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The Investiture Controversy Retold: Pope vs. Emperor

The Investiture Controversy was an event that took place between Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Henry IV over who had the power to appoint church leadership. The controversy took place during a period when the Catholic Church was expanding its scope of power as well as the number of people following the religion. The Cluniac and Gregorian reforms had taken place, fostering this growth of power. The Investiture Controversy was the final step that allowed the church to gain and display its power and took place as follows.

The initial conflict arose when Agnes of Poitou had taken control of the emperor’s position, as her son, Henry IV, was not of age yet. While she controls the position, a pope dies, and a new pope must be selected. Agnes, since she is in control of the thrown believes she has the right to select the new pope. All the while, the Roman Catholic Church does not believe she holds this right as she is not truly an emperor. Both of these parties select their own pope, fostering opposition between the powers.

The church, with the power it had gained from the previous reforms, sought to place Henry, Agnes’ son in control of the thrown. This task saw success and Emperor Henry IV was now in control. Agnes fled the land, becoming a nun. Pope Gregory VII issued a Papal Bull stating that the church was to select its leaders from then on, eliminating secular investments in church leadership. Despite this decree, Henry believed it was his power to select church leaders.

What ensued following this decree was a series of letters between Henry and Gregory in which the two argued over the power. The letters written detail why each ruler believed the other should not have the position that they do and their flaws. The two leaders even result to childish name-calling, which has dramatic effects. In one letter, from Henry to Gregory, Henry calls Gregory Hildebrand, his name before taking the role of Pope, a dramatic insult. Henry even goes as far as calling Gregory a false monk! As childish as the name-calling may seem, when the letters and arguing reached this dramatic point, Gregory excommunicated Henry. 

Following his excommunication, Henry had no following, and could easily be overthrown. As a result, the Investiture Controversy came to a dramatic end at the meeting of Canossa. Agnes of Poitou had organized a meeting between the Pope and Emperor Henry. Gregory saw this meeting as a way to display his and the church’s power for all to see. Henry traveled to the meeting site and upon his arrival was made to beg for Gregory’s forgiveness. This meeting is often dramatically depicted as Henry pleading at the gates to Gregory for acceptance where everyone in the area could see the weakness of the Emperor and the strength of the Papacy. After three consecutive days of pleading, it is told that Pope Gregory forgave Emperor Henry and he was allowed to return to the church. The overall controversy was resolved between the two positions later with the Concordat of Worms. 

The known world was no longer the same following these events. The Papacy had displayed its new power over the land and its highest position. The power of the church allowed it to increase the size of its following and the devotion therein. This increased power also fostered the Church into a new period with increased influence over the land and its inhabitants.

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Letters of Pliny the Younger and the Emperor Trajan: Understanding Persecution

Christianity in Ancient Rome had many factors that appealed to citizens, fostering its growth. It had a community feel that offered stability during a time when the empire was anything but stable. The faith allowed acceptance for anyone, which fostered its growth into areas previously without faith. Christianity’s tenants fostered not only growth but a devotion that was held deeply by its followers. This growth in devotion was seen by the emperors as a threat to their ancient gods and way of life.

When Christianity was first taking its roots within the Roman Empire, it was faced with a large amount of obstacles. The most evident challenge that Christianity faced was government persecution. The most well known and extensive persecution was led by the emperor Diocletian. The Roman government did not specifically persecute Christians because of their faith. The persecution stemmed from the fact that the Christians would no longer serve the Roman gods. This caused great fear and unrest within the empire due to the belief that the gods would punish the land if they were not honored. As Christianity grew in size and devotion, emperors began to grow increasingly afraid of the movement. The following describes a letter sent from Pliny, a governor in the empire, to Trajan, the emperor, asking if his method of trial and punishment was just. 

Pliny writes his letter to Trajan with a great amount of wonder and question over if his manner of trying Christians was correct. It also shows something resembling a sense of mercy in the method he was using. Pliny tells how he gave the citizens three chances to repent and venerate the Roman gods and deny their own. After each questioning, Pliny describes how he would threaten them before asking again. If the citizens did not do so they became martyrs and were sentenced to their death. Those who repented and honored the Roman gods and cursed the Christian God were set free and forgiven.

The method of death was not described in Pliny’s letter but, could have been through beheadings, being thrown to the lions, crucifixion or many others.

In his letter, Pliny asks Trajan if those who are young and who have never offended the law should be punished the same way or if mercy should be shown to them. The governor wonders this because as time has progressed more and more citizens of all creeds had been brought before him for trial. Pliny’s goal of his letter was to seek assurance or, if necessary, advice from the emperor on the methods of persecution being imposed.

Trajan replies to Pliny rather briefly stating that his method had been correct and that he should continue in the manner he had been using. Trajan is utterly short in his reply describing the need for punishment or forgiveness, whichever was necessary.

It seems as if Trajan was merely giving Pliny a thumbs up to continue with his course of action, no matter the severity. 

This letter is significant in that it is a primary source recounting how Christians were persecuted during the Roman Empire. It enables historians to understand persecution. Many of these persecutions, however, had an effect opposite of what was desired, even though Pliny states they were having the desired effect. In some cases, it strengthened Christianity and those who followed it. Eventually, Christianity became accepted as the national religion after the Edict of Milan, Theodosius I’s rule, and the Council of Nicea. Until then, persecutions such as the one described here were utilized throughout the Roman Empire.

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Mesopotamian Religious and World Views

The Mesopotamian culture was based on their devotion and service to their gods. As told in The Battle Between Marduk and Tiamat, the citizens of this ancient land were created only to serve the gods. Service was placed so high within Mesopotamian society that they believed that failure resulted in the gods punishing them with the unpredictable natural disasters that plagued the entire area. This resulted in the negative world view held by Mesopotamians because while they were subject to such hard labor they saw little in return and were randomly plagued by the massive disasters, such as flooding in the vast area.

Not only were the citizens tasked with service to their gods, they believed those that they were serving were unreachable and uncaring. Mesopotamian citizens believed the gods to be the highest of the high throughout the universe, not even kings and emperors could reach this status. As the kings were hard enough to reach and communicate with, the gods were seen as nearly impossible to reach, except through ziggurats, massive structures built to try and reach the gods. As the area was regularly punished through disaster, the citizens believed they had failed the gods, eliminating the possibility of the gods caring for their needs.

The Mesopotamians not only had a negative world view but also a negative view of what came after death. The Mesopotamians did not possess hope for a joyful eternity, but rather one filled with darkness and demons. This lack of a positive afterlife, made the citizens less optimistic as they felt the were working for no reward. Documents from the time period, such as The Epic of Gilgamesh, show how the people did not long for the afterlife. In this tale Gilgamesh searches for the key for immortality, which when lost causes him great distress as he will die and will face the dangerous trip to the afterlife.

Due to Mesopotamians serving their gods, whom were unreachable and uncaring, for their entire lifetime and gaining nothing in return except punishment, they maintained a negative worldview. 

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Ancient Egyptian Religious and World Views

The Ancient Egyptians had nearly a completely opposite religious and world view than that held by the Mesopotamians. The ancient Egyptians maintained a positive world view. They believed themselves to be very prestigious among the known ancient people. The environment in which the Egyptian society was based allowed the citizens to maintain the beliefs that they had. The society was much less harsh than in Mesopotamia, allowing the citizens to believe their gods had blessed them. They were not believed to have been punished by natural disasters, as there were far fewer and most were predictable. They even were protected by their environment. The success of the Egyptian society in their environment, warfare, and societal achievements allowed the citizens to have this positive outlook on life.

The citizens and rulers themselves were still tasked with service to the gods however, they maintained a more positive outlook due to how they viewed their gods. The main driving force behind this was that the citizens believed their gods were approachable and caring. They viewed the pharaohs as gods on earth, illustrating how close they were, not within the hierarchy, but within the world to their gods. They viewed their service more positively than the Mesopotamians, secondly because they believed they were working toward achieving a beautiful afterlife. The rulers and wealthy would even be buried in tombs, such as the Great Pyramids, with immense treasures for this journey, believing they would be able to possess their treasures forever. This hope for the afterlife allowed them to complete their service with a positive outlook and a hope for their gods’ protection in their trip to the after life.

The Declaration of Innocence, from the Egyptian Book of the Dead, made by the Egyptian people highlights many of the key differences seen between the Egyptian and Mesopotamian religions. Within this document, one can sense how the Egyptians yearned for entry into their afterworld. The citizens would plead their innocence to their gods, hoping to be allowed entry into their afterworld. This depicts the Egyptian people has having hope and almost a form of love for what was to come after death. The passage, also highlights another key difference between the societal beliefs. The passage illustrates how the Egyptian gods were reachable as well as understanding, allowing the people to plead their own case after their death.

In contrast to the Mesopotamians, Egyptians could maintain their positive world view and religious beliefs, through their gods caring demeanor, their belief in a positive afterlife, and environmental and social success. Even through the challenges of their lives, they could be hopeful for what was to come.