#plus references to ecclesiastical Latin

[kleptonancydrew]

Niche observation perhaps but, does Leo give anyone else major Jesuit vibes? He is clearly Catholic coded (at a Catholic cathedral) and wears a clerical collar but does not go by 'Father' or any other ordained title. (He's clearly not a seminarian at this point in his life.) Jesuits tend to be the only ones I know who do this - but that's very much an American thing I think.

[helshades]

Howdy! Are all Europeans speaking really crappy Latin today? Might English speakers today be speaking really crappy German? 🙂

Depends on how you’d define ‘crappy’, of course. English today contains a solid third of (Middle) French, from when a certain bastard Duke of Normandy got a tad antsy and decided to cross the Channel. It also derives from Latin directly, as a matter of fact, albeit in a much smaller capacity. The rest, of course, is of Germanic origin, via Old English, which derived from Anglo-Saxon dialects...

French itself is the most Germanic of all Romance (Latin-based) languages; first, its very name hails from the name of the Frankish tribes that crossed the Rhine river after the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 A.D.) and invaded and colonised Western Europe. French’s Germanic substrate is around 17%, which is a ginormous lot. Basically, modern French is Latin plus a sizeable amount of ‘Germanic’ after being spoken by people whose first languages were continental Celtic dialects.

But let me rewind that a bit.

A schematic map of the expansion of Indo-European languages according to the Kurgan model, or steppe theory, which is the (prudently) conventional hypothesis on the way languages evolved in Europe from a mother-language referred to as ‘Proto-Indo-European’, which would have been spoken by people living in the Pontic-Caspian steppe near the end of the Stone Age era (around 6,000 B.C.), who spread across Eurasia, creating peoples who spoke various languages issued from the same origin.

Generally, the Indo-European languages are divided into 8 branches:

Albanian

Armenian

Balto-Slavic

Celtic (Gallic, Breton, Welsh, Irish, etc.)

Germanic (> German, Frankish, Old English)

Hellenic (> Greek)

Indo-Iranian/Aryan

Italic (> Latin > Romanic languages > Italian, French, Spanish...)

In addition to these eight, two have been long extinct: the Anatolian & Tokharian branches; and then you’ve got a few languages linguists aren’t sure how to place (yet?) since they’re only attested in a fragmented capacity, like Phrygian and Illyrian dialects, for instance.

One of the fundamental oppositions between the Western-Central branches and the rest is the way they form the word for ‘hundred’: this permits to distinguish between the satem languages (eastern & south-eastern: Albanian, Anatolian, Armenian, Balto-Slavic & Indo-Iranian languages) and the centum languages (Celtic, Germanic, Hellenic, Italic & Tokharian languages—the latter being the only centum language spoken in Central Asia). Note that Germanic (centum) and Balto-Slavic (satem) languages both hold distinctive syntactic traits setting them apart from all other Indo-European languages. And yes, hundred actually is a form of centum.

I won’t go into more details as it’s best to keep things simple here, and as you can see I only listed the branches alphabetically. Bolded above are the Western branches, not out of chauvinism, I hope you’ll understand, but as I intend to focus on languages issued from Latin.

(Actually readable version here)

Now, this is a map showing the repartition of Latin-based languages across Europe, also known as the ‘Romance languages’ (sometimes even as ‘Neo-Latin languages’). The term ‘romance’ derives from the Late Latin adverb romanice, literally ‘in Roman’, referring to the vernacular (popular, non-written) language, as opposed to the literary language, referred to as Latin, spoken by the elite and the clergy, and which was more conservative because it had a written form and fixed grammar rules. The Romance languages descend from Vulgar/popular Latin, as spoken by the inhabitants of the Western Roman Empire, and which evolved into distinct languages after centuries of foreign invasions as well as relative geographical and political isolation.

Timeline of Latin:

6th–4th centuries B.C., the Archaic period (’Proto-Latin’), from which several inscriptions, fragments of the oldest laws and from sacral anthems were preserved.

3rd–2nd c. B.C., the Pre-Classical period. The literary Latin language (the comedies of Plautus and Terence, the agricultural treatise of Cato the Elder, fragments of works by a number of other authors) was based on the dialect of Rome.

1st c. B.C.–1st c. A.D., Classical Latin. The development of vocabulary, the development of terminology, the elimination of old morphological doublets, the flowering of literature: Cicero, Caesar, Sallust, Virgil, Horace, Ovid) was particularly distinguished. In the late period, the phonetic, morphological and spelling norms were finally formed.

As the Roman Republic (509–27 B.C.) extended its political dominion over the whole of the Italian peninsula, Latin became dominant over the other Italic languages, which ceased to be spoken perhaps sometime in the 1st century A.D.—Latin was originally used (from the 8th century B.C.) by the tribe of the Latins, who inhabited Latium, the region around Rome, in west-central Italy; it belonged to the Western Italic subgroup (the Latino-Faliscan languages), which was rather diminutive, but no other Italic idiom survived Rome’s expansion.The Romanisation of the Italian Peninsula was basically complete by the 1st century B.C.; except for the south of Italy and Sicily, where the dominance of Greek was preserved.

Rome’s massive territorial expansion ensured Latin of a vast diffusion, larger and larger still after the 3rd century A.D., when it was the Roman Empire’s official language, used in all administration (legal, civil, military) spreading in most of Western Euope, North Africa, Middle Asia and the Danubian regions, where it cohabited with local dialects as well as Greek, the former ‘universal’ language. Some even speak of this period as Imperial Latin (1st–5th centuries A.D.)

2nd–6th c., Late Latin. a period mostly characterised by a gap between written and folk-spoken language: the regional differentiation of popular Latin(s) was accelerated, the formation of Romance languages, finally separated by the 9th century, began on its basis; meanwhile, written Latin continued to be used for a long time in the administrative sphere, religion, diplomacy, trade, school, medicine, science and literature.

9th–14th c., Mediaeval Latin. One may argue that Ecclesiastic Latin began in the 4th century with the writings of the ‘Fathers of the Church’, but from a linguistic standpoint I’d rather focus on the great reform of Latin that took place in 800, which aimed to ‘reclassicalise’ Latin—the language of the learnèd elite—to distinguish it from popular dialects. It was also the Church’s only language for a long while, and the one that was spoken in universities (the first of which were created in the 12th century).

The first mention we’ve ever found of Romance languages distinct from Latin dates back to the 813 Council of Tours, during which it was officially decided that decided that priests in Charlemagne’s Holy Roman Empire should preach their sermons to the ordinary folk in a ‘rustic romance language’ (rusticam romanam linguam) or in ‘Tudisc’ (Theodiscam, commonly referring in the Middle Ages to Germanic dialects), which only they could understand.

The first ever complete text written in a Romance dialect dates back to 842, when two of Charlemagne’s grandsons, half-brothers Louis II the German (king of Bavaria) and Charles II the Bald (king of Aquitaine), met in Strasbourg to make a pledge of mutual allegiance against their older half-brother Lothair I (king of Italy), whose supreme authority they refused to recognise (wanting their fair share of their father’s heritage, rather than leaving the whole empire to their eldest). Both allied kings came to the meeting at the head of an army: Louis of Bavaria commanded men who spoke in Germanic (Frankish) dialects, whereas the soldiers of Charles of Aquitaine spoke in a ‘Gallo-Romance’ idiom, still very close to Latin, but unmistakably distinct from it. And each in his turn, the kings and their armies swore their oaths in the others’ language, Charles in a Rhine Franconian dialect, and Louis/Ludwig in this Romance dialect that announced French and the northern langues d’oïl.

200–400 A.D., Vulgar Latin is spoken everywhere around the Roman Empire, with many regional variants;

500–600: the variants are beginning to sound more or less different;

early 800s: ordinary people have become largely unable to understand Latin the way it is written, which is the way it used to be spoken;

842: first sizeable evidence of a distinct Romance language, written down by a clerk who provides a Latin translation of the text.

Romance languages are characterised by the following common traits:

their lexicon, mostly stemming from late Vulgar Latin;

a massive reshaping of Latin’s vowel system;

great changes to the way certain consonants are articulated (palatalisation)

the complete eradication of the neutral grammatical gender (with the exception of Rumanian)

a massive reorganisation of the verbal system, through the suppression of the Latin future tense, replaced by a periphrastic future formed with verb ‘to have’; the development of a conditional mode; the development of auxiliary verbs...

the development of articles, which didn’t exist in Latin.

The first to propose a classification system for the Romance languages was Florentine poet Dante Alighieri (of Divine Comedy fame) in the 13th century. He divided them into three subgroups: the oïl languages; the oc languages; and the sì languages (which he separates from the Germanic jo languages, about which he unfortunately no further details), based on the word the idioms within these three subgroups use to say ‘yes’.

oïl languages: Old French (from Gallo-Roman o-il (‘this one’), from Latin pronouns hoc (‘this’) & ille (‘that’)

oc languages: Occitan & Catalan

sì languages: Italian dialects (from Latin sic, ‘as such’, ‘so’)

Dante’s main idea was to replace Latin as a literary language with one of these three ‘languages’ (to him, each ensemble of dialects was a single idiom, but to modern linguists, they are not). In the Middle Ages, oïl was the language used traditionally to write epics, while what Dante referred to as lingua d’oco was the language of the troubadours, lyrical poets of Occitania. As for sì languages, well, in the end Dante famously opted, for the composition of the illustrious Divine Comedy, for a local Florentine Toscan dialect—and the success of the poem was such that it was the act of foundation of modern Italian.

Parallel evolution of southwestern European languages, 1000–2000 A.D.:

Classification of the Romance languages:

Ibero-Romance: Portuguese, Galician, Mirandese, Asturian, Leonese, Spanish (Castilian), Aragonese, Ladino (Judaeo-Spanish);

Occitano-Romance: Catalan/Valencian, Occitan (langue d'oc), Gascon;

Gallo-Romance: French/Oïl languages, Franco-Provençal (Arpitan);

Rhaeto-Romance: Romansh, Ladin, Friulian;

Gallo-Italic: Piedmontese, Ligurian, Lombard, Emilian-Romagnol;

Italo-Dalmatian: Italian, Tuscan and Corsican, Sassarese, Sicilian, Neapolitan, Dalmatian (extinct in 1898), Venetian, Istriot;

Sardinian;

Eastern Romance: Romanian (standard known as Daco-Romanian), Istro-Romanian, Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian.

Mutual intelligibility in Europe:

Details and a bigger map here.

——————————————————————————

Still alive? Well, allow me to remedy that to pursue.

Roman territories during the 1st century B.C. civil war, after the conquest of the Gauls. Larger map here.

The Roman Empire at its greatest extent. Larger map here.

Following the death of emperor Theodosius I the Great in 395, the Empire was divided into the Western Roman Empire, whose capital was Rome, and the Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantine Empire, whose capital was Constantinople (once named Byzantium, and which used to be a Greek colony). In those times, Rome had long ceased to be the political capital of the Roman Empire anyway, officially replaced with Constantinople by the action of Constantine I the Great in 330—who also was the first emperor to convert to Christianity, albeit on his deathbed (yet his influence was decisive for the rise of Christian faith across Europe). The Byzantine Empire eventually fell in 1453 when Constantinople was conquered by the powerful Ottoman Empire.

‘Barbarian’ Invasions of the Roman Empire:

As you see, we’re circling back to what I was saying earlier concerning the emergence of the Romance and Germanic languages; and seeing all these maps, you’ll easily understand how, at the same time, very distinct languages came into being, and how mutual influences could happen. You’ll also see why French ended up being so influenced by Germanic languages, especially in its pronunciation, even though the lexicon remained largely Latin-based. I’ll come back in details to the evolution of French itself from Latin, as I’ve got a previous Ask on the topic which I really must answer, but in the meantime, I can make a few other remarks concerning the linguistic influences at play in Western Europe, because so far I’ve conscientiously avoided the subject of Celtic languages, haven’t I.

Rome all but annihilated Celtic cultures, although this wasn’t necessarily regarded by the Celts themselves as a loss; there was no sense of a ‘Celtic nation’ and continental Celts were organised in tribes with pretty distinct systems of government, some of them collaborating freely with Rome long before Caesar’s conquest of the Gauls. Latin was the Empire’s official language, in a sense playing the role that English plays today, but it also was the language of Roman law and administration, meaning that if a person wanted to have a political career within the Empire, he must follow a certain number of steps which led to near-complete acculturation. Gaulish elites assimilated with fair ease, like the rest of the world. They all spoke Latin. On the other hand, ordinary folk, even though they ended up speaking Latin as well, spoke much less ‘pure’ variants, heavily accentuated, mixed with words borrowed from their ancestral idioms. A very similar thing occurred later on after the Frankish conquest of the former Western Roman territories.

Entertainingly enough for the amateur linguist, if the Celtic influences are practically absent from the French language, many French patois and, of course, toponomy, carry transparent traces of the Gaulish peopling. A number of surnames even bear that heritage, usually because they were given to people in the Middle Ages after places where they family dwelt. 

(And speaking of patois, French people over 80 had to be taught French in school like a foreign language. Nowadays many local dialects have gone extinct for lack of practice but mid-20th century, regional languages were still very much alive, overall. Although it should be noted that Occitan has been revived in the recent decades, and seems to be thriving... [Breton and Corsican are outliers, definitely.] In any case, the French situation isn’t necessarily universal. In Italy, for instance, regional dialects are still frequently spoken.)

—————————————————————————

As a temporary conclusion... I reckon we could say that the Latin peoples of Europe are speaking super-crappy Latin with a heavy Gaulish redneck accent, mixed with slurry Rhenan. English speakers are really speaking very crappy French.

[leolcann]

Recipe for Arni Psito: Spit Roasted Traditional Goat or Lamb

Making the perfect Arni Psito: Spit Roasted Traditional Goat or Lamb should only take approximately 4 hr 30 min . Below are the ingredients and directions for you to easily follow. The Arni Psito: Spit Roasted Traditional Goat or Lamb recipe can feed your family for 8 servings.

There are many different ways to make this Arni Psito: Spit Roasted Traditional Goat or Lamb recipe. Once you’re familiar with our recommended ingredients and directions, you can add your own twist to this recipe to make it your own! We’ve also listed potential Cookware items below that might be necessary for this Arni Psito: Spit Roasted Traditional Goat or Lamb recipe.

Arni Psito: Spit Roasted Traditional Goat or Lamb Popular Ingredients

1 leg of lamb or goat

8 small sprigs rosemary

3 cloves garlic, sliced thinly

1/4 cup olive oil

1 tablespoon dry oregano, chopped fine

1 lemon, juiced

2 teaspoons salt

1 teaspoon black pepper

1 tablespoon fresh oregano, chopped fine

Steps for making Arni Psito: Spit Roasted Traditional Goat or Lamb

Preheat the oven to 500 degrees F.

Make sure the lamb is cleaned well and any hard fat is trimmed off. Make 8 slits in the leg and stuff them with the rosemary sprigs and garlic cloves. Rub the leg with the olive oil, dry oregano, lemon, salt, and pepper. Roast for about 30 minutes.

Lower the heat to 375 degrees F. Add water to the pan, if needed. Cook for about 3 1/2 hours. Remove from the pan and let rest. Skim the fat from the pan juices and pour into a bowl with the fresh oregano.

Popular Categories for this Recipe

European Recipes

Greek Recipes

Roast Recipes

Easter – Easter, also called Pascha (Aramaic, Greek, Latin), Zatik (Armenian) or Resurrection Sunday is a Christian festival and cultural holiday commemorating the resurrection of Jesus from the dead, described in the New Testament as having occurred on the third day of his burial following his crucifixion by the Romans at Calvary c. 30 AD. It is the culmination of the Passion of Jesus, preceded by Lent (or Great Lent), a 40-day period of fasting, prayer, and penance.Most Christians refer to the week before Easter as Holy Week, which in Western Christianity contains the days of the Easter Triduum including Maundy Thursday, commemorating the Maundy and Last Supper, as well as Good Friday, commemorating the crucifixion and death of Jesus. In Eastern Christianity, the same days and events are commemorated with the names of days all starting with “Holy” or “Holy and Great;” and Easter itself might be called “Great and Holy Pascha”, “Easter Sunday,” “Pascha” or “Sunday of Pascha.” In Western Christianity, Eastertide, or the Easter Season, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts seven weeks, ending with the coming of the 50th day, Pentecost Sunday. In Eastern Christianity, the Paschal season ends with Pentecost as well, but the leave-taking of the Great Feast of Pascha is on the 39th day, the day before the Feast of the Ascension.Easter and its related holidays are moveable feasts, not falling on a fixed date; its date is computed based on a lunisolar calendar (solar year plus Moon phase) similar to the Hebrew calendar. The First Council of Nicaea (325) established only two rules, namely independence from the Hebrew calendar and worldwide uniformity. No details for the computation were specified; these were worked out in practice, a process that took centuries and generated a number of controversies. It has come to be the first Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon that occurs on or soonest after 21 March. Even if calculated on the basis of the more accurate Gregorian calendar, the date of that full moon sometimes differs from that of the astronomical first full moon after the March equinox.Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover by its name (Hebrew: פֶּסַח pesach, Aramaic: פָּסחָא pascha are the basis of the term Pascha), by its origin (according to the synoptic Gospels, both the crucifixion and the resurrection took place during the Passover) and by much of its symbolism, as well as by its position in the calendar. In most European languages the feast is called by the words for passover in those languages; and in the older English versions of the Bible the term Easter was the term used to translate passover.Easter customs vary across the Christian world, and include sunrise services, midnight vigils, exclamations and exchanges of Paschal greetings, clipping the church(England), decoration and the communal breaking of Easter eggs (a symbol of the empty tomb). The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection in Western Christianity, traditionally decorates the chancel area of churches on this day and for the rest of Eastertide. Additional customs that have become associated with Easter and are observed by both Christians and some non-Christians include Easter parades, communal dancing (Eastern Europe), the Easter Bunny and egg hunting. There are also traditional Easter foods that vary by region and culture.

Lamb Recipes

Fruit – In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering.Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particular have long propagated using the movements of humans and animals in a symbiotic relationship that is the means for seed dispersal for the one group and nutrition for the other; in fact, humans and many animals have become dependent on fruits as a source of food. Consequently, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the world’s agricultural output, and some (such as the apple and the pomegranate) have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings.In common language usage, “fruit” normally means the fleshy seed-associated structures (or produce) of plants that typically are sweet or sour and edible in the raw state, such as apples, bananas, grapes, lemons, oranges, and strawberries. In botanical usage, the term “fruit” also includes many structures that are not commonly called “fruits”, such as nuts, bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes, and wheat grains.

Lemon – The lemon (Citrus limon) is a species of small evergreen tree in the flowering plant family Rutaceae, native to Asia, primarily Northeast India (Assam), Northern Myanmar or China.The tree’s ellipsoidal yellow fruit is used for culinary and non-culinary purposes throughout the world, primarily for its juice, which has both culinary and cleaning uses. The pulp and rind are also used in cooking and baking. The juice of the lemon is about 5% to 6% citric acid, with a pH of around 2.2, giving it a sour taste. The distinctive sour taste of lemon juice makes it a key ingredient in drinks and foods such as lemonade and lemon meringue pie.

Main Dish

Recipes for Parties

Roasting – Roasting is a cooking method that uses dry heat where hot air covers the food, cooking it evenly on all sides with temperatures of at least 150 °C (300 °F) from an open flame, oven, or other heat source. Roasting can enhance the flavor through caramelization and Maillard browning on the surface of the food. Roasting uses indirect, diffused heat (as in an oven), and is suitable for slower cooking of meat in a larger, whole piece. Meats and most root and bulb vegetables can be roasted. Any piece of meat, especially red meat, that has been cooked in this fashion is called a roast. Meats and vegetables prepared in this way are described as “roasted”, e.g., roasted chicken or roasted squash.

You might need the following Cookware

In this section we’ve listed Cookware items that might be helpful to make this Arni Psito: Spit Roasted Traditional Goat or Lamb recipe (or similar recipes). If certain tools or utensils are not applicable, then ignore and choose relevant items.

Cooking pots

Frying pan

Steamers

Colander

Skillet

Knives

Cutting board

Grater

Saucepan

Stockpot

Spatula

Tongs

Measuring cups

Wooden Spoon

via https://underspicycrab.com/goat-recipes/arni-psito-spit-roasted-traditional-goat-or-lamb-recipe/

from Chef Clemenza - Blog https://chefclemenza.weebly.com/blog/recipe-for-arni-psito-spit-roasted-traditional-goat-or-lamb

[chefclemenza]

Recipe for Arni Psito: Spit Roasted Traditional Goat or Lamb

Making the perfect Arni Psito: Spit Roasted Traditional Goat or Lamb should only take approximately 4 hr 30 min . Below are the ingredients and directions for you to easily follow. The Arni Psito: Spit Roasted Traditional Goat or Lamb recipe can feed your family for 8 servings.

There are many different ways to make this Arni Psito: Spit Roasted Traditional Goat or Lamb recipe. Once you’re familiar with our recommended ingredients and directions, you can add your own twist to this recipe to make it your own! We’ve also listed potential Cookware items below that might be necessary for this Arni Psito: Spit Roasted Traditional Goat or Lamb recipe.

Arni Psito: Spit Roasted Traditional Goat or Lamb Popular Ingredients

1 leg of lamb or goat

8 small sprigs rosemary

3 cloves garlic, sliced thinly

1/4 cup olive oil

1 tablespoon dry oregano, chopped fine

1 lemon, juiced

2 teaspoons salt

1 teaspoon black pepper

1 tablespoon fresh oregano, chopped fine

Steps for making Arni Psito: Spit Roasted Traditional Goat or Lamb

Preheat the oven to 500 degrees F.

Make sure the lamb is cleaned well and any hard fat is trimmed off. Make 8 slits in the leg and stuff them with the rosemary sprigs and garlic cloves. Rub the leg with the olive oil, dry oregano, lemon, salt, and pepper. Roast for about 30 minutes.

Lower the heat to 375 degrees F. Add water to the pan, if needed. Cook for about 3 1/2 hours. Remove from the pan and let rest. Skim the fat from the pan juices and pour into a bowl with the fresh oregano.

Popular Categories for this Recipe

European Recipes

Greek Recipes

Roast Recipes

Easter – Easter, also called Pascha (Aramaic, Greek, Latin), Zatik (Armenian) or Resurrection Sunday is a Christian festival and cultural holiday commemorating the resurrection of Jesus from the dead, described in the New Testament as having occurred on the third day of his burial following his crucifixion by the Romans at Calvary c. 30 AD. It is the culmination of the Passion of Jesus, preceded by Lent (or Great Lent), a 40-day period of fasting, prayer, and penance.Most Christians refer to the week before Easter as Holy Week, which in Western Christianity contains the days of the Easter Triduum including Maundy Thursday, commemorating the Maundy and Last Supper, as well as Good Friday, commemorating the crucifixion and death of Jesus. In Eastern Christianity, the same days and events are commemorated with the names of days all starting with “Holy” or “Holy and Great;” and Easter itself might be called “Great and Holy Pascha”, “Easter Sunday,” “Pascha” or “Sunday of Pascha.” In Western Christianity, Eastertide, or the Easter Season, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts seven weeks, ending with the coming of the 50th day, Pentecost Sunday. In Eastern Christianity, the Paschal season ends with Pentecost as well, but the leave-taking of the Great Feast of Pascha is on the 39th day, the day before the Feast of the Ascension.Easter and its related holidays are moveable feasts, not falling on a fixed date; its date is computed based on a lunisolar calendar (solar year plus Moon phase) similar to the Hebrew calendar. The First Council of Nicaea (325) established only two rules, namely independence from the Hebrew calendar and worldwide uniformity. No details for the computation were specified; these were worked out in practice, a process that took centuries and generated a number of controversies. It has come to be the first Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon that occurs on or soonest after 21 March. Even if calculated on the basis of the more accurate Gregorian calendar, the date of that full moon sometimes differs from that of the astronomical first full moon after the March equinox.Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover by its name (Hebrew: פֶּסַח pesach, Aramaic: פָּסחָא pascha are the basis of the term Pascha), by its origin (according to the synoptic Gospels, both the crucifixion and the resurrection took place during the Passover) and by much of its symbolism, as well as by its position in the calendar. In most European languages the feast is called by the words for passover in those languages; and in the older English versions of the Bible the term Easter was the term used to translate passover.Easter customs vary across the Christian world, and include sunrise services, midnight vigils, exclamations and exchanges of Paschal greetings, clipping the church(England), decoration and the communal breaking of Easter eggs (a symbol of the empty tomb). The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection in Western Christianity, traditionally decorates the chancel area of churches on this day and for the rest of Eastertide. Additional customs that have become associated with Easter and are observed by both Christians and some non-Christians include Easter parades, communal dancing (Eastern Europe), the Easter Bunny and egg hunting. There are also traditional Easter foods that vary by region and culture.

Lamb Recipes

Fruit – In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering.Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particular have long propagated using the movements of humans and animals in a symbiotic relationship that is the means for seed dispersal for the one group and nutrition for the other; in fact, humans and many animals have become dependent on fruits as a source of food. Consequently, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the world’s agricultural output, and some (such as the apple and the pomegranate) have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings.In common language usage, “fruit” normally means the fleshy seed-associated structures (or produce) of plants that typically are sweet or sour and edible in the raw state, such as apples, bananas, grapes, lemons, oranges, and strawberries. In botanical usage, the term “fruit” also includes many structures that are not commonly called “fruits”, such as nuts, bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes, and wheat grains.

Lemon – The lemon (Citrus limon) is a species of small evergreen tree in the flowering plant family Rutaceae, native to Asia, primarily Northeast India (Assam), Northern Myanmar or China.The tree’s ellipsoidal yellow fruit is used for culinary and non-culinary purposes throughout the world, primarily for its juice, which has both culinary and cleaning uses. The pulp and rind are also used in cooking and baking. The juice of the lemon is about 5% to 6% citric acid, with a pH of around 2.2, giving it a sour taste. The distinctive sour taste of lemon juice makes it a key ingredient in drinks and foods such as lemonade and lemon meringue pie.

Main Dish

Recipes for Parties

Roasting – Roasting is a cooking method that uses dry heat where hot air covers the food, cooking it evenly on all sides with temperatures of at least 150 °C (300 °F) from an open flame, oven, or other heat source. Roasting can enhance the flavor through caramelization and Maillard browning on the surface of the food. Roasting uses indirect, diffused heat (as in an oven), and is suitable for slower cooking of meat in a larger, whole piece. Meats and most root and bulb vegetables can be roasted. Any piece of meat, especially red meat, that has been cooked in this fashion is called a roast. Meats and vegetables prepared in this way are described as “roasted”, e.g., roasted chicken or roasted squash.

You might need the following Cookware

In this section we’ve listed Cookware items that might be helpful to make this Arni Psito: Spit Roasted Traditional Goat or Lamb recipe (or similar recipes). If certain tools or utensils are not applicable, then ignore and choose relevant items.

Cooking pots

Frying pan

Steamers

Colander

Skillet

Knives

Cutting board

Grater

Saucepan

Stockpot

Spatula

Tongs

Measuring cups

Wooden Spoon

from Crabbie Recipes https://underspicycrab.com/goat-recipes/arni-psito-spit-roasted-traditional-goat-or-lamb-recipe/

[jamesgraybooksellerworld]

e

994G Ludolphus de Saxonia                d. 1378

Vita Christi.  

[Nuremberg: Anton Koberger, 20 December, 1478]        $35,000

Large Folio 17 ½  x 12 ½ inches.  [a-m8n6 o-z8r6;A-Z8]

371 of 372 leaves, lacking folio 294. 60 lines plus headline, printed in gothic letter, double columns throughout.   A large initial letter F on the first leaf illuminated in red and blue with ornamental penwork.   Two other large initials in red and blue, and smaller initials and paragraph marks in red and blue throughout.

Bound in full contemporary German blind-stamped pigskin over wooden boards. Bosses and clasps are lacking, the binding is somewhat wormed and worn, with a piece missing from the upper inner blank margin of the first eight leaves. This is a tall copy, on lovely thick paper. The pastedowns are from a twelfth century German liturgical manuscript. An early ownership inscription appears on the first page

“Ex libris R[everen] dae Fraternitatis Sacerdotem Gamundiae.” 

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This is the third  printed edition, the first edition was printed in Strassburg in 1474.

The Vita Christi is the principal work of Ludolph the Carthusian, and one of the most popular books of its time. Numerous manuscript versions of the work are extant, and over twenty different editions were produced before 1501. The work “is not a simple biography […] but at once a history, a commentary borrowed from the Fathers, a series of dogmatic and moral dissertations, of spiritual instructions, meditations, and prayers, in relation to the life of Christ. […] It has been called a ‘summa evangelica’ […] in which the author has condensed and resumed all that over sixty writers had said before him upon spiritual matters.” (Catholic Encyclopedia)

BMC II 417; Goff L-339; Hain 10292; IGI 5872; Proctor 1990.

(Catholic Univ,  Columbia University  (II),LC(I) Southern Methodist Univ., PL of Cincinnati)

The Vita Christi had significant influence on the development of techniques for Christian meditation. Although Aelred of Rievaulx (d. 1167) had introduced the concept of immersing and projecting oneself into a Biblical scene in his De institutione inclusarum, and St. Bonaventure (d. 1274) had borrowed heavily from that work in his Lignum Vitae,  Ludolph’s massive work (which quoted Aelred extensively but credited his work to Anselm) helped to spread this devotional practice into the Devotio Moderna community and to Ignatius of Loyola (as discussed below). The Vita Christi was translated into Spanish in 1502 by Ambrosio Montesino and was printed in Alcala.  The methods of meditation in the Vita Christi thus entered Spain and were known in the early part of the 16th century.[8] St Teresa and St Francis de Sales frequently quote from it.

Saint Ignatius of Loyola used these techniques in his Spiritual exercises, e.g. self-projection into a Biblical scene to start a conversation with Christ in Calvary.  Ludolph’s Vita Christi is mentioned in almost every biography of St Ignatius of Loyola. St Ignatius read it whilst recovering from the cannon-ball wound after the siege of Pamplona in a Castilian translation.  Ludolph proposes a method of prayer which asks the reader to visualise the events of Christ’s life (known as simple contemplation).  In his commentary on the Gospel for the Feast of Saint Mary Magdalen, the story where Mary the sister of Lazarus, comes into the house of the Pharisee where Jesus is eating, and washes his feet with her tears and then dries his feet with her hair, Ludolph repeatedly urges the reader to see (that is, visualise) the scene of the washing, and so on. He also has insights into the humanity and attractiveness of Jesus. He explains why Mary the public sinner overcame her shame and entered the house of the Pharisee by noting that the Pharisee was a leper and disfigured from the disease. St Mary Magdalen could see that since Jesus was prepared to eat with a leper, he would not reject her.

This simple method of contemplation outlined by Ludolph and set out in Vita Christi, in many of his commentaries on the gospel stories that he chooses it can be argued influenced the Spiritual Exercises of St Ignatius of Loyola.   Indeed, it is said that St Ignatius had desired to become a Carthusian after his pilgrimage to Jerusalem, but was dissuaded by a Carthusian Prior. To this day members of the Society of Jesus may enter a Charterhouse, and if a vocation there does not work out, they may return to the Society of Jesus without penalty. This closeness between the Carthusians and Jesuits is arguably due to the great influence of Ludolph of Saxony’s De Vita Christi on the future founder of the Society of Jesus.

Michael Foss is dismissive of the influence of Ludolph on the Exercises of St Ignatius, saying “The Exercises show a bit of Ludolph.” Then, writing of St Ignatius, recovering from the cannon-ball wound at the Castle of Loyola, Foss says, “Bored, as only a man of action can be when driven to bed, he was driven by desperation to a few unappetising volumes that the Castle of Loyola offered. He found a Castilian translation of the long, worthy and popular Life of Christ by a certain Ludolph of Saxony, a 14th Century writer.”

  Michael Foss (1969), The founding of the Jesuits, 1540, London: Hamilton, p. 92.

Charles Abbott Conway, The Vita Christi of Ludolph of Saxony and late medieval devotion centred on the incarnation: a descriptive analysis, (Salzburg, 1976), p2

  https://ejournals.bc.edu/ojs/index.php/jesuit/article/view/3970

The following is quoted from  SPIRITUAL JOURNEYS Books Illustrating the First Two Centuries of Contemplation and Action of the Society of Jesus.

“Throughout the medieval period, the desire to live a spiritual life was a basic belief of paramount importance. A personal connection with God could be formed by prayer and devotional study. The Vita Christi text was one of many works that could be used as an instructional manual for religious devotion. Its aim was to stimulate thoughtful reflection. Through prayer and meditation, it teaches how to lead an ideal and pious life.

The title ‘Life of Christ’ can therefore be misleading. Although the work does document the chronological life of Christ as a whole, it is not a simple biography from his birth to his ascension; rather, it is an historical commentary woven with theological insight, life instructions, meditations and prayers.

    “The Vita Christi was a very popular work in the 15th century. There are many versions of the text, in a variety of languages, adapted by different authors. Numerous manuscript (and early printed book) copies of it from the late medieval period survive.

Ludolf of Saxony  Also known as Ludolphus of Saxonia or Ludolf the Carthusian, first entered the Dominican order before becoming a Carthusian thirty years later. Despite the addition of “Saxony” to his name, it would be remiss to make the assumption that this was his native land.

Often referred to as a summa evangelica (summa from the Latin ‘highest’ and ‘evangelica’ pertaining to the Gospels), Ludolf’s version of the Vita Christi text is one of the most comprehensive; it brings together the writings of approximately sixty authors.

It was deliberately written in a straight forward style that is easy to comprehend. It was essential for the reader to understand the text in order to achieve its aim of increasing spiritual understanding on the road to piety. As Bodenstedt states, the “wholesome means for spiritual progress offered to the readers of the Vita is a clue to its popularity; Ludolphus taught them the fundamental principles of the ascetical life in concrete and appealing fashion”

Ludolf also added prayers to the text to assist the reader with spiritual devotion. These are positioned at the conclusion of each section or chapter to encourage the reader to reflect on the previous passage.

The Vita Christi was brought to Ignatius (who had actually asked for a work of chivalric fiction to read) while he made a slow recovery from grave injuries sustained at the siege of Pamplona against the French in the Upper Navarra in 1521. Reading Ludolf’s work, Ignatius began a process of religious conversion that led to the abandonment of his older way of life and eventually to the journey that culminated in the gathering of “companions” in Paris that became the Society of Jesus.

Ludolf’s style resembles that of an effective preacher: he creates vivid images of people and places, drawing upon sensory language and lovingly described detail to draw the reader (and listener) into the story in a way that the Spiritual Exercises would do two centuries later. Yet unlike Ignatius, Ludolf recounts his story in a leisurely discursive style characteristic of the time before the printing press when oral communication was one of the primary means by which the content of a text was shared. Ludolf’s Vita Christi was thus the ideal volume for a reader such as Ignatius faced with forced inactivity, yet it would contribute to the spirituality of the relentlessly active Society.

Ludolf’s monumental devotional work also contains the earliest known use of the word “Jesuita,” here signifying someone who has been redeemed by Jesus Christ ab ipso Jesu dicemur Jesuitae, id est, a Salvatore salvati.

The version of the Vita Christi read by Ignatius, who at this point in his career had received relatively little formal schooling, was in Castilian Spanish.

This presentation of the life of Christ, filled with references to Patristic and medieval theologians, reminds us that Ignatius himself was born a medieval aristocrat in a corner of Europe not yet touched by the innovations of the Renaissance, surrounded by the social mores, devotional practices, liturgy, and ecclesiastical symbolism of that earlier world. This world knew little or nothing of the Western Hemisphere or the Far East, and conceived of Biblical events in the context of everyday Western European life. Indeed, it would not be an exaggeration to say that Ignatius, one of the central figures of the era of European exploration and expansion, first experienced the Person for whom the Society he founded was named in this pre-modern context.

Part One offers the Temptation of Christ as a solitary dialogue in the desert, bereft of any props or scenery.   Christ and the Tempter are presented simply and at first glance almost as equals standing side by side facing the viewer. The individual undertakings of Jesuits, scattered in the coming centuries across remote missionary locations, and often characterized by debates and dialogues, are perhaps foreshadowed in this illustration.

Each chapter in the Vita Christi concludes with a prayer. In contrast to Ludolf’s discursive prose, filled with asides, quotations, interpretations, and tangents, his prayers are more succinct, rising eloquently to a crescendo. In Ludolf’s day both narrative and prayer would have been read aloud. The prayer following Part One, Chapter 66, reads in part:

O Blessed forerunner and loving Baptist, great friend of Jesus, brightly shining and warmly burning light, pray to God, the father of mercies, for me in my misery, that by imitating you for Christ, so that he may brighten and set aflame my dark and cold heart….

Centuries later, Jesuit schools would perpetuate the use of spoken Latin in dramas, debates, and other public performances. The immediacy of Ludolf’s prose and the grace of his poetry indirectly shaped elements of Jesuit Latinity for years to come. Yet, the spoken Latinity of Ludolf’s work stands in contrast to the models followed by Jesuit educators, not least because the Latin prose that Ignatius learned at the University of Paris drew from Cicero and other classical authors rather than from the Patristic sources and the Vulgate that were Ludolf’s inspiration.  This difference is significant, since the Jesuit embrace of the reinvigorated Humanist Latin ideal of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries placed Jesuit schooling in the center of an educational program that rejected medieval scholastic models and sought to keep Latin a living mode of communication.”

Quoted from:   SPIRITUAL JOURNEYS Books Illustrating the First Two Centuries of Contemplation and Action of the Society of Jesus.  Copyright 2009 Pius XII Memorial Library, Saint Louis University. Site created: 07/15/2009

http://libraries.slu.edu/digital/spiritual-journeys/ludolph.html

Ludolphus of Saxony and the beginning of western meditation. And the creation of the word ” Jesuita”. e 994G Ludolphus de Saxonia                d. 1378 Vita Christi.          $35,000 Large Folio 17 ½  x 12 ½ inches.