#redox probes

[everiistence]

does anyone here understand electrochem. i hate electrochem

[besthydrogenwaterbottles]

How to check hydrogen in water?

As someone deeply invested in the benefits of hydrogen water, I understand how crucial it is to ensure that your water contains the right amount of hydrogen. Hydrogen water is known for its potential health benefits, including antioxidant properties and reducing inflammation. However, to reap these benefits, it's essential to test the hydrogen levels in your water regularly. This article aims to provide a comprehensive guide on how to check hydrogen levels in water using various methods.

Methods to Check Hydrogen Levels in Water

Using a Hydrogen Water Meter

A hydrogen water meter is a device specifically designed to measure the concentration of hydrogen in water. These meters are straightforward to use and provide accurate readings.

Step-by-step guide on using a hydrogen water meter:

Turn on the meter: Ensure the device is charged or has fresh batteries.

Prepare the sample: Pour a sample of hydrogen water into a clean container.

Insert the probe: Place the probe of the hydrogen water meter into the water sample.

Read the measurement: Wait for the device to stabilize and display the hydrogen concentration.

Tips for accurate measurement:

Always calibrate the meter before use.

Ensure the probe is clean and free from contaminants.

Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for best results.

ORP Meter Method

An ORP (Oxidation-Reduction Potential) meter is another tool that can be used to infer hydrogen levels in water. While not as direct as a hydrogen meter, it provides useful information about the water's redox state.

How to use an ORP meter to test hydrogen levels:

Turn on the ORP meter: Make sure the device is properly calibrated.

Prepare the sample: Pour a sample of hydrogen water into a clean container.

Insert the probe: Place the probe of the ORP meter into the water sample.

Read the measurement: Wait for the device to stabilize and display the ORP value.

Pros and cons of using ORP meters:

Pros: Easily accessible, provides a general sense of water quality.

Cons: Less accurate for direct hydrogen measurement, requires interpretation.

Chemical Reagents

Chemical reagent tests involve adding specific chemicals to the water that react with hydrogen, producing a color change that indicates hydrogen concentration.

How to perform a chemical reagent test:

Prepare the sample: Pour a sample of hydrogen water into a clean container.

Add reagents: Follow the instructions to add the appropriate amount of reagent to the water.

Observe the reaction: Wait for the color change, which indicates hydrogen levels.

Understanding the results from reagent tests:

Match the color change to a provided chart to determine the hydrogen concentration.

Professional Laboratory Testing

For the most accurate results, consider sending a water sample to a professional laboratory. This method is particularly useful if you need detailed analysis for research or health reasons.

When to consider professional testing:

If precise and highly accurate measurements are required.

For validation of other testing methods.

Process of sending water samples to a lab:

Collect the sample: Use a clean container to collect a water sample.

Follow lab instructions: Ensure the sample is properly sealed and labeled.

Send the sample: Mail or deliver the sample to the laboratory for testing.

Benefits of professional testing for accurate results:

Highly accurate and reliable measurements.

Detailed analysis provided by experts.

Factors Affecting Hydrogen Levels in Water

Storage Conditions

The way you store hydrogen water significantly impacts its hydrogen concentration. Exposure to air, light, and improper containers can lead to rapid loss of hydrogen.

Impact of storage on hydrogen concentration:

Use airtight containers to prevent hydrogen from escaping.

Store in a cool, dark place to maintain hydrogen levels.

Best practices for storing hydrogen-rich water:

Use specialized hydrogen water bottles designed to minimize hydrogen loss.

Avoid plastic containers that can be permeable to gases.

Temperature

Temperature plays a crucial role in maintaining hydrogen levels in water. High temperatures can cause hydrogen to escape more quickly.

How temperature affects hydrogen levels in water:

Store hydrogen water at a cool temperature to slow down hydrogen loss.

Avoid exposing the water to direct sunlight or high heat.

Optimal temperature for storing and testing hydrogen water:

Keep the water at room temperature or cooler.

Test the water when it is at a consistent, moderate temperature.

Tips for Accurate Hydrogen Measurement

Calibration of Testing Devices

Regular calibration of your hydrogen water meter or ORP meter ensures accurate readings.

Importance of calibrating devices:

Calibration maintains the accuracy and reliability of your measurements.

How to calibrate your hydrogen water meter or ORP meter:

Use calibration solution: Follow the manufacturer’s instructions to use the appropriate calibration solution.

Adjust the meter: Make necessary adjustments to align the readings with the calibration standard.

Regular Testing Schedule

Maintaining a regular testing schedule helps ensure your hydrogen water remains at optimal levels.

Recommended frequency for testing hydrogen levels:

Test the water at least once a week or after any significant change in storage conditions.

Creating a testing schedule to maintain water quality:

Set reminders to test your water regularly.

Document the results to track changes over time.

Benefits of Maintaining Optimal Hydrogen Levels

Health Benefits

Hydrogen-rich water offers numerous health benefits, including its antioxidant properties and potential to reduce inflammation.

Detailed explanation of health benefits from hydrogen-rich water:

Scientific studies have shown that hydrogen water can help neutralize harmful free radicals and reduce oxidative stress.

And read more at: Where do you store hydrogen water?

Enhanced Water Quality

Consistent hydrogen levels not only ensure health benefits but also improve the overall quality and taste of the water.

Importance of consistent hydrogen levels for water quality:

Maintaining hydrogen levels enhances the taste and purity of the water.

How maintaining hydrogen levels improves water taste and benefits:

Fresh hydrogen water is more refreshing and effective in delivering its health benefits.

Conclusion

In summary, checking the hydrogen levels in your water is crucial to ensure you are getting the maximum benefits. By using hydrogen water meters, ORP meters, chemical reagents, or professional laboratory testing, you can accurately measure the hydrogen concentration. Regular testing and proper storage practices help maintain optimal hydrogen levels, ensuring you enjoy the full health benefits of hydrogen-rich water.

FAQs

How often should I test the hydrogen levels in my water?

It's recommended to test at least once a week or after any significant change in storage conditions.

Can I use any container to store hydrogen water?

It's best to use airtight, non-plastic containers designed to minimize hydrogen loss.

What is the ideal temperature for storing hydrogen water?

Store hydrogen water at room temperature or cooler to maintain hydrogen levels.

Is professional laboratory testing necessary?

While not always necessary, professional testing provides highly accurate results and is useful for detailed analysis.

Visit more us at: https://about.me/besthydrogenwaterbottles

[chetanagp]

A pseudocapacitor is a two terminal faradic electromechanical storage capacitor. It is used to store electrical energy using faradic reactions by electron charge transfer between electrolyte and electrode. The faradic reaction includes intercalation processes, redox reactions and electrosorption. It is the combination of properties of batteries and capacitors into one component.

[amalgamgooze]

mecha-creative inspiration

When doodling, composing melodies, or writing, I find that it's not too difficult to get inspired if I've hit a small block. For doodles, I just scribble random shapes and make something new. In music, I fool around with notes in a scale until I find something I like. All it takes to get a new idea for my writing endeavors is a snack or a walk.

When it comes to what I should do with all the electronic components I have, however, I find myself often stuck and lacking an idea of what I want to make next.

I'm fortunate enough to have an Elegoo MEGA2560 microcontroller board that I got about seven years ago for a birthday, but to this day, no grand projects have been built with it.

I feel the issue is that it feels like projects I find are either too simple (such as make an LED blink), or too complicated (such as setting up and designing a pinball machine or toy sentry gun). For the seven years I've had this board, I've done very little with it, mostly because I was too young to understand what I was actually holding.

But now that I've had more experience with microcontroller boards, I've found myself wanting to make something with it again.

Unfortunately, I've had no idea what that thing was going to be.

I don't mean to brag, but recently, me and a friend won first place at a science-oriented competition for a redox probe we'd built using another microcontroller.

We struggled with gathering the necessary resources, but by god, when the probe was finally assembled and we'd hooked it up to the board, it was glorious. Never before had I been so proud of something I'd created.

I also threw together a robot for a different event at the same competition, which, despite running into walls thanks to its inability to move straight, still placed fourth overall at the competition. That, too, was amazing.

So now I've got a need to make more bullshit.

Unfortunately, without a competition to guide me, I'm lacking a direction for my builds.

That was until earlier today.

A different friend had expressed their awe with the crap that I'd built, and the conversation naturally led to ideas of what I should build next. They proposed that I should make a tuner, which isn't a terrible idea.

So I think I'll be building some form of a tuner soon.

I've now got more ideas for other projects too, such as a joystick-controlled instrument and other electronic instruments.

Here's hoping I follow through with this project!

[rnomics]

Biosensors, Vol. 13, Pages 662: A Ratiometric Fluorescent Probe for Hypochlorite and Lipid Droplets to Monitor Oxidative Stress

Mitochondria are valuable subcellular organelles and play crucial roles in redox signaling in living cells. Substantial evidence proved that mitochondria are one of the critical sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and overproduction of ROS accompanies redox imbalance and cell immunity. Among ROS, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is the foremost redox regulator, which reacts with chloride ions in the presence of myeloperoxidase (MPO) to generate another biogenic redox molecule, hypochlorous acid (HOCl). These highly reactive ROS are the primary cause of damage to DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), #RNA (ribonucleic acid), and proteins, leading to various neuronal diseases and cell death. Cellular damage, related cell death, and oxidative stress are also associated with lysosomes which act as recycling units in the cytoplasm. Hence, simultaneous monitoring of multiple organelles using simple molecular probes is an exciting area of research that is yet to be explored. Significant evidence also suggests that oxidative stress induces the accumulation of lipid droplets in cells. Hence, monitoring redox biomolecules in mitochondria and lipid droplets in cells may give a new insight into cell damage, leading to cell death and related disease progressions. Herein, we developed simple hemicyanine-based small molecular probes with a boronic acid trigger. A fluorescent probe AB that could efficiently detect mitochondrial ROS, especially HOCl, and viscosity simultaneously. When the AB probe released phenylboronic acid after reacting with ROS, the product AB–OH exhibited ratiometric emissions depending on excitation. This AB–OH nicely translocates to lysosomes and efficiently monitors the lysosomal lipid droplets. Photoluminescence and confocal fluorescence imaging analysis suggest that AB and corresponding AB–OH molecules are potential chemical probes for studying oxidative stress. https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6374/13/6/662?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=tumblr

[myfeeds]

Scientists discover a way Earths atmosphere cleans itself

How OH itself forms in the atmosphere was viewed as a complete story, but in new research published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, a research team that includes Sergey Nizkorodov, a University of California, Irvine professor of chemistry, report that a strong electric field that exists at the surface between airborne water droplets and the surrounding air can create OH by a previously unknown mechanism. It’s a finding that stands to reshape how scientists understand how the air clears itself of things like human-emitted pollutants and greenhouse gases, which OH can react with and eliminate. “You need OH to oxidize hydrocarbons, otherwise they would build up in the atmosphere indefinitely,” said Nizkorodov. “OH is a key player in the story of atmospheric chemistry. It initiates the reactions that break down airborne pollutants and helps to remove noxious chemicals such as sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide, which are poisonous gases, from the atmosphere,” said Christian George, an atmospheric chemist at the University of Lyon in France and lead author of the new study. “Thus, having a full understanding of its sources and sinks is key to understanding and mitigating air pollution.” Before, researchers assumed that sunlight was the chief driver of OH formation. “The conventional wisdom is that you have to make OH by photochemistry or redox chemistry. You have to have sunlight or metals acting as catalysts,” Nizkorodov said. “What this paper says in essence is you don’t need any of this. In the pure water itself, OH can be created spontaneously by the special conditions on the surface of the droplets.” The team built on research from Stanford University scientists led by Richard Zare that reported spontaneous formation of hydrogen peroxide on the surfaces of water droplets. The new findings help interpret the unexpected results from the Zare group. The team measured OH concentrations in different vials — some containing an air-water surface and others containing only water without any air — and tracked OH production in darkness by including a “probe” molecule in the vials that fluoresces when it reacts with OH. What they saw is that OH production rates in darkness mirror those and even exceed rates from drivers like sunlight exposure. “Enough of OH will be created to compete with other known OH sources,” said Nizkorodov. “At night, when there is no photochemistry, OH is still produced and it is produced at a higher rate than would otherwise happen.” The findings, Nizkorodov reported, alter understanding of the sources of OH, something that will change how other researchers build computer models that attempt to forecast how air pollution happens. “It could change air pollution models quite significantly,” Nizkorodov said. “OH is an important oxidant inside water droplets and the main assumption in the models is that OH comes from the air, it’s not produced in the droplet directly.” To determine whether this new OH production mechanism plays a role, Nizkorodov thinks the next step is to perform carefully designed experiments in the real atmosphere in different parts of the world. But first, the team expects the results to make a splash in the atmospheric research community. “A lot of people will read this but will not initially believe it and will either try to reproduce it or try to do experiments to prove it wrong,” said Nizkorodov. “There will be many lab experiments following up on this for sure.” He added that UCI is a prime place for such science to continue happening, because other labs at UCI, like that of Ann Marie Carlton, professor of chemistry, focus their efforts on the role water droplets play in the atmosphere. This project, which was funded by the European Research Council, involved researchers from France’s University Claude Bernard, China’s Guangdong University of Technology, and Israel’s Weizmann Institute.

[indoorverticalfarmingnews]

Redox Bio-Nutrients Partner With ChrysaLabs To Improve Growers' Work in Soil Testing

Redox Bio-Nutrients, a company specializing in soil health, has announced a partnership with ChrysaLabs, a cutting-edge technology company. The collaboration aims to revolutionize soil analysis using a portable AI-based soil health probe. This technology is expected to provide widespread benefits for growers and increase sustainability in agriculture. ChrysaLabs’ soil health probe measures 37…

[hylianengineer]

Microsensors my behated. Especially you, redox reference electrode.

[sheerfreesia007]

Webhead Chronicles # 5

Title: Webhead Chronicles # 5

Fandom: The Amazing Spiderman

Pairing: Peter Parker x OFC!

Author: @sheerfreesia007​

Words: 1,418

Warnings: Fluff

Permanent Tag List: @paintballkid711, @fioccodineveautunnale, @phoenixhalliwell, @linkpk88, @weirdowithnobeardo, @athalien

Author Notes: I really love close friendships that turn into romantic relationships. Also the whole you act like an old married couple already trope is my favorite.

Gif Credit: @amypondes

“Ugh! I need a break. Let’s stop here and come back after we eat something. Do you want to order something? There’s a really good Chinese food place not far from here and they’re really fast with delivery.” Gwen asked as she flung her head back and sat up from her bed rubbing the back of her neck. Ev looked over from her curdled up spot on Gwen’s plush armchair, the two of them were studying for their weekly test in Chemistry. Ev nodded her head quickly in relief as she let her head fall back onto the armrest and shut her eyes.

“Yes please! I think my eyeballs are going to fall out of my head if I have to read anything else about redox reactions.” Ev grumbled out as she groaned softly while tilting her head from side to side to stretch out her muscles.

“Me too! But you’re doing much better with this week’s material than you did last week.” Gwen said supportively as she stood from the bed and began stretching her arms and legs. Ev stood too from her spot and began stretching to work out her muscles as she smiled softly.

“Pete has been helping me a little here and there ever since he found out we study together for Chemistry.” Ev said fondly and Gwen looked over at her with a wide teasing grin on her face.

“Oh so Pete’s been helping huh?” Gwen asked knowingly and Ev blushed softly knowing that Gwen was going to tease her about her and Peter’s relationship. “Let’s order first and then we’ll talk.” Gwen said decisively as she picked up her cordless phone and dialed the number for the Chinese food place.

*-*-*-*

Once dinner was delivered and Gwen had grabbed drinks for the two of them they both sat in the pair of plush armchairs to sit and talk. Just as Ev was getting comfy her phone trilled with a familiar tone and she smiled as she pulled the cellphone out of her pocket, Peter had texted her.

“Is that him?” Gwen asked knowingly as she peered over to look at Ev’s phone. Ev chuckled softly as she nodded her head while opening the text. How’s studying going? Did our little study sessions help? Ev smiled as she looked over at Gwen and then instantly shrunk back when she saw the knowing probing look in Gwen’s eyes. She showed the text to Gwen who smiled warmly at the text.

“Aww that’s sweet of him.” she said kindly as she began eating her dinner. Ev quickly typed up a response to Peter and sent it off before turning back to Gwen who was watching with curious eyes. “So when are you two going to make it official?” Gwen asked as she shimmied her shoulders suggestively making Ev choke on her bite of food.

“What?” Ev asked after she took a sip from her water bottle. She coughed gently and began to eat another bite of her dinner before looking over at Gwen.

“When are you two going to make it official. Everyone already thinks you two are dating-” Gwen began to explain when Ev cut her off.

“Who thinks we’re dating? We’re not dating. I mean Pete’s never said anything to me. Why would everyone think we’re dating?” Ev rambled firing off the questions at Gwen in rapid succession. Gwen held up a hand and Ev calmed herself down before settling back in the armchair.

“Okay, so everyone at school has like this secret rule that you and Peter are dating. I mean everyone can see it except for you two. You two are always with each other, spend almost all of your time together. You’re both always checking up on each other and bailing each other out with any trouble you get into.” she explained. “I mean you both act like you’re each other’s boyfriend and girlfriend, I just don’t think you see it.”

“But we’re best friends. That’s how best friends act.” Ev said bewildered.

“Ev, best friends don’t hang all over each other or always need to touch each other.” Gwen said softly. “Do you have feelings for Peter?” she asked gently and Ev looked at her with wide eyes. Her heart began to race in her chest as she stared at Gwen wondering if she should confess her feelings for Peter.

Ev had known since about the age of twelve that she was in love with Peter. Having grown up with her Mom always yelling and screaming at her whenever she would get drunk she had a clear picture of what she didn’t want her future to be like. And with being so close to Peter growing up she had been given a view of what a loving future could be like whenever she saw Aunt May and Uncle Ben together. It was something that Ev craved for her own life, that close bond with her significant other. And at twelve years old she had thought just maybe she could have something like with Peter. But as the years moved onwards she would second guess herself and keep her feelings to herself worried that Peter didn’t feel the same way.

“I-I don’t think he sees me that way at all.” Ev confessed softly and Gwen looked at her with a shrewd look on her face.

“Seriously? That boy can’t go more than a few hours without needing to touch you. You truly think he doesn’t have feelings for you?” Gwen asked in disbelief.

“But that doesn’t mean that he likes me as more than a friend. Maybe it’s just a comfort thing. I mean I showed up on Aunt May’s doorstep the next day barging in and introducing myself to him. We’ve grown up together. Maybe he only sees me as a sister and is just used to always being around me.” Ev began to ramble and Gwen cleared her throat to try and stop her from going off on a tangent.

“Ev do you like Peter as more than a friend?” Gwen asked gently and Ev looked at her with worry written all over her face. “You do don’t you?” Gwen prodded and Ev nodded her head at her.

“I’ve been in love with him since we were twelve.” Ev said softly as she moved her rice and chicken around in the container.

“Since you were twelve?” Gwen asked shocked. Ev nodded her head and sighed loudly realizing that she would have to explain it to Gwen.

“His Aunt and Uncle are wonderful people, the best I know. And growing up around them they showed me what a loving relationship could be. It’s something I’ve always wanted and I’ve always thought that I could possibly have that with Peter.” Ev confessed quietly and Gwen nodded her head at her words.

“That’s really sweet. Now we just have to get the two of you to see that you already have that, you just don’t realize it.” Gwen said as she began to think of ways.

“You can’t tell him though Gwen.” Ev said hurriedly and Gwen looked at her like she had two heads.

“First of all I wouldn’t ever tell Peter something like that. Second of all you should be the one telling him that.” Gwen responded, almost sounding offended. Ev hung her head and then rolled it to the side looking at her friend.

“I know I should tell him but I really don’t think he sees me as anything other than his best friend.” Ev said softly. “And I’ve kinda gotten used to just being his friend. I’d rather have him in my life as a friend than not have him in my life because he doesn’t feel the same way and it’s awkward.”

“Well I can’t push you to confess to him but I don’t think you have anything to be worried about.” Gwen said and the two of them resumed eating their dinner. Ev stayed relatively quiet for the rest of the evening as she thought about what Gwen had said. Did everyone truly think that her and Peter were together? Did they really act like they were together? Ev tried to wrack her brain to see if they did act in that way and while she could see when Peter would cuddle up to her when they hung out but no one saw him like that. Shaking her head she promised herself to be mindful of it and see if what everyone thought was true.

[kreuzaderny]

Venus’ Mass Spectra Show Signs of Disequilibria in the Middle Clouds

We present a re‐examination of mass spectral data obtained from the Pioneer Venus Large Probe Neutral Mass Spectrometer. Our interpretations of differing trace chemical species are suggestive of redox disequilibria in Venus’ middle clouds. Assignments to the data (at 51.3 km) include phosphine, hydrogen sulfide, nitrous acid, nitric acid, carbon monoxide, hydrochloric acid, hydrogen cyanide, ethane, and potentially ammonia, chlorous acid, and several tentative PxOy species. All parent ions were predicated upon assignment of corresponding fragmentation products, isotopologues, and atomic species. The data reveal parent ions at varying oxidation states, implying the presence of reducing power in the clouds, and illuminating the potential for chemistries yet to be discovered. When considering the hypothetical habitability of Venus’ clouds, the assignments reveal a potential signature of anaerobic phosphorus metabolism (phosphine), an electron donor for anoxygenic photosynthesis (nitrite), and major constituents of the nitrogen cycle (nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, and N2).

[bitrust]

Api reverb lp csv

#Api reverb lp csv serial

In the core TTFL, transcription factors CLOCK and ARNTL (also known as BMAL1) stimulate transcription of three Period ( Per) and two Cryptochrome ( Cry) genes. Misalignment of human clocks with each other and the environment is believed to be a major contributor to obesity and related pathologies associated with shift work 4, 5.Īt the molecular level, circadian clocks are formed from a set of inter-locking transcriptional translational feedback loops (TTFLs). Circadian disruption causes abnormal metabolic physiology 3. This system is comprised of a central ‘master’ clock in the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nuclei and an integrated network of circadian clocks present in all major tissues within the body 2. Many aspects of mammalian metabolism exhibit daily variation driven in part by an endogenous circadian timing system 1. In summary, in vivo circadian rhythms exist in multiple adipose metabolic pathways, including those involved in lipid metabolism, and core aspects of cellular biochemistry. In silico pathway analysis further indicated circadian regulation of lipid and nucleic acid metabolism it also predicted circadian variation in key metabolic pathways such as the citric acid cycle and branched chain amino acid degradation. Morning-peaking transcripts associated with regulation of gene expression, nitrogen compound metabolism, and nucleic acid biology evening-peaking transcripts associated with organic acid metabolism, cofactor metabolism and redox activity. There was only partial overlap of our rhythmic transcripts with published animal adipose and human blood transcriptome data. We identified 837 transcripts exhibiting circadian expression profiles (2% of 41619 transcript targeting probes on the array), with clear separation of transcripts peaking in the morning (258 probes) and evening (579 probes). Five biopsies per participant were taken at six-hourly intervals for microarray analysis and in silico integrative metabolic modelling. Subcutaneous adipose tissue was taken from seven healthy males under highly controlled ‘constant routine’ conditions. Here we reveal circadian rhythms in the transcriptome and metabolic pathways of human white adipose tissue.

#Api reverb lp csv serial

Studying circadian rhythms in most human tissues is hampered by difficulty in collecting serial samples. Subcutaneous adipose tissue was taken from seven healthy males under highly controlled 'constant routine' conditions.

[rnomics]

Biosensors, Vol. 13, Pages 661: Label-Free Electrochemical Aptasensor Based on the Vertically-Aligned Mesoporous Silica Films for Determination of Aflatoxin B1

Herein we report a highly specific electrochemical aptasenseor for AFB1 determination based on AFB1-controlled diffusion of redox probe (Ru(NH3)63+) through nanochannels of AFB1-specific #aptamer functionalized VMSF. A high density of silanol groups on the inner surface confers VMSF with cationic permselectivity, enabling electrostatic preconcentration of Ru(NH3)63+ and producing amplified electrochemical signals. Upon the addition of AFB1, the specific interaction between the #aptamer and AFB1 occurs and generates steric hindrance effect on the access of Ru(NH3)63+, finally resulting in the reduced electrochemical responses and allowing the quantitative determination of AFB1. The proposed electrochemical aptasensor shows excellent detection performance in the range of 3 pg/mL to 3 μg/mL with a low detection limit of 2.3 pg/mL for AFB1 detection. Practical analysis of AFB1 in peanut and corn samples is also accomplished with satisfactory results by our fabricated electrochemical aptasensor. https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6374/13/6/661?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=tumblr

[wizofe-blog]

Redox 0x01

Introductory session

…and here we go! All excited. A first calendar entry to describe my attempt on ARM64 support in Redox OS. Specifically, looking into the Raspberry Pi2/3(B)/3+ (all of them having a Cortex-A53 ARMv8 64-bit microprocessor, although for all my experiments I am going to use the Raspberry Pi 3(B)).

Yesterday, I had my first meeting in Cambridge with @microcolonel! Very very inspiring, got many ideas and motivation. He reminded me that the first and most important thing I fell in love with Open Source is its people :)

Discussion Points

Everything started with a personal introduction, background and motivation reasons that we both participate in this project. It’s very important to note that we don’t want it to be a one-off thing but definitely the start of a longer support and experimentation with OS support and ARM.

Redox boot flow on AArch64

Some of the points discussed:

* boot * debug * MMU setup * TLS * syscalls `</pre> The current work by @microcolonel, is happening on the realms of `qemu-system-aarch64` platform. But what should I need to put my attention, when porting to the Rpi3? Here are some importants bits: <pre>`[ ] Typical AArch64 exception level transitions post reset: EL3 -> EL2 -> EL1 [x] Setting up a buildable u-boot (preferably the u-boot mainline) for RPi3 [ ] Setting up a BOOTP/TFTP server on the same subnet as the RPi3 [ ] Packaging the redox kernel binary as a (fake) Linux binary using u-boot's mkimage tool [ ] Obtaining an FDT blob for the RPi3 (Linux's DTB can be used for this). In hindsight, u-boot might be able to provide this too (u-boot's own generated ) [ ] Serving the packaged redox kernel binary as well as the FDT blob to u-boot via BOOT/TFTP [x] Statically expressing a suitable PL011 UART's physical base address within Redox as an initial debug console `</pre> Note: I’ve already completed (as shown) two important steps, which I am going to describe on my next blog post (to keep you excited ;-) **Challenges with recursive paging for AArch64** @microcolonel is very fond of recursive paging. He seems to succesfully to make it work on qemu and it seems that it may be possible in sillicon as well. This is for 48-bit Virtual Addresses with 4 levels of translation. As AArch64 has separate descriptors for page tables and pages which means that in order for recursive paging to work there must not be any disjoint bitfields in the two descriptor types. This is the case today but it is not clear if this will remain in the future. The problem is that if recursive paging doesn’t work on the physical implementation that may time much longer than expected to port for the RPi3. Another point, is that as opposed to x86_64, AArch6 has a separate translation scheme for user-space and kernel space. So while x86_64 has a single cr3 register containing the base address of the trnslation tables, AArch64 has two registers, ttbr_el0 for user-space and ttbr_el1 for the kernel. In this realm, there has been @microcolonel’s work to extend the paging schemes in Redox to cope with this. **TLS, Syscalls and Device Drivers** The Redox kernel’s reliance on Rust’s #[thread_local] attribute results in llvm generating references to the tpidr_el0 register. On AArch64 tpidr_el0 is supposed to contain the user-space TLS region’s base address. This is separate from tpidr_el1 which is supposted to contain the kernel-space TLS region’s base address. To fix this, @microcolonel has modified llvm such that the use of a ‘kernel’ code-model and an aarch64-unknown-redox target results in the emission og tpidr_el1. TLS support is underway at present. **Device drivers and FDT** For the device driver operation using fdt it’s very important to note the following: <pre>`* It will be important to create a registry of all the device drivers present * All device drivers will need to implement a trait that requires publishing of a device-tree compatible string property * As such, init code can then match the compatible string with the tree of nodes in the device tree in order to match drivers to their respective data elements in the tree `</pre> ** ** **Availability of @microcolonel’s code base** As he still expects his employer’s open source contribution approval there are still many steps to be done to port Redox OS. The structure of the code to be published was also discussed. At present @microcolonel’s work is a set of patches to the following repositories: <pre>`* Top level redox checkout (build glue etc) * Redox kernel submodule (core AArch64 support) * Redox syscall's submodule (AArch64 syscall support) * Redox's rust submodule (TLS support, redox toolchain triplet support) `</pre> Possible ways to manage the publishing of this code were also discussed. One way is to create AArch64 branches for all of the above and push them out to the redox github. This is TBD with **@jackpot51**. **Feature parity with x86_64** It’s very important to stay aligned with the current x86_64 port and for that reason the following work is important to be underways: <pre>`* Syscall implementation * Context switch support * kmain -> init invocation * Filesystem with apps * Framebuffer driver * Multi-core support * (...) (to be filled with a whole list of the current x86_64 features) `</pre> _Attaining feature parity would be the first concrete milestone for the AArch64 port as a whole._ **My next steps** As a result of the discussion and mentoring, the following steps were decided for the future: <pre>`[x] Get to a point where u-boot can be built from source and installed on the RPi3 [x] Figure out the UART base and verify that the UART's data register can be written to from the u-boot CLI (which should provoke an immediate appearance of characters on the CLI) [ ] Setup a flow using BOOTP/DHCP and u-boot that allows Redox kernels and DTBs to be sent to u-boot over ethernet [ ] Once microcolonel's code has been published, start by hacking in the UART base address and a DTB blob [ ] Aim to reach kstart with println output up and running. `</pre> **Next steps for @microcolonel** <pre>`[ ] Complete TLS support [ ] Get Board and CPU identification + display going via DTB probes [ ] Verify kstart entry on silicon. microcolonel means to use the Lemaker Hikey620 Linaro 96Board for this. It's a Cortex-A53 based board just like the RPi3. The idea is to quickly check if recursive paging on silicon is OK. This can make wizofe's like a lot rosier. :) [ ] Make the UART base address retrieval dynamic via DTB (as opposed to the static fixed address used at present which isn't portable) [ ] Get init invocation from kmain going [ ] Implement necessary device driver identification traits and registry [ ] Implement GIC and timer drivers (Red Flag for RPi3 here, as it has no implementation of GIC but rather a closed propietary approach) [ ] Focus on user-land bring-up `</pre> **Future work** If we could pick up the most important plan for the future of Redox that would be a roadmap! Some of the critical items that should be discussed: <pre>`* Suitable tests and Continuous integration (perhaps with Jenkins) * A pathway to run Linux applications under Redox. FreeBSD's linuxulator (system call translator) would be one way to do this. This would make complex applications such as firefox etc usable until native solutions become available in the longer term. * Self hosted development. Having redox bootable on a couple of popular laptops with a focus on featurefulness will go a great way in terms of perception. System76 dual boot with Pop_OS! ? ;) * A strategy to support hardware assisted virtualization.

Thanks

Thanks for reading! Hope to see you next time here. For any questions feel free to email me: code -@- wizofe dot uk. Many many insights are taken from @microcolonel’s very detailed summary; The following part of the blog is my own experimentation and exploration on the discussed matters!

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Practical Approach for Elements within Incorporated Charged Zinc Particles in an Anode Zinc Reactor of a Fabricated Zinc Bromine Battery Cell System (ZnBr2) with Fitting Materials

Abstract

Batteries with different chemistries and designs encounters various (redox reactions) to store energy through applying charges and discharges rates. Redox flow batteries systems such as zinc bromine batteries cells systems (ZnBr2) can be enclosed with high surface area anode electrodes (reactors) and charged with some amount of added carbon particles for zinc deposition. The electrochemical reactions within a fabricated ZnBr2 battery cell system have been investigated with the coupled inlets and outlet brass fitting materials (15mm and 30mm) of different anode and cathode electrolyte compositions. SEM analysis was explored on some charged particles collected from the anode reactor to identify all the existing elements within the deposited charged zinc particles after several charges. The investigated zinc particles were between 254 microns to 354 microns. The electrolyte composition includes 3 moles of KBr (535.51 grams), 1 mole of KCl (111.89 grams) as the cathode side electrolyte and 3 moles of ZnBr2 (675 grams), 1 mole of ZnCl2 (205 grams), and 1M of KCl (111.826 grams) as the anode electrolyte solution. Originally, this journal paper has discovered the importance of coupling chemically resistance materials to ZnBr2 cells as investigated on the fabricated ZnBr2 cell that was initially converted to a CuZn2 battery cell system and reverted to the ideal ZnBr2 cell system before using an SEM technique to identify separately the present elements.

Keywords: SEM Analysis on Elements; Flow Rate; Reverting Battery Cell System

    Introduction

As previously presented in a journal titled (Practical Development of a ZnBr2 Flow Battery with a Fluidized Bed Anode Zinc-Electrode), Journal of the Electrochemical Society, Volume 167, Number 5, various categories of anode reactors designed in solidwork were numerically examined before choosing the best candidate reactor and later passed different coulombs of charges and discharges to the fabricated ZnBr2 battery cell after the incorporated chosen reactor to the cell anode side and later explored the presented SEM analysis carried out in this paper on some particles collected from the anode reactor [1].

The fluent version in Ansys has assisted to successfully modelled a fluidized bed to address problems facing zinc-bromine battery cells systems. Such as dendrites problems within the cell; puncturing membranes of these cells systems and thereby resulting to cut off voltages, short circuits that also reduces their life span. Introducing and modelling a fluidized bed zinc electrode has demonstrated fast deposition of zinc ions within the battery system zinc electrode and serve as an incorporated alternative electrode to prevent depositing zinc ions onto a solid electrode previously making ZnBr2 cells to encounter mechanical abrasion and deteriorating the electrodes as zinc ions stays longer on them than the expected time [1-3]. See the presented schematic diagram in Figure 1.

    Introduction to SEM and Fluidized Bed Reactors

SEM (scanning electrons microscopy) and fluidized bed zinc anode reactors has several benefits. Some of these benefits include using SEM to examine electrode sample homogeneity and fluidized bed reactors for multiphase mixing purposes etc. Elements present within injected particles to zinc bromine batteries cells systems; anode zinc electrode can be examined using SEM analysis. Redox flow batteries cells systems (RFB’s) such as zinc bromine batteries cells systems enclosed with high surface area zinc electrodes are capable to prevent the issue of dendrite formation within these batteries cells systems.

By means of SEM, scanning of electrons microscopy, samples images sample can be produced through focusing on the beam of electrons [4]. Anode zinc reactors of ZnBr2 batteries cells systems are usually in liquid and solid phases. Both the two phases, liquid and solid are common in petrochemical industries, biological industries in chemical industries and particularity for adsorption, cracking (catalytic), crystallization and for ion exchange [5] etc. Particles sizes and shapes within anode reactors has huge impact to achieve fluidization and prevent dendrite formation in ZnBr2 cells. However, majority of these fluidized beds are not always designed properly before fabrication and to tailoring them to the mean particle size; especially for those in use for particle size distributions [6-18].

Particles behaviour are now usually modelled using the DEM technique, (discrete element method). DEM approaches are used to represent particles numerically and individually by identifying them with their specific properties (shapes, magnitude, properties of their material and the original velocity) [19-21]. The geometry interior shape accommodating all the injected particles are the domain for the simulation. Designed reactors can be separated by grids to identify the positions of particles prior to modelling and simulating.

Based on Newton’s laws, injected particles in reactors are subjected to have good contacts and can be exposed to a small motion during the iteration process [22-24]. Contacts among injected particles in a ZnBr2 anode reactor can be monitored throughout discrete reactions, modelling stages and to determine the particles contact forces ad magnitude through a spring dashpot model. The acceleration of drag forces on fluid and particles, total forces and summation can be computationally balanced before determining individually the parameters and particles motion [25].

Particles properties, such as structure can differently be observed using SEM, scanning of electrons microscopy and their sample compositions, and any interacted atoms within the provided sample [26,27]. In most application, over the surface of samples, data collections are possible within the selected area and spatially displayed variances in their properties. Areas in between 1 cm to 5 microns can be imaged using such technique and within a spatial resolution of 50 to 100nm through using conventional scanning electrons microscopy method [28-31].

Suitable qualitative approaches, semi-quantitative, structural crystal or using EBSD to observe the orientation of the crystal and selecting point on samples are possible on SEM to determine chemically various compositions by means of an energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) [29,32]. Typically, scanning electron microscopy, as probes electrons micro-analyzer, EPMA, has considerably several existing designed functions of overlapped capabilities among other analytical instruments.

Backscattered electrons can be standardly collected using an SEM and electrons sources are the basic part of SEM. Through SEM analysis, electron’s properties, electrodes dispersion and their homogeneity can also be observed [33,34]. The sources of electrons, high voltages encountered across them, electrons accelerating toward the samples, electromagnetic lenses, temperatures, detectors, and data systems collections are diffractions of samples usually at high incidence angles [35-40]. Within a user interface, SEM does not rely on a 2θ angle, rather to act marginally and similarly to a light microscope [41]. Some SEMs are equipped to count samples, detect, and analyze off a scattered x-ray. Through such type of detectors, the elemental composition of a sample can possibly be determined [42-44]. Table 1 has further presented other advantages and disadvantages of scanning electrons microscopy, SEM.

    Materials and Suppliers

Materials and Method

SEM Preparation

By exploring scanning of electrons microscopy (SEM) on some of the collected charged particles from the anode zinc reactor was to discover all the enclosed various elements after charging and discharging the zinc bromine battery cell at different charge rates. Before exploring SEM analyses on the charged deposited zinc morphology collected from the anode reactor were dried in an oven at a temperature of 50°C to prevent these particles from agglomerating together.

The investigated particles sizes were in between (254 microns to 354 microns). Some of these particles from the anode-side zinc electrode after charging the cell were viewed at different microns (100 microns, 50 microns, 10 microns and 5 microns) by using the JEOL JSM-6010 PLUS/LA (SEM) scanning electron microscope machine.

The SEM characterization of the zinc electrodeposits were examined after charging the cell at a charge rate of 0.27 amps and 0.3 amps. The anode-electrolyte composition includes 3 moles of ZnBr2 (675 grams) Solution, 1 mole of ZnCl2 (205 grams), and 1 mole of KCl (111.826 grams). The cathode electrolyte solution includes 3 moles of KBr (535 grams) and 1 mole of KCl (111.897 grams). The anode electrolyte solution density was 1.47g cm-3 which was used to gauge the cathode-electrolyte. A flow rate of (166.7cm3/ min) was maintained throughout the experiment. The used JSM-6010LA/JSM-6010LV equipment for the scanning process was a compact mobile SEMs device with high performance and suitable for research use (Figure 2). The surface structures are observed by secondary electrons, the distribution of materials in a specimen was observed by backscattering the electrons and analysing the elements by EDS (energy dispersive X-ray analyser). All the necessary functions are available in the all-in-one mobile multi-touch-panel SEM [45-49].

    Results Analysis and Discussion

Examined Particles

Particles collected from the anode zinc reactor in the lab for SEM analysis (scanning of electrons image) occupied some white edges after the charge and discharge experiments according to the colour mapping. (Figures 3a-3c) for the decoupled anode and cathode cell reactor, the anode zinc reactor incorporating charged zinc particles, the collected and prepared charged electrodeposited zinc morphology enclosed within the small glass coin beaker for SEM analysis. Encountered degasification, the removal of dissolved gases from the anode and cathode electrolyte solution was due to the solid and liquid interfaces enclosing some formed bubbles during the experimental work. The observed degasification was concluded to have originated from particles that were not properly dried before removing them from the oven and before the SEM process. Particles not properly dried before the SEM analysis were expected to have strangely behaved and changed the zinc morphology (shape and structure) due to the observed gasification.

The dried and examined zinc morphologies presented in Figures 4-6 were studied using the scanning of electron microscopy, SEM characterization to observe elements enclosed within these particles after the redox reaction (charged and discharged) to store and discharge the stored energy by the fabricated zinc bromine battery cell and after observing copper deposits at the cathode-side electrolyte due to the brass fittings that were not chemically resistance that initially changed the battery to a copper-zinc RFB cell before it was reverted back to a zinc-bromine battery cell by changing some of the materials. See the two graphical peak plots in Figure 7a & 7b for the identified copper showing the presence of copper at a wavelength of 740nm and at a wavelength of 900nm with a UV-visible spectrophotometer device (Table 2).

As presented in Tables 3-5, the images of the mapped elements during the SEI, scanning of electrons images showed no hydrogen traces subsequently after charging the ZnBr2 battery cell at various charged and discharged amperes.

Zinc deposited within the anode reactor via SEM were viewed using different microns. Picture 1, observed as 100 microns has a sedimentary rock shape, photo 3, viewed in 10 microns has high mossy deposits that look like zinc clusters. Picture 2 of 50 microns resemble silt sand that was sticky together, and photo 4, was observed in 5 microns. Particles collected after discharging the stored energy by the battery cell were like the charged particles examined via SEM. Furthermore, the carbon fibre feeder electrode materials also contributed to the low current in between (-300 mA to 300 mA) that was observed continuously when the fabricated battery cell was charged and throughout its mode of operation. In the past, a similar magnificently SEM results have been achieved despite using the appropriate working electrodes materials, primary and secondary supporting electrolyte which also enhanced a good electrochemical behaviour [50].

Charged and Dried Particles

Discharged and Dried Particles

Cu Electrodeposition at Charge and Discharge

UV-Visible Spectrometer Device and Peak Plots

As presented in Figure 8, a UV-Vis spectroscopy laboratory device is a simple, quick, and not expensive measurable technique for measuring the amount of light absorbs by a chemical substance. See also Figure 7a-7c and Figure 9 for other results. The process can be carried out by gaging the light intensity passing through a sample in relation to the light intensity through a blank reference or sample. Multiple techniques can measure types of multiple samples, either in thin film, glass, liquids, or solids. UV-Vis Spectroscopy as a measuring device is suitable to know the transmitting, absorption and the functioning reflection of a material wavelength in the range of 190 nanometers to 1,100 manometers [51,52].

With a UV-Vis spectroscopy device, it was possible the observed brown deposits within the cathode electrolyte solution as copper by collecting some of this electrolyte solution in a small glass bottle after passing these charges to the cell: (1) 0.1 amps and -0.1 amps for 3600 secs and 800 secs (2) At 0.1 amps and -0.1 amps for 3500 secs and 200 secs and (3) At 0.25 amps for 3600 secs and -0.25 amps for 100 secs with 3 moles of KBr (535.51 grams), 1 mole of KCl (111.89 grams) as the cathode-side electrolyte solution and 3 moles of ZnBr2 (675 grams), 1M of ZnCl2 (205 grams), and 1 mole of KCl (111.826 grams) as the anode electrolyte solution [53,54].

The cathode electrolyte solution contains 3 moles of KBr (535.51g), 1 mole of KCl (111.89g). The anode electrolyte solution contains 3 moles of ZnBr2, 1 mole of KCl and 1 mole of ZnCl2. Both electrolytes solution contained 24.1g of Sodium Bromoacetate acid and Bromoacetic acid and 240g of MEM-Sequestering agent.

    Conclusion and Future Work

The fabricated ZnBr2 cell chemically converted to a CuZn2battery cell due to the non-chemically fitted brass materials coupled to the fabricated battery cell according to the investigated brown deposits within the cathode-side electrolyte observed to be copper and further to the explored SEM analysis on some of the electrodeposited charged zinc particles incorporated within the anode-reactor. The outcome of the results encouraged interrupting the cell from operating further and led to pulling apart the cell components to be properly cleaned and the sieving separation technique carried out on the cathode and anode electrolyte solution due the escaped charged zinc-particles.

Furthermore, as previously mentioned the possibility to revert the cell back to a zinc-bromine battery cell from a copper-zinc battery cell had occurred by changing the brass fitting materials (BFM) to a plastic fitting material (PFM). The observed brown deposits which had converted the zinc-bromine batteries cell to a copper-zinc battery cell was only possible to be reverted to a zinc-bromine battery cells by carrying out repeatedly a filtration process to separate the sediments observed from the anode and cathode electrolyte solution.

Initially by not fabricating the Nafion membrane size to the actual length and cell breadth size (190mm*190mm), had supported allowing the anode and cathode electrolyte to mix. Therefore, fabricating the membrane size to a cell shape will prevent any future occurrence from allowing any cross-mixing of any anode-side and cathode-side electrolyte.

By using a UV-visible spectrophotometer device to detect why the cathode-side electrolyte did not change to a reddish brown or yellow colour during the charge rate and discharged rate after identifying a dark green coloured electrolyte at the cathode-side cell; which was recognized as copper at a wavelength of 900nm and with two peaks (see Figure 7a & 7b) had also supported having the establishment of a good redox reaction according to the electrochemical results according to the experimental observation. Furthermore, see Figures 1 & 7b. Therefore, identifying the chemistry behind the electrolyte colour had further helped.

The presence of oxygen (O2) was agreed to have occurred because the cell was exposed before coupling it and due to the presence of H2O. Silicon has originated due to the applied adhesive glue to prevent leakages. Chromium (Cr), Iron (Fe) and carbon (C) were both produced due to the coupled anode-inlet and anode-outlet pipe steel materials and brass fittings that were not chemical resistance. The anode and cathode inlets and outlets brass fittings materials had supported the origination of the identified selenium element during the chemical reaction. Selenium as non-metallic chemical elements in the group xvi of the periodic table could conducts electricity better in the light than in the dark and used in photocells. It was not peculiar by identifying some potassium elements during the SEM since the cell electrolytes consisted of some added salt.

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Prototype Nuclear Battery Packs 10 Times More Power

Russian researchers from the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (MIPT), the Technological Institute for Superhard and Novel Carbon Materials (TISNCM), and the National University of Science and Technology MISIS have optimized the design of a nuclear battery generating power from the beta decay of nickel-63, a radioactive isotope. Their new battery prototype packs about 3,300 milliwatt-hours of energy per gram, which is more than in any other nuclear battery based on nickel-63, and 10 times more than the specific energy of commercial chemical cells. The paperwas published in the journal Diamond and Related Materials.

Conventional batteries

Ordinary batteries powering clocks, flashlights, toys, and other compact autonomous electrical devices use the energy of so-called redox chemical reactions. In them, electrons are transferred from one electrode to another via an electrolyte. This gives rise to a potential difference between the electrodes. If the two battery terminals are then connected by a conductor, electrons start flowing to remove the potential difference, generating an electric current. Chemical batteries, also known as galvanic cells, are characterized by a high power density — that is, the ratio between the power of the generated current and the volume of the battery. However, chemical cells discharge in a relatively short time, limiting their applications in autonomous devices. Some of these batteries, called accumulators, are rechargeable, but even they need to be replaced for charging. This may be dangerous, as in the case of a cardiac pacemaker, or even impossible, if the battery is powering a spacecraft.

Nuclear batteries: History

Fortunately, chemical reactions are just one of the possible sources of electric power. Back in 1913, Henry Moseley invented the first power generator based on radioactive decay. His nuclear battery consisted of a glass sphere silvered on the inside with a radium emitter mounted at the center on an isolated electrode. Electrons resulting from the beta decay of radium caused a potential difference between the silver film and the central electrode. However, the idle voltage of the device was way too high — tens of kilovolts — and the current was too low for practical applications.

In 1953, Paul Rappaport proposed the use of semiconducting materials to convert the energy of beta decay into electricity. Beta particles — electrons and positrons — emitted by a radioactive source ionize atoms of a semiconductor, creating uncompensated charge carriers. In the presence of a static field of a p-n structure, the charges flow in one direction, resulting in an electric current. Batteries powered by beta decay came to be known as betavoltaics. The chief advantage of betavoltaic cells over galvanic cells is their longevity: Radioactive isotopes used in nuclear batteries have half-livesranging from tens to hundreds of years, so their power output remains nearly constant for a very long time. Unfortunately, the power density of betavoltaic cells is significantly lower than that of their galvanic counterparts. Despite this, betavoltaics were in fact used in the ’70s to power cardiac pacemakers, before being phased out by cheaper lithium-ion batteries, even though the latter have shorter lifetimes.

Betavoltaic power sources should not be confused with radioisotope thermoelectric generators, or RTGs, which are also called nuclear batteries but operate on a different principle. Thermoelectric cells convert the heat released by radioactive decay into electricity using thermocouples. The efficiency of RTGs is only several percent and depends on temperature. But owing to their longevity and relatively simple design, thermoelectric power sources are widely used to power spacecraft such as the New Horizons probe and Mars rover Curiosity. RTGs were previously used on unmanned remote facilities such as lighthouses and automatic weather stations. However, this practice was abandoned, because used radioactive fuel was hard to recycle and leaked into the environment.

Ten times more power

A research team led by Vladimir Blank, the director of TISNCM and chair of nanostructure physics and chemistry at MIPT, came up with a way of increasing the power density of a nuclear battery almost tenfold. The physicists developed and manufactured a betavoltaic battery using nickel-63 as the source of radiation and Schottky barrier-based diamond diodes for energy conversion. The prototype battery achieved an output power of about 1 microwatt, while the power density per cubic centimeter was 10 microwatts, which is enough for a modern artificial pacemaker. Nickel-63 has a half-life of 100 years, so the battery packs about 3,300 milliwatt-hours of power per 1 gram — 10 times more than electrochemical cells.

Figure 1. Nuclear battery design. Credit: V. Bormashov et al./Diamond and Related Materials

The nuclear battery prototype consisted of 200 diamond converters interlaid with nickel-63 and stable nickel foil layers (figure 1). The amount of power generated by the converter depends on the thickness of the nickel foil and the converter itself, because both affect how many beta particles are absorbed. Currently available prototypes of nuclear batteries are poorly optimized, since they have excessive volume. If the beta radiation source is too thick, the electrons it emits cannot escape it. This effect is known as self-absorption. However, as the source is made thinner, the number of atoms undergoing beta decay per unit time is proportionally reduced. Similar reasoning applies to the thickness of the converter.

Photo. Prototype nuclear battery. Credit: Technological Institute for Superhard and Novel Carbon Materials

Calculations first

The goal of the researchers was to maximize the power density of their nickel-63 battery. To do this, they numerically simulated the passage of electrons through the beta source and the converters. It turned out that the nickel-63 source is at its most effective when it is 2 micrometers thick, and the optimal thickness of the converter based on Schottky barrier diamond diodes is around 10 micrometers.

Figure. 2. (a) Dependence of power flux from the radioactive nickel foil on its thickness. (b) Efficiency of electron absorption in the diamond converter as a function of its thickness. The two graphs indicate that the optimal thicknesses of the nickel-63 foil and the diamond converter are close to 2 and 10 micrometers, respectively. Credit: V. Bormashov et al./Diamond and Related Materials

Manufacturing technology

The main technological challenge was the fabrication of a large number of diamond conversion cells with complex internal structure. Each converter was merely tens of micrometers thick, like a plastic bag in a supermarket. Conventional mechanical and ionic techniques of diamond thinning were not suitable for this task. The researchers from TISNCM and MIPT developed a unique technology for synthesizing thin diamond plates on a diamond substrate and splitting them off to mass-produce ultrathin converters.

The team used 20 thick boron-doped diamond crystal plates as the substrate. They were grown using the temperature gradient technique under high pressure. Ion implantation was used to create a 100-nanometer-thick defective, “damaged” layer in the substrate at the depth of about 700 nanometers. A boron-doped diamond film 15 micrometers thick was grown on top of this layer using chemical vapor deposition. The substrate then underwent high-temperature annealing to induce graphitization of the buried defective layer and recover the top diamond layer. Electrochemical etching was used to remove the damaged layer. Following the separation of the defective layer by etching, the semi-finished converter was fitted with ohmic and Schottky contacts.

As the above-mentioned operations were repeated, the loss of substrate thickness amounted to no more than 1 micrometer per cycle. A total of 200 converters were grown on 20 substrates. This new technology is important from an economic standpoint, because high-quality diamond substrates are very expensive and therefore mass-production of converters by substrate thinning is not feasible.

All converters were connected in parallel in a stack as shown in figure 1. The technology for rolling 2-micrometer-thick nickel foil was developed at the Research Institute and Scientific Industrial Association LUCH. The battery was sealed with epoxy.

The prototype battery is characterized by the current-voltage curve shown in figure 3a. The open-circuit voltage and the short-circuit current are 1.02 volts and 1.27 microamperes, respectively. The maximum output power of 0.93 microwatts is obtained at 0.92 volts. This power output corresponds to a specific power of about 3,300 milliwatt-hours per gramm, which is 10 times more than in commercial chemical cells or the previous nickel-63 nuclear battery designed at TISNCM.

Figure. 3. (a) Dependence of current (black line) and battery output power (blue) on voltage. (b) Power density as a function of the resistance of the electrical load. Credit: V. Bormashov et al./Diamond and Related Materials

In 2016, Russian researchers from MISIS had already presented a prototype betavoltaic battery based on nickel-63. Another working prototype, created at TISNCM and LUCH, was demonstrated at Atomexpo 2017. It had a useful volume of 1.5 cubic centimeters.

The main setback in commercializing nuclear batteries in Russia is the lack of nickel-63 production and enrichment facilities. However, there are plans to launch nickel-63 production on an industrial scale by mid-2020s.

There is an alternative radioisotope for use in nuclear batteries: Dimond converters could be made using radioactive carbon-14, which has an extremely long half-life of 5,700 years. Work on such generators was earlier reported by physicists from the University of Bristol.

Nuclear batteries: Prospects

The work reported in this story has prospects for medical applications. Most state-of-the-art cardiac pacemakers are over 10 cubic centimeters in size and require about 10 microwatts of power. This means that the new nuclear battery could be used to power these devices without any significant changes to their design and size. “Perpetual pacemakers” whose batteries need not be replaced or serviced would improve the quality of life of patients.

The space industry would also greatly benefit from compact nuclear batteries. In particular, there is a demand for autonomous wireless external sensors and memory chips with integrated power supply systems for spacecraft. Diamond is one of the most radiation-proof semiconductors. Since it also has a large bandgap, it can operate in a wide range of temperatures, making it the ideal material for nuclear batteries powering spacecraft.

The researchers are planning to continue their work on nuclear batteries. They have identified several lines of inquiry that should be pursued. Firstly, enriching nickel-63 in the radiation source would proportionally increase battery power. Secondly, developing a diamond p-i-n structure with a controlled doping profile would boost voltage and therefore could increase the power output of the battery at least by a factor of three. Thirdly, enhancing the surface area of the converter would increase the number of nickel-63 atoms on each converter.

TISNCM Director Vladimir Blank, who is also chair of nanostructure physics and chemistry at MIPT, commented on the study: “The results so far are already quite remarkable and can be applied in medicine and space technology, but we are planning to do more. In the recent years, our institute has been rather successful in the synthesis of high-quality doped diamonds, particularly those with n-type conductivity. This will allow us to make the transition from Schottky barriers to p-i-n structures and thus achieve three times greater battery power. The higher the power density of the device, the more applications it will have. We have decent capabilities for high-quality diamond synthesis, so we are planning to utilize the unique properties of this material for creating new radiation-proof electronic components and designing novel electronic and optical devices.”

Source : Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (State University)

New post published on: https://www.livescience.tech/2018/06/04/prototype-nuclear-battery-packs-10-times-more-power/