggle is for ‘a caste-free India’.

A Wake-up Call for the People! Equality is fundamental to civilized living. The caste system has become degenerated and a social evil. It is a deep-rooted problem which has defied all solutions so far.

Religion is just a belief and faith. It can change during anytime of the life, but caste is constant. Once a shudra you are a shudra for life! Caste system is more dangerous than any religious system. Destroy India's Caste System Before it destroys India!

Anyone with a caste mind set will be change proof - Harvard and Oxford educated are no exceptions. Come out of caste-based reservations. Let scholarships be based on father's and mother's income and child’s merit. Refashion education. You cannot embrace 21st century with 19th century mindset!

Secularism in India- a camouflaged hypocrisy!

Ban of Triple Talaq is first of many things to come in modern India!

True Secularism does not permit, mixing religion and State power. The Indian Constitution has allowed extensive interference in religious affairs in India's personal laws – on matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, alimony etc. In the West, the word secular implies three things: freedom of religion, equal citizenship to each citizen regardless of his or her religion, and the separation of religion and state. Supporters of the Indian concept of secularism claim it respects "minorities and pluralism". Many Critics claim the Indian form of secularism as "pseudo-secularism". India's acceptance of Sharia and religious laws violate the principle of Equality before the law.

Uniform civil code- equal laws for every citizen irrespective of his or her religion, is still a mirage despite nearly a decade of Modi rule! Religious laws in personal domain, particularly for Muslim Indians, supersede parliamentary laws in India.

A reality check- Universal healthcare in India!

Thirty per cent of Indians don’t have access to primary healthcare facilities. About 39 million Indians fall below the poverty line each year because of out of pocket healthcare expenses. 70% of Indians spend 70% their income on healthcare and buying drugs.

One million infants die in India every year –114 every hour- before they are a month old. Add another million kids who die before they are five years. Now this is a country that allows 218 children to die every hour of the day.

We have successfully eradicated various epidemics and Polio from our nation. Life expectancy is 68.89 years, which was only 36 years at the time of independence. This is one of the major achievements.

People’s Empowerment

Freedom struggle was for an India that would be free from exploitation, oppression and discrimination on the basis of class, caste and creed. Tens of thousands of farmers are committing suicide! They are demanding secure livelihood. Many middlemen in the name of farmers are battling against the farm laws which would ensure secure livelihood for the farmers! Women are protesting against the blatant violation of their rights, growing incidences of rape, violence and exploitation! Youth are demanding their right to education and right to work.

Middleclass are demanding food at affordable prices, safe water to drink, housing, sanitation and dignity of infant feeding, defecation and menstruation! The previous governments were dithering and allowing Jammu and Kashmir to slip into Stone Age. The Prime Minister has done the right thing to abolish article 370 and 35-A to bring in hope of prosperity, development to Jammu and Kashmir on par with other states.

2021 is a year of hope! The Corona virus came from china. From an Indian perspective, the Chinese Virus and the Chinese State and its army have created an unprecedented havoc in the country. However, it is India and India alone which has handled these threats squarely and blunted them to a large extent. This is important.

What does the Year of Hope – 2021 portend for us? It portends a year in which India will come into its own. It also portends a year in which India will have to overcome three challenges– China , Pakistan and Internal Politics, if it has to realize its potential!

Our national leadership has the wisdom, sagacity and statesmanship in the face of adversity to come together and stand up to our enemies. Even more than that, 2021 is the harbinger of global change which opens immense opportunity for India.

Jai Hind!

Dr N prabhu dev

Former VC Bangalore University

Former- Director Jayadeva institute of cardiology.

[email protected]

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margdarsanme · 4 years

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NCERT Class 12 Political Science (India) Chapter 8 Regional Aspirations

NCERT Class 12 Political Science Solutions (India Since Independence)

Chapter 8 Regional Aspirations

TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED : Q 1. Match the following :

Answer: (a)-(iii), (b)-(iv), (c)-(ii), (d)-(i). Q 2. Regional aspirations of the people of North-East get expressed in different ways. These include movements against outsiders, movement for greater autonomy and movement for separate . national existence. On the map of the North-East, using different shades for these three, show the States where these expressions are prominently found.

Answer: Tripura, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh (See the Map at the end of the Chapter). Q 3. What were the main provisions of the Punjab accord? In what way can they be the basis for further tensions between the Punjab and its neighbouring States?

Answer: Punjab Accord was an agreement signed between the then Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and Harchand Singh Longowal, the then President of Akali Dal in 1985 to be known as ‘Rajiv Gandhi Longowal Accord’ also to create normalcy in Punjab: 1. Chandigarh would be transferred to Punjab. 2. To appoint a separate commission to resolve border dispute between Punjab and Haryana. 3. To set up a tribunal to settle down the sharing of Ravi-Beas river water among Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. 4. To provide agreement for compen-sation to better treatment to those affected by militancy in Punjab. 5. To withdraw the Armed forces special power Act ip Punjab. But, peace could not be established easily in Punjab and resulted as follows: (a) It led to many excesses by police and violation of human rights. (b) It fragmented the Akali Dal. (c) President’s rule was imposed and normal political process was suspended. (id) Hence, Political process could not be restored in this atmosphere. Even during elections in 1992, only 24% electors turned out to vote. Consequently above mentioned added to tension between Punjab and its neighbouring states. Q 4. Why did the Anandpur Sahib Resolution become controversial?

Answer: Anandpur Sahib Resolution was passed at the conference of Akali Dal at Anandpur Sahib in 1973: (а) To ascertain regional autonomy and to redefine centre-state relations. (b) Sikhs aspirations aimed at ‘bolbala’ (dominance) of Sikhs. (c) It could also be interpreted as a plea for separate sikh nation despite of federal spirit. But, it became controversial due to following reasons: 1. Due to lack of popularity of Akali Dal resolution had a United appeal. 2. Akali government was dismissed in 1980s it lost its importance. 3. Akali Dal launched a movement on the distribution of water between Punjab and its neighbouring states. 4. Movement went into the hands of extremist elements from moderate Akalis and converted into armed insurgency for which Anandpur Sahib Resolution considered responsible. Q 5. Explain the internal divisions of the State of Jammu and Kashmir and describe how these lead to multiple regional aspirations in that State.

Answer: Jammu and Kashmir comprised of three regions: 1. Kashmir region is Kashmir valley consisting Kashmiri speaking and mostly Muslim with a Kashmiri speaking Hindu minority. 2. Jammu region consists of Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and speakers of various languages, in the areas of foothills and plains. 3. Ladakh region is equally divided between Buddhists and Muslims and maintains an little population area. These internal divisions led to multiple regional aspirations: 1. One strand of separatist to demand a separate Kashmiri nation independent of India and Pakistan. 2. Some other groups want Kashmir to be merged with Pakistan. 3. Third strand wants a greater autonomy for people of state within Indian Union. 4. The demand for intra-state autonomy is as strong as the demand for the state autonomy. In present scenario, most of the separatist in dialogue are trying to re-negotiate a relationship of state with India. Q 6. What are the various positions on the issue of regional autonomy for Kashmir? Which of these do you think are justifiable? Give reasons for your answer.

Answer: On the issue of regional autonomy for Kashmir, the following positions are states as: 1. Kashmiris were promised to make accession on reference of people after situation created by tribal invasion, becomes normal. But it has not been fulfilled, hence, it generated the demand for “Plebiscite”. 2. Sometimes, it was felt that special federal status guaranteed by Article 370 has been eroded practically which led the demand for restoration of autonomy or “Greater State Autonomy”. 3. It is felt that democracy, which is practised in rest of India has not been similarly institutionalised in Jammu and Kashmir. We prefer the first position because ‘Plebiscite’ provides better opportunity to people of J & K to protect and sustain their regional autonomy in a very democratic manner. Q 7. The Assam movement was a combination of cultural pride and economic backwardness. Explain. Answer: Because: 1. It was against outsiders to maintain cultural integration of Assam. 2. There was widespread poverty and unemployment in Assam, despite existence of natural resources like tea, coal and oil. 3. It was felt that these were drained out of state without any commensurate benefit to the people. Q 8. All regional movements need not lead to separatist demands. Explain by giving examples from this chapter.

Answer: Because: 1. Regional aspirations are part of democratic politics. 2. Expression of regional issues is not an abnormal phenomenon. 3. Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland have regional aspirations in United Kingdom. 4. Regional movements are responded through democratic negotiations rather than suppression. – 5. Its examples are in eighties, military erupted in Punjab, problems persisted in the North-East, students agitated in Assam and Kashmir valley was on the boil. 6. The government of India settled down some negotiations with these regional aspirations to reduce tensions in many regions. 7. Mizoram is an example of political settlement to resolve the problem of separation effectively. Q 9. Regional demands from different parts of India exemplify the principle of unity with diversity. Do you agree? Give reasons.

Answer: Yes, we agree with the statement because India adopted a democratic approach on these regional aspirations in place of considering them as anti-national: 1. India’s democratic politics allows people and groups to address the people on the basis of their regional identity, aspiration, and specific regional problems. 2. India’s democratic politics focus on regional issues and problems to receive adequate attention and accommodation in the policy making process, i.e. regional aspirations of Assam, Punjab and North-East, Kashmir etc. 3. Its examples are in eighties, military erupted in Punjab, problems persisted in the North-East, students agitated in Assam and Kashmir valley was on the boil. 4. The government of India settled down some negotiations with these regional aspirations to reduce tensions in many regions. 5. Mizoram is an example of political settlement to resolve the problem of separation effectively. It can be concluded that regional aspirations do not encourage separation but these respect diversity to retain unity in the nation. Q 10. Read the passage and answer the questions below: One of Hazarika’s songs dwells on the unity theme; the seven states of north-eastern India become seven sisters born of the same mother ‘Meghalaya went own way …., Arunachal too separated and Mizoram appeared in Assam’s gateway as a groom to marry another daughter.’ The song ends with a determination to keep the unity of the Assamese with other smaller nationalities that are left in the present-day Assam- ‘the Karbis and the Mising brothers and sisters are our dear ones.’ —Sanjib Baruah (a) Which unity is the poet talking about? (b) Why were some States of North¬East created separately out of the erstwhile State of Assam? (c) Do you think that the same theme of unity could apply to all the regions of India? Why?

Answer: (a) The poet is talking about the Unity of Assamese. (b) Because these states face that Assamese government was imposing Assamese language on them. Hence, regional aspirations began. (c) Yes, same theme of unity could apply to all regions of India because Indian government deals with all these regional aspirations with respect to accommodate regional diversities.

Very Short Answer Type Questions [ 1 Mark]

Q 1. Name the three social and political regions of the Northern most state of India.

Answer: Names of the three social and political regions of the Northern most state of India— (i) Jammu (ii) Kashmir (iii) Ladakh Q 2. Why were the seven small states created in North-East India?

Answer: Seven small states were created in North-East India because of demands for (i) autonomy (ii) movements for secession and (iii) opposition to outsiders. Q 3. Which students group led the anti foreigner movement in Assam?

Answer: All Assam Students’ Union in 1979 (AASU). Q 4. Who were the signatories of Punjab Accord of 1985?

Answer: The then Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and Harchand Singh Longowal, the then President of Akali Dal. Q 5. Jammu and Kashmir state comprised of which three social and political regions?

Answer: Kashmir, Jammu and Laddakh regions. Q 6. How did India meet with the challenge of diversity?

Answer: By redrawing the internal boundaries of the country, i.e. created Chhattisgarh Jharkhand and Uttarakhand etc. Q 7. What is the significance of Article 370? Ans. Article 370 signifies special status of Kashmir:

Answer: 1. To give greater autonomy to J & K. 2. To specify that state has its own constitution. 3. All provisions of constitution are not applicable to state. Q 8. Which Prime Minister expressed regret over violence against Sikhs after Indira Gandhi’s death?

Answer: Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in 2005 after twenty years in Parliament to regret over the killings of Sikhs. Q 9. When was first normal election held in Punjab after violence?

Answer: In 1997 in the post militancy era and alliance of Akali Dal and BJP scored victory. Q 10. What do you mean by Seven Sisters?

Answer. The ‘North-East region’ consisting of seven states is referred to as seven sisters.

Very Short Answer Type Questions [2 Mar ks]

Q 1. What does the special status given to J & K under Article 370 mean?

Answer: Article 370 signifies special status of Kashmir: 1. To give greater autonomy to J & K. 2. To specify that state has its own constitution. 3. All provisions of constitution are not applicable to state. Q 2. Highlight any two characteristics of Dravidian movement.

Answer: Dravidian movement was one of the first regional movements in Indian Politics with the ambition to create a Dravid nation: 1. This movement used democratic means like public debates and the electoral platform to achieve its ends. 2. Due to this strategy, movements acquired political power in the state and became influential at national level. 3. Dravidian movement led to formation of‘Dravid Kazhagam’ (DK) under the leadership of Tamil Social reformer ‘E.V. Ramaswami Periyar’. Q 3. Mention the outcomes of Assam Accord of 1985.

Answer: ‘Assam Accord’ was signed between Rajiv Gandhi-led government and AASU leaders over the issue of ‘outsiders’ in 1985: 1. The foreigners who migrated into Assam during and after Bangladesh war and since were to be identified and deported. 2. The Asom G. ;,a Parishad came to power in 1985 with the promise of resolving the foreign national problems as well as to build a ‘Golden Assam’. Q 4. Which accord proved to be a turning point in the history of Mizoram?

Answer: The accord between Rajiv Gandhi and Laldenga of 1986 granted full fledged statehood with special powers to Mizoram. Even MNF (Mizo National Front) agreed to give up secessionists struggle. Q 5. What was the role of Congress in the politics of Jammu and Kashmir?

Answer: Congress dominated the politics of J & K between 1953 to 1974 in the following manner: 1. National Conference remained iconic power with the active support of Congress for sometime but later merged with the Congress. 2. The Congress gained direct control over the government in state. 3. The Congress party also made attempts to have an agreement between Sheikh Abdullah and Government of India. 4. In 1974, Indira Gandhi reached an agreement with Sheikh Abdullah and he became the Chief Minister of State. Q 6. Which communities wanted separate states in the North East region?

Answer: Despite reorganisation of North-East in 1972, autonomy demand arose: 1. Assam communities like Bodos, Karbis and Dimosas demanded separate states. 2. They mobilised public opinion and popular movement and same area was claimed by more than one community. 3. Federal set up satisfied their autonomy i.e. Karbis and Dimosas were granted autonomy under district councils while Bodos were granted autonomous council. Q 7. In what ways the issue of outsiders continues to be a live issue in Assam?

Answer: Assam Accord could not solve the problem of immigration: 1. The issue of‘outsiders’ continues to be alive issue. 2. In Tripura, the original inhabitants have been reduced to being a minority in North-East. 3. The same feelings formed the hostility of local population to Chakma refugees in Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh.

Short Answer Type Questions [4 Marks]

Q 1. What was the main outcome of Rajiv Gandhi-Longowal accord in July 1985?

Answer: 1. Chandigarh would be transferred to Punjab. 2. A separate commission to be appointed to resolve border dispute between Punjab and Haryana. 3. A tribunal to be set up to settle down the sharing of Ravi-Beas river water among Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. 4. To withdraw the Armed forces special power Act in Punjab. Q 2. What was Goa problem? How was Goa liberated and how did it become part of Indian Union?

Answer. 1. Goa was under Portuguese alongwith Daman and Diu since 16th century. 2. We expected freedom in 1947 but Portugal refused to withdraw but the people of Goa wanted to merge with motherland. 3. People of Goa^suppressed from religious conversions and civil rights known as ‘Goa Problem’. 4. In 1961, with in two days Goa, Daman and Diu were liberated from Portugal rule under ‘Operation Vijay’ by Government of India. 5. Goa became part of India and in 1987, it attained the status of ‘State Position’. Q 3. Describe the outcome of Anandpur Sahib Resolution of 1973.

Answer: Anandpur Sahib Resolution was passed at the conference of Akali Dal at Anandpur Sahib in 1973: (a) To ascertain regional autonomy and to redefine centre-state relations. (b) Sikhs aspirations aimed at ‘bolbala’ of Sikhs. (c) It could also be interpreted as a plea for separate sikh nation despite federal spirit. But, it became controversial due to following reasons: 1. Due to lack of popularity of Akali Dal resolution had a United appeal. 2. Akali government was dismissed in 1980 and it lost its importance. 3. Akali Dal launched a movement on the distribution of water between Punjab, and its neighbouring states. 4. Movement went into the hands of extremist elements from moderate Akalis and converted into armed insurgency for which Anandpur Sahib Resolution considered responsible. Q 4. State one similarity and one difference between the crisis in Punjab and Assam during 1980s.

Answer: Similarity- It was regional aspirations given to prior importance and solving the crisis through democratic negotiations. Differences- In Punjab, Akali Dal started the movement for formation of ‘Punjabi Sabha’ wdiereas in Assam, the crisis was against the people who were seen as outsiders or migrants who were considered to be competitors to employment opportunities. Q 5. How was DMK entered in Indian Politics?

Answer: DMK i.e. Dravid Munetra Kazhagam entered in Indian politics with three demands in 1953-54: 1. To restore original name of Kallkudi railway station. 2. The addition of Tamil Cultural History in &hool curriculum. 3. To eliminate craft education scheme. Q 6. When did Independent India first use referendum procedure?

Answer: In 1967 in the case of Goa’s liberation: 1. In January 1967, the central government held a special ‘Opinion Poll’ in Goa asking people to decide it they wanted to be a part of Maharashtra or remain separate. 2. The majority was in favour of remaining outside of Maharashtra, thus Goa became a Union-territory. 3. Goa was granted statehood in 1987.

Passage Based Questions [5 Marks]

1. Read the passage given below carefully and answer thequestions: The Assam Movement from 1979 to 1985 is the best example of such movements against ‘outsiders’. The Assamese suspected that there were huge number of illegal Bengali Muslim settlers from Bangladesh. They felt that unless these foreign nationals are detected and deported they would reduce the indigenous Assamese into a minority. There were other economic issues too. There was widespread poverty and unemployment in Assam despite the existence of natural resources like oil, tea and coal. It was felt that these were drained out of the State without any commensurate benefit to the people.

Questions 1. Name the group that led movement against outsiders in 1979. 2. Why did Assamese seek the detection and deportation of outsiders? 3. What were the economic issues taken up as a part of movement?

Answer: 1. All Assam Students’ Union (AASU). 2. Because they feared that they would reduce the indigenous Assamese into a minority. 3. (i) There was widespread poverty and unemployment in Assam despite existence of natural resources like oil, tea and coal. (ii) It was also felt these were drained out of state without any commensurate benefit to people. 2. Read the passage given below carefully and answer the questions: The best way to respond to regional aspirations is through democratic negotiations rather than through suppression. Look at the situation in the eighties-militancy had erupted in Punjab: problems were persisting in the North-East: students in Assam were agitating; Kashmir valley was on the boil. Instead of treating these as simple law and order problems, the Government of India reached negotiated settlement with regional movements. This produced a reconciliation which reduced the tensions existing in many regions. The example of Mizoram shows how political settlement can resolve the problem of separatism effectively.

Questions 1. How are regional aspirations dangerous for the unity of country? 2. What is meant by democratic negotiations? 3. Who was leading agitation in Assam? 4. What steps were taken by government of India to respond regional aspirations?

Answer: 1. It creates the problem of separatism in the country. 2. Democratic negotiations respect the demand of regional aspirations in place of suppression. 3. The students. 4. (i) Reached negotiated settlement with regional movements. (ii) Produced a reconciliation to reduce the tensions existing in many regions.

Long Answer Type Questions [6 Marks]

Q 1. Describe the secessionist movement of Mizos. How as per the provisions of constitution, was it resolved on accommodation of diversities?

Answer: 1. After independence, the Mizo hills was made an autonomous district within Assam. 2. Some Mizos believed that they were never a part of British India and not to belong to Indian Union. 3. The movement of secession gained popular support after Assam government failed to respond adequately to great famine of 1959 in Mizo hills. 4. It led to formation of Mizo National Front (MNF) under leadership of Laldenga. 5. In 1966, the MNF started an armed campaign for independence. 6. The MNF fought gurilla war, got support from Pakistan government and secured shelter in then East Pakistan. 7. At the end oftwo decades ofinsurgency, Mizoram under leadership of Laldenga started negotiations with Indian government. 8. 1986, a peace-agreement was signed between Rajiv Gandhi and Laldenga which granted statehood to Mizoram with special powers and MNF agreed to give up secessionist struggle. 9. Today, Mizoram is one of the most peaceful places in the region alongwith big strides in literacy and development. Q 2. “Regional aspirations, regional inbalances and regionalism are a hindrance in the way of national unity of India”. Do you agree with the statement?

Answer: Because: 1. Regional aspirations are part of democratic politics. 2. Expression of regional issues is not an abnormal phenomenon. 3. Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland have regional aspirations in United Kingdom. 4. Regional movements are responded through democratic negotiations rather than suppression. 5. Its examples are in eighties, militancy erupted in Punjab, problems persisted in the North-East, students agitated in Assam and Kashmir Valley was on the boil. 6. The government of India settled down some negotiations with these regional aspirations to reduce tensions in many regions. 7. Mizoram is an example of political settlement to resolve the problem of separation effectively. Q 3. What were the main provisions of Punjab Accord of 1985? How has peace been restored on seewar lines in Punjab?

But, peace could not be established easily in Punjab and resulted: (a) It led to many excesses by police and violation of human rights. (b) If fragmented the Akali Dal. (c) President’s rule was imposed and normal Political process was suspended. (d) Hence, Political process could not be restored in this atmosphere. Even during elections in 1992, only 24% electors turned out to vote. Consequently above mentioned added to tension between Punjab and its neighbouring states.

Picture/Map Based Questions [5 Marks]

1. On a political outline map of India locate and label the following and symbolise them as indicated:

Questions 1. The 22nd State of India due to its merger. 2. The state out of which the states of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh were created. 3. Article 370 has a special significance for this state of India. 4. The state whose leader signed an agreement with Rajiv Gandhi. 5. An important state whose leader was Lai Denga. 6. Two states which were not part of state of Assam at the time of India’s Independence. 7. The state associated with Golden Temple and ‘Operation Blue Star’.

Answer: 1. Sikkim 2. Assam 3. Jammu and Kashmir 4. Punjab 5. Mizoram 6. (a) Manipur (b) Tripura 7. Punjab

from Blogger http://www.margdarsan.com/2020/08/ncert-class-12-political-science-india_11.html

#NCERT Class 12 Political Science

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townpostin · 4 years

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Members of AISSF burn copies of farm laws in Lohri bonfire

Jamshedpur: Members of All India Sikh Students Federation burnt copies of Farm Laws in a Lohri bonfire in Sakchi Wednesday evening. The members of Federation also shouted slogans against the farm laws. The National General Secretary of Federation, Satnam Singh Gambhi called the agitation of farmers a ‘fight for survival’. His exact words were ‘ye fasal ki nahin, nasl ki ladai hai.” He said…

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#AISSF #bonfire #Featured #law #Life #lohri #Sakchi #Sikh

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jennielim · 4 years

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news-monda · 4 years

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brookstonalmanac · 4 years

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Events 12.6

963 – Pope Leo VIII is appointed to the office of Protonotary and begins his papacy as antipope of Rome. 1060 – Béla I is crowned king of Hungary. 1240 – Mongol invasion of Rus': Kyiv under Daniel of Galicia and Voivode Dmytro falls to the Mongols under Batu Khan. 1534 – The city of Quito in Ecuador is founded by Spanish settlers led by Sebastián de Belalcázar. 1648 – Colonel Thomas Pride of the New Model Army purges the Long Parliament of MPs sympathetic to King Charles I of England, in order for the King's trial to go ahead; came to be known as "Pride's Purge". 1704 – Battle of Chamkaur: During the Mughal-Sikh Wars, an outnumbered Sikh Khalsa defeats a Mughal army. 1745 – Charles Edward Stuart's army begins retreat during the second Jacobite Rising. 1790 – The U.S. Congress moves from New York City to Philadelphia. 1846 – American and Californio forces clash at the Battle of San Pasqual. 1865 – Georgia ratifies the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. 1882 – Transit of Venus, second and last of the 19th century. 1884 – The Washington Monument in Washington, D.C., is completed. 1897 – London becomes the world's first city to host licensed taxicabs. 1904 – Theodore Roosevelt articulated his "Corollary" to the Monroe Doctrine, stating that the U.S. would intervene in the Western Hemisphere should Latin American governments prove incapable or unstable. 1907 – A coal mine explosion at Monongah, West Virginia, kills 362 workers. 1912 – The Nefertiti Bust is discovered. 1916 – World War I: The Central Powers capture Bucharest. 1917 – Finland declares independence from the Russian Empire. 1917 – Halifax Explosion: A munitions explosion near Halifax, Nova Scotia kills more than 1,900 people in the largest artificial explosion up to that time. 1917 – World War I: USS Jacob Jones is the first American destroyer to be sunk by enemy action when it is torpedoed by German submarine SM U-53. 1921 – The Anglo-Irish Treaty is signed in London by British and Irish representatives. 1922 – One year to the day after the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, the Irish Free State comes into existence. 1928 – The government of Colombia sends military forces to suppress a month-long strike by United Fruit Company workers, resulting in an unknown number of deaths. 1933 – U.S. federal judge John M. Woolsey rules that James Joyce's novel Ulysses is not obscene. 1941 – World War II: Camp X opens in Canada to begin training Allied Secret Agents for the War. 1942 – World War II In the villages Stary Ciepielów and Rekówka, German Gendarmerie massacre 31 Poles for helping the Jews. Also, two Jewish refugees were murdered. 1956 – A violent water polo match between Hungary and the USSR takes place during the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne, against the backdrop of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. 1957 – Project Vanguard: A launchpad explosion of Vanguard TV3 thwarts the first United States attempt to launch a satellite into Earth orbit. 1967 – Adrian Kantrowitz performs the first human heart transplant in the United States. 1969 – Altamont Free Concert: At a free concert performed by the Rolling Stones, eighteen-year old Meredith Hunter is stabbed to death by Hells Angels security guards. 1971 – Pakistan severs diplomatic relations with India, initiating the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. 1973 – The Twenty-fifth Amendment: The United States House of Representatives votes 387–35 to confirm Gerald Ford as Vice President of the United States. (On November 27, the Senate confirmed him 92–3.) 1975 – The Troubles: Fleeing from the police, a Provisional IRA unit takes a British couple hostage in their flat on Balcombe Street, London, beginning a six-day siege. 1977 – South Africa grants independence to Bophuthatswana, although it is not recognized by any other country. 1978 – Spain ratifies the Spanish Constitution of 1978 in a referendum. 1982 – The Troubles: The Irish National Liberation Army bombs a pub frequented by British soldiers in Ballykelly, Northern Ireland, killing eleven soldiers and six civilians. 1989 – The École Polytechnique massacre (or Montreal Massacre): Marc Lépine, an anti-feminist gunman, murders 14 young women at the École Polytechnique in Montreal. 1990 – A military jet of the Italian Air Force, abandoned by its pilot after an on-board fire, crashed into a high school near Bologna, Italy, killing 12 students and injuring 88 other people. 1991 – Yugoslav Wars: In Croatia, forces of the Serb-dominated Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) bombard Dubrovnik after laying siege to the city for seven months. 1992 – The Babri Masjid in Ayodhya, India, is demolished, leading to widespread riots causing the death of over 1,500 people. 1995 – Khabarovsk United Air Group Flight 3949 crashes into the Bo-Dzhausa Mountain, killing 98. 1997 – A Russian Antonov An-124 Ruslan cargo plane crashes into an apartment complex near Irkutsk, Siberia, killing 67. 1998 – in Venezuela, Hugo Chávez is victorious in presidential elections. 1999 – A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.: The Recording Industry Association of America sues the peer-to-peer file-sharing service Napster, alleging copyright infringement. 2005 – An Iranian Air Force C-130 military transport aircraft crashes into a ten-floor apartment building in a residential area of Tehran, killing all 94 on board and 12 more on the ground. 2006 – NASA reveals photographs taken by Mars Global Surveyor suggesting the presence of liquid water on Mars. 2015 – Venezuelan parliamentary election: For the first time in 17 years, the United Socialist Party of Venezuela loses its majority in parliament. 2017 – Donald Trump's administration officially announces the recognition of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.

#Events

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daveliuz · 4 years

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losbella · 4 years

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saraseo · 4 years

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gokul2181 · 4 years

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'Janta Curfew' in Goa from 8 pm to 6 am Till August 10; 20 Staffers Test +ve at Bihar Guv's House

New Post has been published on https://jordarnews.in/janta-curfew-in-goa-from-8-pm-to-6-am-till-august-10-20-staffers-test-ve-at-bihar-guvs-house/

'Janta Curfew' in Goa from 8 pm to 6 am Till August 10; 20 Staffers Test +ve at Bihar Guv's House

Coronavirus LIVE Updates: A ‘Janta Curfew’ will be observed in Goa from 8 pm to 6 am till August 10, in view of rising COVID-19 cases. “Only medical services to be allowed,” said Chief Minister Pramod Sawant.

“The ‘Janta Curfew’ will be observed from today. Complete lockdown will be imposed on Friday, Saturday and Sunday this week,” he said.

Here are the Highlights on the Covid-19 Pandemic:

◕ Telangana reports 1,597 Covid-19 cases and 11 deaths. A total of 1,159 patients were discharged or cured. The total number of positive cases in the state rises to 39,342 including 25,999 discharged and 386 deaths.

◕ 623 new COVID-19 cases have been reported in Kerala on Wednesday of which 157 cases are from Thiruvananthapuram. Total number of cases rise to 9553 including 4880 active cases, says CM Pinarayi Vijayan.

◕ Bengaluru Police Commissioner orders ban on online sale of liquor till the end of lockdown.

◕ Twenty staff workers have tested positive for the novel coronavirus disease at the Bihar governor’s house.

◕ Meanwhile, Prime Minister Narendra Modi, on the occasion of World Youth Skills Day, said that coronavirus had changed the nature of jobs. “The young are quickly adapting to this, business and its market is changing quickly and many are finding it difficult to keep up.”

He said his answer to this challenge was ‘skill, re-skill and up-skill. “We have started a portal to map skilled workers, this will help employers to access these individuals with ease,” he said, adding that a successful person never gives up on learning new skills.

◕ Delhi Chief Minister Arvind Kejriwal, addressing a press conference on the national capital’s Covid-19 response, said -“As per estimates, 2.25 lakh cases were predicted by 15 July in Delhi but after united efforts, the cases today are half of the prediction. Today we have 1.15 lakh cases.”

◕ The highest-ever recorded spike of 29,429 new Covid-19 cases and 582 deaths was reported in the last 24 hours in India Total positive cases stand at 9,36,181 including 3,19,840 active cases, 5,92,032 cured/discharged/migrated and 24,309 deaths, said the Ministry of Health.

◕ The second phase of lockdown in Pune will commence from July 18 till July 23. Medical stores, dairies, hospitals and essential services will be allowed to remain open as per Shekhar Gaikwad, Commissioner of Pune Municipal Commission, said.

Maharashtra: Shops closed, and police personnel check vehicles in Pune. Municipal Corporation has ordered lockdown in Pune in two phases till July 18, to control the spread of #COVID19. pic.twitter.com/wUiFnmN5EV

— ANI (@ANI) July 15, 2020

◕ Odisha reports 618 new Covid-19 cases and 609 recoveries reported in Odisha on July 14. Total number of cases in the state at 14,898, including 9,864 recovered and 4,933 active cases, said the State Government.

◕ Rajasthan Police has launched a campaign ‘Har Ghar Dastak’ in Jodhpur, against spread of COVID19. Jodhpur Commissioner Police says, “Under this campaign, policemen will visit residences of the citizens infected with virus and check if quarantine norms are followed or not.”

◕ Here is News18’s coronavirus country-wise list.

◕ Over 3 lakh daily tests are being conducted. The total test samples taken are at 1.24 crore.

◕ Recovery rate improves to 63.2% while the Mortality rate remains at 2.6%. Delhi recovery rate improves to 80.8%. It is second only to Ladakh which sports a recoveryr ate of 86.6%.

◕ The total cases in Rajasthan cross 25,000, while active cases are 5,800. Karnataka now has more total confirmed cases than Gujarat.

◕ US biotech firm Moderna said Tuesday it would enter the final stage of human trials for its COVID-19 vaccine on July 27, to test how well it protects people in the real world. The announcement came as the results from an earlier trial intended to prove the vaccine was safe and triggered antibody production were published.

◕ The recovery rate among COVID-19 patients has increased to 63.20%. The recoveries/deaths ratio is 96.05%:3.95% now, states the Government of India.

◕ Union Minister Nitin Gadkari, speaking at a webinar said – “Experts are predicting a budget deficit of 10 lakh crore with Central and state government next year. We need to plan how we can increase liquidity in the market and that is a crucial challenge for the Indian economy.”

He added – “Our economy is facing lot of challenges and we need to find solution to accelerate growth. GDP and per capita income expectations are not very good. It’s time we need to change economic situation,for that we need support from government and cooperation from entrepreneurs.”

◕ The Trump administration has agreed to rescind its July 6 rule, which temporarily barred international students from staying in the United States unless they attend at least one in-person course, a federal district court judge said on Tuesday.

◕ Mizoram reports 5 new cases of coronavirus, the total number of cases in the state stands at 238 including 79 active cases and 159 cured/discharged, said State Chief Minister, Zoramthang.

◕ An Air India flight under Vande Bharat Mission carrying 101 passengers from Ukraine arrived at Indore Airport (MP). All passengers were found to be asymptomatic&will remain under institutional quarantine as per norms of government, said Amit Malakar, Indore nodal officer.

◕ The government has allowed for the phased reopening of tourism in Jammu and Kashmir from July 14. NA Wani, Director Kashmir Tourism says,”In the first phase, tourists arriving by air who have confirmed hotel bookings and return tickets will be allowed. They will have to undergo mandatory Covid-19 test on arrival.”

◕ Delhi Sikh Gurdwara Management Committee (DSGMC) started a free ambulance service for Covid-19 patients on the event of Guru Har Krishan Sahib Ji’s Prakash Purab. Twelve ambulances will be stationed in various parts of the national capital.

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ali-bhutto-blog · 5 years

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Hidden treasure at the Sindh Archives

Feature published in The Friday Times.

A faded, brittle manuscript titled “Secret Department”, signed “H. Pottinger” and dated “3rd February, 1832” quotes Mir Murad Ali Talpur. “‘We know nothing’, said His Highness, ‘about accounts, or traffic, or writing. We hardly know that two and two make four. We all trust to Hindoos to bring us what we want from abroad, and our business is to fight amongst each other, which we do daily.’” Pottinger’s handwritten letter, addressed to the Governor-General’s secretary, details his day-to-day conversations with the ruler of Sindh eleven years prior to conquest. The letter goes on to provide an “Outline of a treaty sent to Meer Moorad Ali Khan on the 2nd of February, 1832”, under which the Indus was to be opened up for ‘trade’.

This is a sample of the treasure waiting to be dug up in one of Old Clifton’s tamarisked dead-ends. The Sindh Archives building lies tucked away behind Federation House and Park Towers, in Karachi. It contains correspondence and reports, the earliest of which date back to the 1830s, providing first-hand accounts of life in colonial Sindh – in the kind of vivid detail not found in history books. It also hosts a collection of old maps and rare books.

It is these very records that British historian David Cheesman accessed during his PhD research, which formed the basis for his work Landlord Power and Rural Indebtedness in Colonial Sind 1865-1901 (1997, Curzon). Recalling his experience of the archives, Dr Cheesman tells me “In 1976-77, when I carried out my PhD research, the records were stored in the Commissioner’s Record Office, which came under the Commissioner of Karachi. Access was at the Commissioner’s discretion. I had to convince him that I was only interested in people who were long dead. The records staff used to bring me my dusty bundles of old papers from the nineteenth century while they got on with their main business of filing modern records. Because the work of the Karachi administration was going on around me, it really felt as if I was in the old ‘Sind Commission’.”

“What I found especially fascinating” recalls Dr. Cheesman, “was that they still had stores of unsold official publications and so long as they had sufficient copies in the archive, they were very sensibly selling off the unwanted duplicates – at the original prices. So, for example, I got the 1933 guide to ‘Sind Government Records’ for 12 annas(i.e. Rs 0.75), the 1954 Bund Manual for Rs 5 and various British settlement reports. Selling them was certainly more cost effective than the alternative, which would have been to destroy them. When I came away clutching the 1918 settlement report for Thul, Kandhkot and Kashmore, for example, I really felt time had stood still!”

Old records of the commissioner in Sindh are filed under the following classifications: revenue, judicial, administrative, political and miscellaneous. In addition, there are the proceedings of the September 1929 session of the Legislative Assembly of India (the same assembly that had been bombed by Bhaghat Singh and BK Dutt six months prior), the proceedings of the Bombay Council from 1919 onwards and Bombay Government Gazettes from as early as 1850.

It is the records of the British – who left no stone un-surveyed – that largely make up the archives. However, according to historian Hamida Khuhro, “Prior to the British period, a lot of people in Sindh who engaged in scholarly pursuits valued their manuscripts. There are families that have a collection of handwritten manuscripts: written by their ancestors, or by someone who would write on their behalf. Therefore, there was a tradition of collecting old material.” The Sindh Archives have a 450-year-old Persian manuscript and more in Arabic.

While it is the archives that are the ‘treasure’ and not the building itself, one cannot help but wonder whether its architect anticipated it as a blank canvas on which you could build your historical imagination. Built in 1988, the complex has an unfinished feel to it. Perhaps the way Karachi felt in its early days. Or the way parts of the city still feel.

Architect Navaid Husain says, “It is a naive building. I was young when I designed it. At this age I am of the view that it should have been a historic building.” Yet, somehow, its appeal lies in the fact that it does not demand appreciation. The wide-open spaces and a lack of theme are filled up by images of the history you uncover in the archives. You associate the smell of the building and the old documents with the period under study.

Hamida Khuhro argues, “The building is very badly placed. It’s near the sea; it is humid and absolutely destructive of paper. It should be shifted to KDA or even further away. The weather is better there, believe it or not.”

The manuscripts are fumigated, chemically treated, bound and stored in acid-free boxes. The stack area is the only area I’ve seen in Karachi that is furnished with a functional (waterless) fire safety system. It is air-conditioned and the temperature and humidity are strictly monitored every three hours. Old newspapers, stored in another room, are undergoing preservation.

Akash Datwani, a qualified archivist and stack area in-charge, is highly efficient in facilitating researchers. He is the man to go to when carrying out research at the archives. Datwani has provided training in archival management to the Sindh Coastal Development Authority and to students of Karachi University’s MA program in Library and Information Sciences.

Sakhidad Kachelo, who worked at the Sindh Archives from 1979 until his retirement as an assistant director in January 2016, is a part and parcel of the relics found in the archives. “Part of the record used to be stored in Hyderabad,” he recalls, “and while it was there, a significant portion of it disappeared, or was stolen. The record was shifted to the current building in 1992. In 1993, Martin Moir, former deputy director of the India Office Library, gave us six months of training in record management.”

Three lanes down, the British Council library has re-opened its doors. The Sindh Archives – a ten-minute walk from there – may not have a cafe, but it does have the first edition of Joseph Davey Cunningham’s controversial A History of the Sikhs, published in 1849 by John Murray. A faded handwritten note in its front matter section reads “The rare first edition – suppressed upon publication on account of certain passages which gave offence.” On another shelf lies the first edition of Alexander Burnes’s Cabool, published in 1842 by John Murray. Its endpaper contains the signature of its first owner, dated May 1842. Nearby, is the first edition of Charles Masson’s Narrative of Various Journeys through Balochistan, Afghanistan, The Panjab, & Kalat, published in 1844 by Richard Bentley. There is also the first edition of the 7th Earl of Dunmore’sThe Pamirs, published by John Murray in 1893, with a silver Buddha embossed on its cover. Eye-catching titles such as, ‘The Indian Alps and How We Crossed Them by A Lady Pioneer’ and ‘A History of the Thugs’ cannot be missed.

However, the rare book collection – already in delicate condition – is located in a space where sunlight, heat, dust and humidity can wreak havoc on it. The rare books have been put into the same room as regular books, near large windows that are left open. It is evident that the adjustable open shelves on which the rare books are placed are not contributing to their preservation and are, if anything, damaging their covers. As the shelves are open from the sides, some books lying on the edge are leaning outwards.

When I first visited the Sindh Archives in 2007, the rare book collection was kept under lock and key in a windowless room specifically designated for it. A visitor needed permission to be able to view it. After Naeem Daudpota became the librarian in 2010, the collection was shifted to its current location. Daudpota, an MA in Library Information Science as well as History, explains, “It doesn’t make sense to keep rare books locked away and hidden from public viewing. On the contrary, people must be made aware of their existence and be encouraged to come and read them.” While such intentions are promising, accessibility must not come at the cost of preservation. The rare books must be shifted to an air-conditioned room, devoid of windows, where temperature and humidity are closely monitored – as is done in the stack area.

Referring to the personal collections in the library of the Sindh Archives, Hamida Khuhro opines, “I don’t think it is right that books in a library be organised under personal collections. They should be organised according to subject. Otherwise it is not helpful to researchers.”

The lone researchers that are seldom found in the corridors of the archives are either lawyers – compelled to visit for work – or foreign historians, or simply those driven by a carnivorous curiosity for an accurate picture of what was.

Colonel (retd) Hassan Imam, who has carried out research on his grandfather Wadero Ghulam Kadir Dayo, a landholder of Ratodero Taluka, tells me he is convinced that “Somebody has tampered with the Blue Book of Larkana District. The photocopy of the Blue Book preserved in the Sindh Archives is different from the one preserved in the Sindhology Institute, Jamshoro.” In my own research, I did notice that certain entries in the copy of the Blue Book in the Sindhology Institute were missing from the one in the Sindh Archives. According to Imam, “The pages covering the years 1901 to 1926 are missing. Furthermore, some entries that bear the signatures of different Collectors are all in the same handwriting. Whoever had an interest in destroying this record has deliberately done so.” According to Dr Cheesman however, “The handwriting may or may not be significant. Security was surprisingly lax in those days compared to now and, before photocopiers, even sensitive documents were frequently transcribed. You would probably be able to tell a lot from the style of writing – modern handwriting is very different.”

The past, encapsulated in the archives, is relevant, as are its missing pieces. Factual specifics, although limited, are more revealing than any vague, romanticised fable. Sensibilities and perspectives uncovered in old manuscripts relating to Sindh can provide history-lovers with a fresh perspective of the present: a new way of ‘seeing’ and understanding their current reality.

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loyallogic · 5 years

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Government of India Act, 1935

A student of faculty of law, Aligarh Muslim University, Amanat Raza, has written this article. In this article, he discusses the concept of Government of India, its features and why some of its features have been taken by our Constitution.

Introduction

This legislation was the longest Act passed by the British Parliament after its domination over India. It was the result of a very long process that started when the Simon Commission was appointed to look into the matter which was not satisfied by the Indian politicians. Dyarchy system that was introduced by the Government of India Act, 1919 (the “1919 Act”) did not prove to be a satisfactory experiment by the British Parliament.

Indian politicians were frustrated at that time because they thought that the area they had officially control over was still in the hands of the British officials with full control over it. Because of this reason, these politicians wanted a check of India’s constitutional arrangements and it could be fixed. So, to review this matter and to make changes this had been given to the Simon Commission.

The report of the Simon Commission[1] proposed to scrap the dyarchy system and instead of that, ‘responsible government in the province’ was sought to be introduced. This report brought us one step closer to the establishment of the Government of India Act, 1935 (the “1935 Act”). The material derived from the 1935 Act not only came from the Simon Commission Report but also different sources as well. These sources were the Third Round Table Conference,[2] reports of the Joint Select Committee [3] and the White Paper of 1933.

Features

This Act gives many salient features out of which some has been considered as the major ones and some as the minor ones. These salient features are given below:

This Act shows the dominance power of the British Parliament or its superiority.

This Act had proposed to establish an All India Federation and this federation should consist of provinces and Princely states considering both as one unit.

This Act introduced a system of Provincial Autonomy into the provinces in place of the dyarchy system. This time dyarchy was not introduced at the state level it only introduced at the central level.

A federal court was established after the recommendation of this Act. This court was introduced after two years of the passing of this Act, i.e., 1937.[4]

This Act provides the recommendation for the establishment of the Reserve Bank of India to control the regulation of currencies and credits of this country.

After the establishment of this Act, the Council of India that was established by the Government of India Act, 1858 was abolished.

Muslims, Sikhs, and others except depressed classes were provided separate electorates after the implementation of this Act.

This Act proposed the expansion of Universal Adult Franchise from 3% of the population to 14% of the population.

This Act gave Governor the Critical emergency powers that were only enjoyed by him.

All India Federation

This Act having a proposal to establish an All India Federation which would comprise British India Provinces and princely States. The terms on which a state could join the federation were mentioned in the Instrument of Accession. It was at the discretion of the state whether it wanted to join the federation that was given by the Government of India Act, 1935. 6 Chief Commissioner’s provinces, 11 Governor’s provinces and some states who agreed to merge in the stated federation were constituent units of that federation [5].

It had been proposed through this Act that if princely states were entitled to half of the state’s seats in the upper house of the federal legislature then the federation of India would come into existence. The part of the legislation that had not been implemented earlier was implemented after the first election under this Act was held. This legislation came into force in 1937 two years after the establishment of the Government of India Act, 1935.

The approach to form the federation and implement provincial autonomy paved the way for the division of subjects between the Centre and the Provinces. The division of subjects that were given by the Government of India Act, 1919 was revised and added some more subjects in it by this Act of 1935 and included three lists. These were:

Federal list

Provincial list

Concurrent list

Division of powers

This Act centralized all the ruling power in one body, i.e., the Centre. Although the Center possessed a lot of power, it could not interfere in the laws made on the subjects mentioned in the provincial list by the Provinces. This is because this Act gives the province the power of autonomy i.e., they can make laws on the subject matter of the provincial list and centre will not interfere in that particular law that is made. This is the power of ‘provincial autonomy’.

The Governor-General on behalf of Majesty utilises its power either directly or through the appointment of subordinate officer(s). But this power did not prevent the federal legislature from functioning upon subordinate authorities. This Act proposed that a Finance Bill could not be placed in the Central Legislature unless the Governor-General gives his assent or his consent.

Dyarchy at centre

By this Act, dyarchy system was adopted at the central level. There were two categories of federal subjects:

Reserved subjects

Transferred subjects.

Reserved Subjects– The subjects that are mentioned in this category of federal subjects were to be administered by the Governor-General on the advice of the Executive Councillors and the Executive Council could not exceed its limit of three members. Religious affairs, defense, administration of tribal areas and external affairs were included in the reserved subjects.

Transferred Subjects– This subject was to be administered on the advice of ministers and the number of ministers could not exceed 10. Subjects other than reserved were dealt with under the Transferred Subjects. The Governor-General had the power to dominate the ministers.

Federal legislature

This Act proposed that there should be a Federal Legislature consisting of His Majesty, and this legislature would be represented by Governor-General and two chambers, namely the Council of States and the House of Assembly (also known as the Federal Assembly in this Act). The chamber of the Federal Legislature would be summoned to meet at least once in a year.

The chamber of the federal legislature could be summoned, adjourned or dissolved by the Governor-General only who had got these powers through the Government of India Act, 1935. The language that was to be taken into consideration for the proceedings of Federal Legislature could be only in English.

No discussion was to take place in the Federal Legislature concerning the conduct of any judge of the Federal Court or a High Court in the discharge of his duties. The Governor-General possessed extra legislative powers under this Act but was not allowed to do anything without the permission of His Majesty.

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Council of States

This legislation proposed that there should be a Council of State which consisted of representatives from British India as well as from the Princely States. It also stated that the Council of State could not be dissolved as it got the recognition of permanent body through this Act. First Schedule of this Act gives the provision on which a member can retire or in how much amount they could be retired. It talks that one-third members of the council will retire as per this provision.

Initially, the Council of State had to choose two members of the council respectively as President and Vice President thereof, and in case the post of President and the Vice President becomes vacant, the Council would have to choose another member for the same post. If the post of the President was vacant, then Deputy President could perform his function and in the absence of Deputy President, any member of the council could exercise those functions and also it was at the discretion of the Governor-General whom to give that power.

The President, Deputy President and any person who was appointed to the post of President and Vice President at the time of vacancy, did not possess the right the assembly but at the time of equality of votes in the assembly, they exercised a ‘casting vote’.

Representative of British India

In the Council of State, there were one hundred and fifty-six representatives of British India

Representatives of Princely States

The Council of State consisted of one hundred and four representatives from the princely states.

Federal Assembly

This Act gave this assembly another name and that was called the House of Assembly. There were two hundred and fifty representatives from British India and not more than one hundred and twenty-five representatives of Princely States in this assembly. Each Federal Assembly was to continue for five years and the assembly could dissolve only after the completion period of these five years.

Provincial Autonomy

The introduction of Provincial Autonomy was one of the reclaiming features of this Act. Simon Commission recommends to add this part in the Government of India Act, 1935. Provinces were not having an Executive Council and Reserved Subjects earlier but this legislation had added these subjects. This Act discontinued the system of dyarchy or the system of division of subjects in ‘Reserved’ and ‘Transferred’.

The Council of Ministers has got the right of administering on provincial subjects except for law and order. The power to administer on the subject of law and order was in the hands of the government who was having powers superior to that of the Council of Ministers.

After the commencement or the starting of this Act, the Centre’s hold over provincial subjects was reduced. The ministers could not freely exercise their power of running their departments. The dominating power of Governor through which it dominates over the ministers was rarely used by him. The governor on the advice of Viceroy took total control over the provincial government at the time of political breakdown.

Safeguard and Reservation

Another characteristic of this Act was that it sought to safeguard and to provide reservation to minorities. The reason to add this characteristic feature was the dominance of the majority upon a minority. The power to make changes in the Act was solely to the British government. The Indian legislature could only pray for constitutional change after giving a resolution to Majesty’s Government. This demonstrates how this Act was not an Indian Act, but a mere imposition of rules and regulations on Indians by the British government.

Establishment of a federal court

This Act also proposed the establishment of a federal court to resolve disputes arising between two states or between state and federal government and also in the case where disputes arose in matters concerning the interpretation of the Constitution. It was empowered to interpret the clauses that were controversial in the Act. Although, the Federal Court was not the final court of appeal. The appeal could be made to the Privy Council in some circumstances.

Abolition of Indian Council

The Indian Council that was established by the Government of India Act, 1858 was abolished by this Act and in place of that council, it proposed the appointment of Secretary of State and his team which could not be more than six members and could not comprise of members less than three. The power of Secretary of State got diminished and the Governor-General became more powerful than him after the establishment of provincial autonomy through this Act.

Extension of franchise

This Act introduced the extension of the franchise. Approximately 10% of the total population had the right to vote to appoint representatives to this legislature. The Act did not hold its hand over the communal electorates but it had extended it holds. For the first time, the direct election was introduced in India with the help of this Act.

Federal railway authority

This Act had given the command of the railway in the hands of a new authority called Federal Railway authority. The member in this authority was seven in numbers and these members were free from the control of councilors and ministers. The authority directly reported to the Governor-General. The main idea behind the establishment of this authority was to confirm the British stakeholder that the investment they have done in the railway was safe.

Reorganization of provinces

This Act also did some kind of restructuring or reorganization of the provinces. A province was separated from Bombay and named as Sindh. Another thing that has done was split of Bihar and Orissa to become separate individual provinces of Bihar and Orissa. So this Act formed the two new provinces and these are Sindh and Orissa.

Separation of Burma

Simon Commission proposed to the Government of India to separate Burma from India and this proposal was accepted by this Act. In 1935, the Burma Act was passed and its separation from India was done after two years of this Act i.e., in 1937. The Burma Act proposed for a new Burma office which had the power to establish Burma as a separate colony.

The department of Burma and India was headed by the Secretary of State of India and Burma as he was appointed to look into the matter of both the countries and also he headed the department of both the colonies. Lord Dundas was the first person to become Secretary of State of both the colonies i.e., India and Burma.

Importance of the Act

Government of India Act 1935 curtailed the power concentrated in the hands of the Central Government and distributed it among the decentralized form of government. Separate electorates for women, although they had not asked for it, was quite good for the advancement of women in the decision making process. Even the workers had their separate representation which helped in the advancement of the workers class. This Act was the first attempt to give the provinces an autonomous status by freeing them from external interference.

Therefore, if the province is making any decision then nobody has got the right to interfere that decision-making and also no one could assist the provinces what to do and what not to do for its subjects. Britishers have introduced this Act because through this Act they can win the support of modern nationalist and they could rule over the dominion of India.

Another reason was that this Act provides voting rights to more people than were given under the Government of India Act, 1919. This Act also proposed to form the federal government that allowed princes to participate in political affairs of India.

Although this Act was not liked by many Indians, its importance was that it paved the way for the independence of India. This Act provided the basis for negotiation between Britishers and Indians for getting independence.

Government of India Act, 1935 and the Indian Constitution

Constitution of India was the residue of the legacy started by the Government of India Act, 1935. Some features of the Government of India Act that suited well for free India was taken into consideration by the drafters of the Indian Constitution. Features of Federal Legislature and Provincial autonomy was taken from the Government of India Act, 1935. The 1935 Act divided powers between the Centre and the Province which was better for the administration at ground level as well.

Another feature that had been taken was provincial autonomy. This autonomy worked better for regulating the states or provinces without the interference of external authorities. Also, the states or the provinces knew their people’s condition better than any other external authority.

A Federal Court that was established in 1937 through the Government of India Act, 1935 was considered as the Supreme Court by independent India. The Constitution of India also borrowed the feature that every state should have a Governor who would be elected by the Central Government. Public Service Commission that we see in Article 315 of the Indian Constitution had also been taken from the Government of India Act, 1935.

Conclusion

The Government of India Act, 1935 was the lengthiest Act that was made before the year 1935. It consisted of 321 Sections, 14 Parts, and 10 Schedules. This Act proposed many salient features such as the creation of All India Federation, Provincial Autonomy, provision for safeguards and reservation, etc.

These features were important for the Britishers but Indian politicians were not happy with these features although some features were adopted by the drafters of the Indian Constitution in free India. The Act of 1935 was a rigid one. It could not be amended or modified by any Indian legislature, either he was Federal or Provincial Legislature. This Act gave nearly 10% of voters the right to vote.

Providing separate electorate to Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, etc, later on, turned out to be the tools for disintegrating India. Hence, this Act, in reality, did not help in curbing out the difficulties that had arisen in the Government of India Act, 1919. It only showed the dominion of the British Government over the Indians. Only for their benefit, they had introduced this Act. But some of its features benefitted the Indians also.

References

https://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10973/39712/GIPE-010124-05.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y

http://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/round-table-conferences-1930-1932

https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/174777/10/10_chapter%204.pdf

https://cadindia.clpr.org.in/historical_constitutions/government_of_india_act_1935_2nd%20August%201935

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NCERT Class 12 Political Science (India) Chapter 8 Regional Aspirations

NCERT Class 12 Political Science Solutions (India Since Independence)

Chapter 8 Regional Aspirations

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