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Original Chocolate Recipe

Time for a recipe with chocolate! It only makes sense to go back where it all started, so we will take a look at the ancient cacao beverage drank by the Mesoamericans before the arrival of the Spanish Conquistadors. It Nahuatl, the language of the Mexica (Aztec), cacao is called Xocolatl and was served warm or lukewarm. Quite different from the hot chocolate we drink today, mainly in that it is far from a sweet and wholesome beverage on a cold evening.

           The Mexica and previous civilizations that used cacao used cacao in its purest form. Today, cacao had been processed to the point where its hard to find cakes of pure cacao. Dark chocolates are simply 50% cacao solids, which is probably the closest you can find in terms of a traditional cacao taste. Still, we want our chocolate treats to be sweet and not over-the-top bitter so dark chocolate is usually still added with sugar and other flavors.

           The origins of how these people learned that these seeds are edible are disputed, but evidence that they were consumed began to appear on pottery across Mesoamerica. A common one was that the people had cracked open the seeds and ate the pulpy flesh that surrounds the seed. Once they ate what they wanted, the seeds were tossed and landed in a ceramic pot that was nearby a fire. The aroma that rose from the pot was very enticing and then experiments began to make the most of these cacao seeds.

           The method of cultivating the cacao was not as different as it is today. Machetes are still used to separate the cacao pods from the tree, and then left ferment for a few days. It’s a method that has not left the past as it’s a process that cannot be industrialized. They crack open the pods and let pulp ooze out and ferment away until just the cacao seed, or nub, is left behind. From here, the process of making the cacao differs from the past to today. With the cacao nubs in hand, the use of machinery is accessible to effectively crush it into a fine powder.

           Travel back a few 500 years ago, and we see the Mexica laying out the cracked open pods out to ferment for several days. Its important to keep an eye on them as they become easily eaten by animals or insects. Once the fermentation is done and the pulp has been scooped out, the seeds are left out to dry in the sun and then roasted. When they are done roasting, the cacao beans are broken up and the nibs are collected for winnowing. The winnowing process separates the shells from the actual cacao nibs. The nibs are what we want, this is where we get the powder from after grounding the nibs. The grounded nibs leave behind a powder that is called “cacao liqueur”, but it’s really just like a cake of cacao powder.

           Once the cacao is ground up, all that is left is to mix it with water. The Mexica did it differently than we do it today. The biggest difference is cocoa vs cacao. Cacao, like the Mexica used, is pure cacao that has no additives from the time they opened the pods. Cocoa is highly processed cacao with added sugar and other ingredients. The resulting cocoa is a sweeter, yet more fine powders that easily soluble. Today, we enjoy chocolate for its association with a sweet treat. This association is a relatively nuanced idea when it comes to serving chocolate and was a transformation brought on cacao by the Europeans. The Mexica’s traditional version of the beverage was as simple as mixing the cacao liqueur in water and adding spices such as actual chili peppers, perhaps some vanilla or ground maize as a thickening agent. This drink is quite bitter and can be a little spicy! The vanilla can add some sweetness to the taste, but the strong bitter taste from cacao will overpower. In fact, the first transformation that the Europeans did was to add sugar or milk to the beverage to make it “easier to drink”. The mixture was rapidly stirred in a pot until a nice layer of foam was achieved on the top. The foam is the what shows you that the beverage is ready to drink. Even when the Spaniards brought cacao with them back to Spain, they rapidly mixed until that desired layer of foam appeared. They even developed their own mixing device to make the foam appear easier, the molinillo. Fun fact, my family in Mexico still use the molinillo when preparing a cup of chocolate, although the drink is modern as its usually a sweet treat.

           The Spaniards didn’t understand the fascination of cacao that the Mexicas had. When Hernan Cortes was invited to a banquet at the palace of Moctezuma, he saw numerous pots of this foamy beverage and was offered some. Moctezuma was showing off his prestige and power with all this Xocolatl, but Cortes was not impressed by this bitter drink. It really only caught on as a marker of social status since the Mexica prized it so much. The elite were the only ones who were able to truly enjoy cacao, while the others were really only using cacao as a form of currency. The Spanish brought back this exotic currency and drank the beverage themselves, knowing that only the elite in Spain are drinking this exotic drink from the New World. The youthful feeling of “I have some and not you” plays a big part in why cacao really kicked off in Europe.

           There is no set recipe for the beverage, but the consensus that most agree on is that the 100% pure cacao powder is mixed with water. From there, spices may be added to taste but that’s really as complicated as it gets. I did some digging and found a pretty simple recipe that requires water, 100% cacao, and one jalapeno. The recipe is as follows.

             Xocolatl

1.      In a medium sized pot, simmer some water and chop up one small jalapeno. Toss the jalapeno, with the seeds, into the water and let it simmer for about 10 minutes.

2.      Strain out the jalapeno and seeds to the best of your ability, leaving behind a warm pot of spicy water. Bring it back into a simmer.

3.      Time to add the cacao! Break in about 2 ounces of 100% cacao and place inside the pot of water. Bring it down to a low simmer and begin stirring until the cacao is fully dissolved.

4.      Once fully dissolved, let the pot of cacao cool to room temperature as it’s the way the Mexica preferred to drink the beverage.

5.      Enjoy the spicy bitterness!

Since this beverage is rather bitter, its recommended to add in some sweeteners. To keep it traditional, try to use any that are naturally found in these parts, such as vanilla. The recipe calls for piloncillo, which is a rich extract from sugar cane in Mexico. With these, the drink should be easier to drink and still be traditional!

  Sources:

https://www.openwidetheworld.com/blog/world-history-5-hot-chocolate-recipes

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Chocolate Industry of Today

           The identity of chocolate has changed wildly in the span of 500 years from an elite beverage into a cheap snack. This was made possible to globalization of cacao and the modernization of production. There is a divide between producers and consumers, meaning that the consumers are unaware as to how and why the chocolate is produced and why it is so cheap.

           This new century has open up many doors between consumers and producers in many industries. Consumers are becoming more aware of where our products are sourced from and how they are made. The barrier in the chocolate industry is dissipating allowing consumers to see the truth. Consumers have the right to be informed of what they are purchasing.

           In Canada, post World War 2, there was a chocolate strike due to the high inflation in its price from 5 cents to 8 cents. The children were not accepting the increase in price after the war, and surprisingly the sales of chocolate dropped a lot! Companies tried to explain it was raised due to conditions of where it was grown in Africa. They tried to label the strikes as Communist. The communist label was all it took to quell the strike. The anti-communist view in the West was enough to make many people go against the children and call them traitors.

           The chocolate industry is a massive industry. Estimated roughly 100 billion in turnover, it’s a massive snack industry. Companies producing the cacao is benefiting from the business, despite massive human rights violations in its child labor. The countries importing and producing the chocolate are selling at high volumes. Fair Trade Cacao certification assists farmers to cooperate so they can earn fair prices for their products. They also inspect cacao producers to ensure they meet child labor standards.

           Compared to other “cash crops”, cacao is low in its carbon footprint compared to that of corn. But since its limited geographical availability, the countries that do grow cacao have a large footprint since they need a lot of space to keep up with the large demands.

           The call to modernize cacao production has been growing in the 21st century. Hershey has partnered with the Rainforest Alliance to expand programs to improve conditions in the communities that grow cacao in West Africa. They are still stuck in methods of the past the intensive labor and the detestable slavery of children. Cocoa for Generations is Mars’ idea to focus on small farms of cacao to safeguard children and the forests. Despite promises, these communities have yet to experience significant increase in quality of life or wages. Cocoa Life was created in 2015 by owners of Cadbury to tackle complex challenges the farmers faced such as poverty, gender inequality, and climate change. It has been 5 years and Cocoa Life have done little to nothing.

           Chocolate companies are partnering with programs that promise improvements for these communities of cacao growers, yet nothing is being done. Its not simple as companies and programs trying to fix the issues. Consumers can try and get things done, but ultimately the consumer cannot do much. Without the cooperation between all parties involved, the future of cacao will continue to have issues.

These plans that are launched promise great improvements but show little no results. 

Sources: https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2019/national/climate-environment/mars-chocolate-deforestation-climate-change-west-africa/

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Chocolate in Modern Times: Advertising

           The industrial revolution made chocolate into a common item found in many households. It became a more democratized good, which in turn increased the demand for chocolate and kickstarted the chocolate industry. Advertisement became a more prominent tactic due to competition between the few large companies.

           Advertisement was essential to selling chocolate. Trade cards were created to increase sales as they were given out to consumers with the purchase of the chocolate. They started off advertising the store that it was purchased from, but with color printing developed the cards grew more and more elaborate. The front had an appealing image and the back had information of the store and instructions on how to properly enjoy the chocolate, even recipes! Post cards were also mailed to consumers to advertise. Posters were around towns to advertise good feelings to associate them with chocolate. Fairs became great advertising opportunities to showcase products to the public. They showed the process of production to show them the modern processes and limit the idea of the “elite” connotation chocolate had. Free taste samples were offered too, allowing them to taste chocolate for the first time for many people.

           The packaging for chocolate had to evolve too. Cadbury started off in the 1800s with their fancy chocolate boxes. The made heart shaped boxes for Valentines Day too! Tin was more durable and was able to contain more chocolate, which made it the preferred material for these boxes of chocolate. Since they were durable, the tin container can be used for long term advertisement. The Ballotin had a more delicate and artisanal look to the chocolate and packaging. This gave it a nice look and signaled a “higher quality”.

           Cadbury were effective at their marketing. In 1849, they began their chocolate bars. In the same year, they displayed their bars at a fair in Birmingham. They used appealing window displays and large posters to advertise their chocolate. Their fancy boxes helped differentiate them from other chocolate companies. They developed the Easter chocolate eggs!             They focused on the theme of purity on their imagery.

           Cadbury and Hershey succeeded in making chocolate a staple item for holidays, romance, and as an affordable treat! Since many were illiterate, the use of words on advertisement aren’t very effective. The use of clever imagery can do wonders, despite the literacy level of consumers. Having an image of someone in good health eating chocolate can make consumers correlate chocolate with good health!

           Advertisements had sometimes some subtle racism. They use likeness of the Africans that cultivate the cacao, but give these people a “stereotypical, racist” depiction. They tie it back to “the food of the gods” as the Mesoamericans once considered it. This grants chocolate the exotic feel but gives it a superiority of the “white colonizers”.

           The use of women on advertisement reinforces gender roles of the past and the patriarchy. It reinforces the idea that women should be good housewives, nurturing, and obedient to their husbands. A happy family is shown by these advertisement techniques. For men, it reinforces the idea of masculinity, strength, and virility. Both woman and men were used to reinforce the idea that chocolate is an aphrodisiac.

           During war times, they used chocolate marketing as propaganda and to aid the war cause. Chocolate was included in rations during war as it was a good stimulant. Soldiers would see the chocolate in their rations and be reminded of home.      

           Marketing became the big industry push for the sales of chocolate. It reinforced societal norms of racism, patriarchy, and colonialism.

sources:

Grivetti, Louis Evan, Howard-Yana Shapiro, and Nicholas Westbrook. “Chocolate and the World Fairs”. In Chocolate: History, Culture, and Heritage, 199-208. Hoboken. N.J.: Wiley, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470411315.

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Chocolate in Modern Times: Production

           While in Latin America colonization had fallen apart and countries gained independence, Africa had become more colonized. Due to wars for independence, agricultural growth of cacao had halted in these areas.

           Chocolate had become more globalized and sought after, increasing the demand for cacao even more! The main regions of Venezuela and Ecuador were not able to cope with demands on their own, resulting in companies looking for new sources for cacao cultivation. Venezuela and Ecuador had also been granted independence from Spain and they had the right to do with their labor as they saw fit. Slavery had been abolished in most of the Western world by the late 19th century which made finding labor for cacao production tougher. Africa became the new target.

           Despite gaining independence from Spain, the Criollos (the white- elites) still controlled the countries. Women, natives, and Africans did not gain any freedoms with independence. Neo-Colonialism had impacted Latin America as it was their entrance into the world market. This didn’t change their status much since Latin America was still just producers of raw materials that were exported into “first world countries” to process and manufacture goods from them.

           In Venezuela, the major player in Latin America for cacao, was still fighting for its spot on top. They grew the highly coveted Criollo variety. But with the abolition of slavery in 1854, labor became hard to come by. Hacienda owners, without slaves, had to lease out their land to tenants who would then work the land. Many of these tenants were previously slaves! They would give a percentage of their cacao to the owner and keep the rest themselves. Despite not being the highest grossing producer of cacao, Venezuela is known to the best in its quality and taste.

           In Ecuador, they grew the Forastero variety, which was cheaper and more plentiful than the Criollo. There are two common types, the Arriba and the Nacional. They had a cacao boom from 1870 to 1920; they were the top world producer in the 1890s. There were a few families that controlled more than 70% of the producing area, they were known as the Gran Cacao. They became very powerful families in Ecuador. In the 1920s, there was a cacao crisis due to such a high amount of cacao produced globally which led to decrease in demand and drop in prices. Diseases further declined production in Ecuador. Ecuador is recovering now with small farms and is still a top 10 producer.

           In Africa, the perfect climate for the cacao trees tend to be along the equator. Three new centers of cacao production were created in Africa: Sao Tome, Ghana, and the Ivory Coast. By the 20th century, most production of cacao had been focused on Africa. The UK practiced indirect rule on African colonies, which had a bad impact on their colonies as they saw the colonized were to in charge of governing themselves and being loyal to the crown. France, on the other hand, sought a more direct approach and wanted to assimilate the colonies. They established and centralized governing system. Many French Africans were able to apply for French Citizenship, but it was nearly impossible.

           In Sao Tome, controlled by Portugal, cacao was first cultivated here on the island off Africa. It comprised of forced contracted labor which basically slavery in all aspects other than by name. Cadbury had purchased most of their cacao from Sao Tome. Due to the controversial slavery conditions, Cadbury was under fire for supporting the conditions. Sao Tome production began to become unpopular and was boycotted by Cadbury and others as they quickly found replacements in Ghana.

           Ghana grew Forastero cacao and was clear anti-slavery. Small landowners were in charge of cultivation and they employed families. Ghana became the world leading producer from 1920-1970. The government took control of cacao production to focus on the economy and set up a monopoly to buy the product. This monopoly was called Cocobod was intended to protect farmers from price inflations. Currently, Ghana is the second producer in the world.

           In the Ivory Coast, coffee and cacao became the big export. French immigrants came to establish farms, competing the local Ivorians. Small farmers were competing with large French owners and invited families from neighboring countries to come work. The government supported the small farmers and offered opportunities for growth, making them the most dominant group. Ivory Coast currently dominates the production volume in the world.

           In Africa, children labor is a large number of the work force. When you cannot have slaves, children are the next cheapest alternative in terms of labor. 2 million children are currently working on cacao industry, aged from 5 to 14. Paid a fraction of adults but working same hours, these children have to work to support their families and work with machetes and horrible conditions. These children are also unable to attend school since they spend all day working. Many children are trafficked or kidnapped into slave labor. In Ivory Coast, roughly more than 10,000 children are enslaved. There isn’t one responsible party as there are many involved.

           The shift from Latin America to Africa as the main producers of cacao had changed the industry forever. Venezuela is still seen as the highest quality cacao growers. With the lack of slave labor, the increasing demand has forced millions of children into working in cacao farms.

Sources:

https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2019/business/hershey-nestle-mars-chocolate-child-labor-west-africa/?fbclid=IwAR0Wylrl4K2btGprh_qMmdd5lhdz4w5SdPTa8kNdUCgQ7T9uuyZKYk65GWw&noredirect=on

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Chocolate during Industrial Revolution

The 19th century was a time of increased production and manufacturing due to the Industrial Revolution. It also increased demands from countries that produced raw goods such as the colonies in the Americas that produce cacao, tobacco, and sugar. Europe was import these and manufacture more expensive goods to sell to their people or back to the colonies.

Prior to mechanization of production, chocolate would usually be produced at roughly 10 kgs per day. With the technological advancements of the Industrial Revolution, that number skyrocketed to 500 kgs per day! An astronomical jump seems like a good thing for everyone! But this increased demand for materials also increased demand for labor. The labor increase would also want quicker cultivation which leads to harsher working conditions. So, while the rich get richer, the poor get poorer and live in worse conditions.

The cacao press, made in 1828 by Conrad van Houten, was invented due to the high fat content of cacao. The cacao press was able to extract the butter from the bean to reduce the content to about 27 percent rather than 50. The resulting cacao cake is easier to powder. He also used alkaline salts to remove the bitter taste and make the powder much more soluble.

Adding sweeteners to chocolate became the common practice but was much more difficult to do with the solid chocolate than it was with the beverage. Phillipe Suchard created the Melangeur in 1830 which allowed the mixing of chocolate with other substances to be much easier, resulting in a smoother solid chocolate.

The push for solid chocolate began to grow further! Joseph Fry created the first chocolate bar in 1848 with the aid of van Houten’s cacao press. Instead of using water, Fry’s company used melted cacao butter added onto the cacao powder and sugar resulting in a smoother paste than can be cast into a mold. They made chocolate bars this way. The chocolate was still rather bitter, and further innovations were to come.

Daniel Peter wanted to make sweeter chocolate bars. The issue Fry had with his bar was that the use of water resulted in it all evaporating away, so he used melted cacao butter. Daniel Peter knew milk makes it sweeter, but the high-water content would result in evaporation too. Milk also make the chocolate go rancid quicker and had a short shelf life. He went to Henry Nestle, a pharmacist that was experimenting with evaporated cow milk, to develop a candy bar. Peters used Nestle’s dehydrated condensed milk with the cacao solids and was successful in creating a sweeter and smoother chocolate bar. Since the milk was dried, the shelf life was longer than it would have been with regular milk. This chocolate bar is largely what we still see today!

Despite all the advancements with the cacao press, chocolate was still lumpy and grainy. Rudolph Lindt developed a conching machine in 1879 which processed the beans for hours to create smooth and silky chocolate. Conching is the process of rolling the chocolate liqeuer till it reaches a desired smoothness. This resulted in a smoother chocolate that was ideal for cakes and other baked goods.

Three families dominated the chocolate production in the UK: Fry, Cadbury, and Rowntree. Cadbury started in 1824 and created fancy chocolate boxes (heart shaped box for Valentine’s Day), they modern concept of the Easter egg, and Dairy Milk chocolate. They moved their factory from Birmingham to Bourneville and built a utopian company town that was inspiration to that of Hershey. In 2009, Kraft had acquired Cadbury into its company. Rowntree company began in the 1860s and most famously developed the Kit Kat bar. It was purchased by Nestle in the 1980s.

In the US, the three big companies of chocolate were: Baker’s Chocolate, Ghirardelli, and Hershey. Baker’s Chocolate was founded in 1764 in Massachusetts till it was acquired by Kraft foods in 1989.

The technological innovation made chocolate mass produced and cheaper to consume worldwide. Chocolate had become more democratized and the rise of chocolate had began to peak.

Sources: Grivetti, Louis Evan, Howard-Yana Shapiro, and Rodney Snyder. “From Stone Metates to Steel Mills.” In Chocolate: History, Culture, and Heritage, 611��23. Hoboken. N.J.: Wiley, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470411315. 

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Chocolate Production in the Colonies

           Cacao was the first cash crop coming from the Americas, before sugar and tobacco. Due to the tree’s delicate nature and needs to be able grow, cacao was limited to being grown along the equator. Cacao was very profitable, which made this cash crop highly sought after by anyone trying to make some money. It was labor intensive and required a large workforce, which is why the importation of slaves from Africa was intensified into South America. A crop produced by the poor that was meant for the rich. Europe had colonized areas with intentions to use them for cacao plantations.

           The colonizers used the Americas as its farmlands. They didn’t intend to let the colonies benefit from their interactions as all the revenue and goods were to be sent back to Europe. Spain had the Casa de Contratacion, which was like a governing body that controlled its commerce with the Americas. Seville was the major importing center for Spain, and it controlled a 3-port monopoly in the Americas: Veracruz, Cartagena, and Panama. They introduced a guard fleet system to protect the trade ships from foreign attackers.

           The Spaniards relied on native labor rather than do the labor themselves. The labor and tribute systems that were in place when the Spaniards had arrived at the Americas were incorporated to their own needs. They put themselves at the head and used the natives as labor for tribute to their new lords. Not exactly enslaved, the natives were viewed as “vassals” in a pseudo-feudal state. The natives were simply serfs that were to work the land of their lords in return for some payment. The Spanish had established encomiendas (to entrust) as an agreement between the crown and the natives for labor. The Spanish controlled the land while the natives were able to live their own ways but were required to perform labor as tribute in return for protection, conversion to Catholicism, and swearing loyalty to the Spanish Crown. When the native population began to further decline, the value of the encomienda system began to decline too due to lack of labor. They evolved them into haciendas, which was basically a large plantation. The hacendero, or head of the hacienda, lived on a large estate called latifundio and owned the large grant of land. They were largely self-sufficient as they had land for farming and for grazing of animals. Buildings such as churches and lodging for laborers were also on hacienda property.

           In New Spain (Modern-day Mexico), the labor was largely based on the native population. In regions such as Tabasco and Soconusco, important cacao producing regions dating back to the Mexicas, the natives were the main source of labor. In South America, namely Venezuela, Ecuador, and Brazil, (including the Caribbean) the native population was so decimated that they had to rely on slave labor from Africa.

           Cacao trade was a largely profitable business. Veracruz became the main trading port in Mexico, trading cacao and more “precious commodities�� such as silver. Venezuela was where cacao was the main export, generating the largest trade revenue through cacao. The Spanish cracked down on who one can trade with, making it difficult to have free trade. Contraband and illegal trading began to rise, especially trading with the Dutch and British in the Caribbean. The Dutch were so adamant on joining the cacao trade that they took control of a nearby island and built a settlement at Curacao in 1634. This further increased its illegal trading with the Venezuelans. Large groups of Jewish immigrants came into Venezuela from Curacao and established their own town named Tucacas in 1693. Illegal trade continued with the Dutch until 1720s when Spain regained total control. They established a charter to the real company of Caracas that controlled all trading coming from Venezuela and were in charge of limiting illicit trading. The company began to exert its power over Venezuela and the producers were not happy with the corruption.

           Working on cacao plantations was brutal, leading to some revolts! The revolts emerged because of harsh working conditions but were fairly quickly suppressed by the Spaniards. Venezuelans began to grow in their national identity and ideas of independence were growing. The Bourbon reforms resulted in the Caracas company being granted political military authority as the captaincy general of Venezuela, further pushing the company to control Venezuela. The Caracas company was abolished in 1785 in hopes that the freedom to trade between Venezuela and Spain would appease the unrest.

           Ecuador became a bigger player in the production of cacao. They produced a lesser quality cacao in the Forastero variety. Many pre-existing areas that were planting tobacco and meal crops were changed into growing cacao. A cheaper quality compared to its main rivals, Venezuela, Ecuador’s cacao was more plentiful but increased a demand for sugar since it was so bitter. Venezuela produced the high quality Criollo variety cacao. In the 17th century, Venezuela became the largest exporter of cacao, overtaking Mexico. They began to grow a variety of Criollo called Porcelana. The booming industry attracted immigrants from Spain into Venezuela, which in turn demanded more slave labor resulting in more Africans being brought in. A new caste system was established, with the European born Spaniards on top and slaves at the bottom. The closer you are to the “pure-blood” continentals, the higher you are on the system.

           Portugal controlled Brazil and tried to get in the cacao business too. Jesuits in Bahia were the first to grow cacao in Brazil, which was the Forastero variety. The natives were instructed to harvest the beans while the Jesuits would produce it. A smallpox epidemic decimated the native population, prompting the Jesuits to turn to slaves. Nearly 10% of the entire slave trade went to work in Brazilian cacao plantations, roughly 4 million slaves were brought in.

           Labor in the colonies for cacao was largely based on native and slave labor, which was the story for most cash crops grown in the Americas. It led to a large importation of Africans into the Americas and also a large immigration of Spaniards into these countries as they look for business opportunities. This led to further separation of classes in the Americas.

slave labor is still used today for chocolate. 

Sources:  Ferry, Robert J. “Encomienda, African Slavery, and Agriculture in Seventeenth-Century Caracas.” The Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 61, no. 4, 1981, pp. 609–635. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2514606. Accessed 29 Nov. 2020.

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Chocolate during Colonial Times: Consumption

After a friendly meet and greet between Cortes and Moctezuma followed centuries of colonization and disastrous interactions between Europeans and the native populations of the Americas. To make matters worse, the Europeans saw it fit to require a larger work force and introduced a new group of people to the party: the importation of slaves from Africa into the Americas. The Columbian exchange was much more than just an exchange of goods. It involved people, animals, disease, and ideas. It did, however, start off a true globalization of goods.

           Cacao had become more common in Europe in the 16th century but was still largely a beverage for the elite as it had been in the Americas. The ritual importance of it was gone, but the elite status of it had integrated well into the hierarchies of Europe as they sought to further distance themselves from the commoners. They had added sugar and honey to make the drink sweeter, which was the first push in transforming the original beverage from Mesoamerica into the chocolate of today. The Spanish had appreciation for the foam layer that is produced on top of the beverage, as did the Mexica. They developed a tool known as the molinillo, a sort of mixing stick that is rapidly spun between ones’ hands, to mix the beverage and produce that layer of foam. The traditional recipe called for maize as a thickening agent in the beverage, but the Spanish opted for a different ingredient and substituted maize with almonds, milk, or eggs to make it thicker. Chocolate was mainly consumed in courts or in public displays such as bull fights as a luxury drink. For most of the 16th century, chocolate was mainly kept in Spain until it finally spread to the rest of Europe.

           The next country that had been introduced to cacao was Italy, namely in Tuscany. They also put their own twist on the recipe: the toasted beans were infused with jasmine flowers before being ground with sugar and vanilla. Following Italy was France, though there are theories onto how it came into France. One of them being that Anne of Austria brought chocolate as an engagement gift in 1615 (Austria is bordering Italy). Another theory is that Spanish monks gifted some chocolate to French monks. Another one is that is was introduced as a medicine. From France, it was brought into Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. It didn’t reach the UK till about the second half of the 17th century. Chocolate began to emerge in cookbooks as a native drink, using the word “cocoa” rather than cacao. In England, chocolate was different in how people acquired it. While still very expensive, chocolate was available to all who can afford it, rather than in mainland Europe where it was reserved only for the elite. London had established “cafes” that served chocolate beverages and it became a staple in breakfasts for England and France by the 18th century.

           The status of chocolate was also brought along over the Atlantic into Europe. It was a beverage but was also a new means for the elite to further increase their social status. Since it had to be imported from the Americas, it was extremely expensive to bring in. Drinking chocolate wasn’t just as one would drink a cup of water. It was an entire social event; it took time that many people do not have.

           Europeans adapted chocolate to their preferences after they grew more familiar with it. In the Americas, chocolate was consumed either as a hot beverage or as a cool/room temperature beverage. In Europe, they only drank it hot. They added sugar and honey to make it sweeter. They used spices more familiar to them, rather than chile and vanilla, such as cinnamon and black pepper. A stone was still used to ground up the beans, but the introduction of the Spanish molinillo made the frothing portion much easier. Perhaps the largest transformation the Europeans imposed on chocolate was the complete disassociation cacao had with spirituality and religion. It became simply a luxurious beverage.

           The Europeans’ healthcare system followed the theory of the four humors of the body. These four humors represent different aspects of the human body and can explain why someone is sick. Not exactly 100% accurate compared to modern medicine, the humoral theory was as accurate as they can get. To import the idea of the medicinal use of cacao, it had to be adapted to fit the humoral theory. It had to be able to remedy an imbalance of the humors (these imbalances explain why someone is sick, mentally or physically).

           The church wasn’t too friendly with its view on chocolate. They viewed it was a sinful drink that leads to gluttony, greed, and lastly lust. Mainly tied to women drinking chocolate, it was as if they were entering a contract with the devil if they were to drink it. The chocolate would take control of their mental capacities and make them unable to stop drinking (gluttony) and make them lustful. This was also the start of the correlation between chocolate and sex. Still seen today, chocolate is seen as an aphrodisiac and is given to romantic partners on days such as Valentine’s Day.

           In England, they had chocolate houses that served the drink to the public. In Spain, they had tertrulias, gatherings where participants would debate social issues or ideas, discuss art, etc. At these gatherings, chocolate was served. These tertulias were mainly attended by the wealthy and affluent since it assumed leisure time. In France, chocolate houses also began to arise, with roughly 380 being built by 1720. Chocolate and coffee began to grow in popularity in contrast to the long-lasting tradition of drinking alcoholic beverages as chocolate and coffee heightened senses while alcohol did the opposite.            Chocolate production became a more “civilized” thing to do with the proper technology. There was proper etiquette and equipment developed to make this native drink one suitable to the nobility of Europe. Homes began to have rooms dedicated to making chocolate. Porcelain glassware and cups were crafted for their consumption.  First technological equipment was the Spanish molinillo. The French developed a chocaltiere pot with a lid that has a handle for a tool that would froth the chocolate inside the pot. The pot combined a vessel of Mesoamericans and the Spanish molinillo.

           Back in the Americas, chocolate became a universal staple. Even enslaved Africans drank it! It was common to drink it with bread, cheese, and fruits. In Lima, Peru, there was a chocolate guild that would ensure the highest quality of chocolate is being produced. In North America, with the English colonies having been established, coffee houses began to sell chocolate and cacao beans were sold in markets.

           Chocolate had completed a circle around the Atlantic. A wild ride for the beverage that was seen as a savage drink. It was grown in South America, shipped to Europe, and made its way back to North America by England and other European countries.

Above is an image of a chocolate house in England. 

Sources:  Loveman, Kate. “The Introduction of Chocolate into England: Retailers, Researchers, and Consumers, 1640-1730.” Journal of Social History, vol. 47, no. 1, 2013, pp. 27–46. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43306044. Accessed 29 Nov. 2020.

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Chocolate: Mexica and Spain

The 15th century was truly a pivotal time in human history. Europe had just entered its Renaissance and its appreciation for classical works, leaving behind the dark times of the Medieval era. Over in the Americas, the Mexica were a dominant state controlling the southern area of modern-day Mexico, while the Incas controlled much of South America along the Andes. Both had built upon pre-existing states and established themselves by their excellent political organization and military might. This was also the century when two civilizations met for the first time, bridging the gap between the West and Eastern Hemispheres that kicked off an exchange of goods, ideas, diseases, people, and more.            

The most commonly known name for the Mexicas is “Aztec” and the “Aztec Empire”. Although technically not wrong, the Mexica didn’t refer to themselves as Aztec. The name derives from their mythical origin city of Aztlan. Furthermore, their “empire” was actually more of an alliance between three great city-states that created a strong confederation. These city-states were Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan. Tenochtitlan is most widely known as the foundations of modern-day Mexico City! The Mexicas had entered the valley of Mexico some time after the collapse of the Toltecs. A nomadic group used as mercenaries by the more centralized states of the area, the Mexicas were seen as an uncultured people that have come into the area. According to their legend, the Mexica were told by their god to migrate south from Aztlan until they see an eagle eating a serpent sat atop of a cactus. They were to settle down where they see this sight, and that happened to be at Lake Texcoco built the city of Tenochtitlan in 1325. Roughly a century later, in 1428, they allied with two neighboring city-states and took control of the valley as the “Aztec Empire”.             They would come to dominate the area and impose tributes on territories they subjugate to assert their dominance. The tribute was usually paid in goods such as crops, cacao being a major key crop. The Mexicas wouldn’t dominate their subjects, but rather grant them autonomy as long as they are loyal to the “empire” and recognize them as the leaders. Cacao was produced in the regions of Soconusco and Tabasco and was the most desired crop for tribute. They had grand central markets, the largest being in Tlatelolco, in which people can trade manufactured goods for food and goods of neighbors. Agriculture was important to the Mexicas, and their system of chinampas made it possible to practice agriculture atop of a lake! They would make raised gardens out of branches and brushwood and covered with fertile soil brought in from arable land to make plots of farmland on the lake’s surface, using the fresh water as irrigation. Canals were used to circulate the water among the gardens, which were anchored down by poles, and seemed to create a grid-like pattern. Their chinampa system was an ingenious engineering feat that made life on a lake almost self-sustaining.             The best primary sources we have of the Mexica culture is the codices. The most famous and largely known codex is the Florentine Codex written by Spanish friar Bernardino de Sahagun as he studied the culture of the Mexica. The Mexica spoke Nahuatl and their written language largely consisted of glyphs and pictograms. These codices showed that the value of cacao was largely more commercial to the Mexica than it was to the Maya, which had a more religious and spiritual value. This may be because most the codices were written by Spaniards and they downplayed the Mexica religious beliefs as it was seen inferior and barbaric as it wasn’t Catholic. These Spanish were also in the New World for, mainly, monetary gain. Diego Duran wrote a codex known as The History of the Indies which had a lot of information on how the Mexica used cacao commercially and left some detailed accounts of the trade and the groups involved. The merchants offered “package deals” with the cacao by including some spices to add in the beverage such as vanilla and chile (spicy peppers). He also includes accounts of women selling ready-made chocolate beverage in the marketplace.             

Since cacao was so important to the economy, cacao producing regions became a focus of the Mexica for territory expansion. The region of Soconusco became targeted until finally under full Mexica control, granting them authority of a region that produces the cash crop. The Spanish took note of all the available silver, which they would have used for currency, while the Mexica used cacao for currency and saw no use in the silver. Since cacao was used commercially, it was a marker for social status and wealth among the Mexica. The drinking of the actual beverage was mostly seen as something for the elite since it requires a lot of cacao.             

Cacao was also used, surprisingly, for medicinal reasons. Inherited from the medicinal beliefs of the Maya, the Mexica followed through and produced them in botanical gardens strictly for medicinal use. They were applied directly to the skin, prepared special for ailments, or used to appease the God as sickness was seen as a punishment.             

The Spanish had landed in Guanaja, an island off of Honduras, and captured a canoe from the indigenous. Inside the canoe they found some clothing made of cotton, weapons such as clubs and axes, and some cacao beans which they assumed to be almonds. Seen as worthless almonds, the Spaniards didn’t care about them and when the “almonds” fell down they noticed the indigenous react as if they just watched precious gold being tossed into a volcano. Since they don’t understand the attachment of currency to a crop, the Spaniards likened this reaction to barbaric since they valued cacao much more than they would “real currency” such as gold or silver. When Hernan Cortes came to Mexico, he was invited by Mexica leader Moctezuma to Tenochtitlan. He had some of the cacao beverage made for his guest as a gesture of power and dominance, though Cortes was probably oblivious to the fact and thought he was just drinking a bitter beverage. Cortes saw the value that cacao had among the Mexica, and promptly established his own plantations! The Spanish were the ones who brought cacao with them back to Europe and it was seen as exotic and luxurious drink from the New World. They brought back all the fixings that accompanied it in the Mexica culture (vanilla, chile, ear flowers), but added sweeteners such as sugar or honey to make it more palatable to them. This was the first instance of adapting the recipe for chocolate, and there was many to follow. 

Sources: 1)  De Orellana, Margarita, et al. “CHOCOLATE II: Mysticism and Cultural Blends.” Artes De México, no. 105, 2012, pp. 73–96. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/24319003. Accessed 29 Nov. 2020.

2)  De Orellana, Margarita, et al. “Chocolate III: RITUAL, ART AND MEMORY.” Artes De México, no. 110, 2013, pp. 72–96. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/24318995. Accessed 29 Nov. 2020.

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Chocolate: Origins

Today, chocolate is nothing more than a sweet that you can pick up at just about any store. It can be a simple candy bar, a powder form for hot beverages, or even in chips for baking! One may think that chocolate was always this way throughout history and not know its true origins. More surprisingly, many may not know that chocolate comes from a plant or that it had a spiritual and economic importance in the past. The place of origin is Mesoamerica, most commonly used in the areas inhabited by the ancient Olmecs, followed by the Maya, and ultimately followed by the Mexica, or Aztecs. That doesn’t mean that chocolate only grew in these regions, in fact many of the trees grew in the Amazon Rainforest.

The plant is called Cacao and grows on Cacao Trees. To us, its just another tree bearing us fruits to enjoy. To the ancient Mesoamericans, this tree was sacred to them. In Mayan culture, the tree was “the tree of life”, and the beverage they made from the cacao beans was the “food of the gods”. Cacao was represented in glyphs as a fish. This is due to the syllable ka, which is depicted as a fin derived from the glyph kay (fish). So, a fish with two fins would have the ka syllable repeat which is the word kakawa. The modern term, cocoa, was coined by the English when cacao has made its way into Europe and was a simple misspelling of the word cacao, and it stuck that way to this very day! Now, we can differentiate them by calling a pre-processed form as cacao, and as cocoa when its processed into powder or as chocolate as the solid.

There are different “breeds” of cacao trees, or variations. There is the criollo, forastero, trinitario, and arriba. Archeological studies shown that the first domestication of these trees was with the Criollo Cacao trees, which is also the most popular cacao, roughly 5000 years ago in modern day Ecuador. This would make cacao truly originating in the rainforests of Ecuador, before it made its way into Mesoamerica. Forastero cacao is the most common cacao bean. Trinitario is a cross breed between Forastero and Criollo. Arriba is originated in Ecuador and is considered to measure up to the high standards of Criollo. Cacao contains alkaloids that can help identify them, the two most important being caffeine and theobromine, making it the only plant in Mesoamerica that contain them both. The trees themselves can only grow under certain conditions, such as in shady areas (commonly under the taller trees in the rainforests such as banana or coconut) and in warm, humid climates. Of all the cacao pods formed from its flowers, only three of every thousand will yield a fruit, each producing about 30 to 40 cacao seeds.

After they cultivate the pods, there is a series of steps to make the cacao into chocolate: fermentation, drying, roasting, and winnowing. They crack open the pods and scoop out the insides that are then left to ferment for a few days until the pulp is removed from the seeds. The seeds are then set in the sun to dry out and then are roasted. After roasting, the seeds are cracked open and they separate the cacao nibs from the shells through winnowing until they can completely get the nibs isolated and discard the shells or use them as fertilizer. The nibs are then ground up and blended into an almost liqueur in which they mold it into the desired shape. Most commonly, the grounded-up nibs were then mixed with water and spices to make the first cacao beverage. The cacao beans contain cacao butter and cacao solids. The butter is the fat content in the cacao, while the solids is what remains after the butter is pressed out. When they are ground, the resulting paste is known as cacao liqueur or cacao mass.  

There are different types of chocolate today: dark, milk, white, and ruby. Dark chocolate are at least 35% cacao solids. Milk chocolate is processed chocolate with milk and sugar added to it, containing less than 30% cacao solids. White chocolate is just cacao butter mixed with sugar and milk and no cacao solids. It is really just the fat part of the cacao bean with sugar and milk! Ruby chocolate is relatively new, introduced in 2017, and is made from ruby cocoa beans. It’s a secret on how its produced, but speculation is that it is made from unfermented cacao beans and has a solid content lower than that of milk chocolate. There are also labels attached to chocolate products. “Single origin” chocolate is made from cacao from the same plantation. “Single variety” chocolate is made from the same variety of chocolate but from various plantations. “Semi-sweet” and “bittersweet” dark chocolate are the ones that contain different percentages of sugar, but without milk.

Back to the glyphs of cacao, the fish (kaka) is usually accompanied by a glyph representing corn (wa). Put together makes the representation of cacao (kakawa, the “a” at the end is not pronounced). Cacao in Mayan times was used as currency in trade, due to its high value as a “drink of the gods”. Realistically, only the elite had enough cacao to enjoy the beverage, so the common people used it just as currency.

sources:  De Orellana, Margarita, et al. “Chocolate: Cultivation and Culture in Pre-Hispanic Mexico.” Artes De México, no. 103, 2011, pp. 65–80. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/24318969. Accessed 29 Nov. 2020.