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peirates · 5 years ago

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Photo taken from [Baalbek Roman Temple]

Latin was originally spoken by an eponymous group of ancient Italians. One of these Latin cities, the Romans, spread the language by conquering all of Italy, later the Mediterranean, then much of Europe and the Middle East. Although rarely spoken now, it is the mother of all Romance languages and contributes to about a third of English vocabulary. Its influence has since spread across the world through European imperialism; there are few places left that are completely unaffected by the Romans’ language and culture.

This particular post serves as both a beginner’s guide and a taster to what Latin is, with some common vocabulary along the way. Especially since many people are currently stuck at home due to Covid-19, and may like to stay occupied by learning a new language. Hope you enjoy!

N.B. Anything beginning with an asterisk (*) means that you may hear differently elsewhere, for example on Duolingo.

General

Latin is fundamentally a very difficult language, even for academics, and even if your native tongue is Romance. But I am not saying not to try, I am saying it is normal to struggle!

All ‘U’s were then written as ‘V’s, and all ‘J’s as ‘I’s. Modern Latin-learning tends to replace some ‘V’s with ‘U’s in order to facilitate reading. We have lost the exact pronunciations of classical Latin, not to mention differences between dialects, but the following explanations are some of the strongest estimates.

*‘V’ should be normally pronounced as /ʍ/, when between consonants as /u/.

*A standalone ‘I’ before another vowel becomes /j/ or /dʒ/.

Iuppiter servum in exilium pepulit.

[ Ivppiter servvm in exilivm pepvlit. ]

[ Yoo-pi-ter ser-woom in e-xi-li-oom pe-poo-lit. ]

Jupiter drove the slave into exile.

Iuppiter, Iovis (3, m.) - Jupiter, king of the gods servus, servi (2, m.) - slave in + acc. - into, to exilium, exilii (2, n.) - exile pello, pellere, pepuli, pulsum (3) - drive out, push, repel

Latin generally follows a SOV (subject, object, verb) sentence structure:

rex regnum amat.

The king loves his kingdom.

rex, regis (3, m.) - king regnum, regni (2, n.) - kingdom; power amo, amare, amavi, amatum (1) - love, like

There are no definite or indefinite articles (a/the) - normally, you must add them to your translation yourself depending on the context. There are relative pronouns (e.g. qui/quae/quod - who, which), demonstrative pronouns (e.g. hic/haec/hoc - this; he/she/it) and many other pronouns/determiners, but they are not required for every sentence.

*Unlike English, you do not capitalise the sentence’s first letter UNLESS that first letter is part of a name.

Most meanings are conveyed via changes in word endings (i.e. it relies on conjugating and declining) rather than word order. This makes Latin an inflected language.

Nouns

While English uses word order to show how nouns and adjectives relate to a situation, Latin uses endings and cases from different declensions to do the same. Latin uses 7 cases, but 2 of them (vocative and locative) are rarer.

nominative (nom.) - subject

vocative (voc.) - addressee: often follows ‘o’

accusative (acc.) - object

genitive (gen.) - possessor (of/‘s)

dative (dat.) - recipient (to/for)

ablative (abl.) - movement away (from) / instrumental (by/with) / location (at/in)

locative (loc.) - location (at/in)

Here’s an example with all 7 in action:

pater, o Attice, donum Iovis matri cum comite Romae dedit.

Atticus, my father gave Jupiter’s gift to my mother with his comrade in Rome.

pater, patris (3, m.) - father donum, doni (2, n.) - gift, present mater, matris (3, f.) - mother cum + abl. (only used for people) - with comes, comitis (3, m/f.) - companion, comrade, partner Roma, Romae (1, f.) - Rome do, dare, dedi, datum (1) - give; surrender, hand over

Noun endings change in case, gender and number. There are three genders: masculine (m.), feminine (f.), and neuter (n.). The two grammatical numbers are singular (sg.) and plural (pl.). A noun will abide by the endings of one of five possible declensions.

In dictionaries, like above, you will see a noun given as ‘nominative, genitive (declension, gender) - English meaning’. The genitive is always featured because it is the only case whose ending is specific to its own declension (other endings may be seen across declensions but have different cases each time). Therefore, if you know what a noun’s genitive is, you know what declension it is, and vice versa.

Adjectives

An adjective agrees with its related noun in case, gender and number. However, they do not always have the same endings; all adjectives decline as either 2nd m. / 1st / 2nd n. (also seen as 2-1-2) or 3rd.

Here, every adjective agrees with the adjacent noun in case, gender and number, but none has the same ending:

omnis puella, mulier pulchra, homo sapiens, puer stultus

every girl, the beautiful woman, the wise man, a foolish boy

omnis, omne (3) - every, all; whole puella, puellae (1, f.) - girl mulier, mulieris (3, f.) - woman pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum (2-1-2) - beautiful, handsome homo, hominis (3, m.) - man; human being sapiens, sapientis (3) - wise, knowing puer, pueri (2, m.) - boy stultus, stulta, stultum (2-1-2) - stupid, foolish

N.B. With exceptions, most Latin adjectives follow the noun.

However, that is not to say that nouns and adjectives can never have the same endings. They often do: Roman writers used this frequently as a literary device known as homoioteleuton.

equus magnus, feminae parvae, homines sapientes, dona laeta

a big horse, little women, wise men, the happy gifts

equus, equi (2, m.) - horse magnus, magna, magnum (2-1-2) - big, great, large femina, feminae (1, f.) - woman parvus, parva, parvum (2-1-2) - little, small laetus, laeta, laetum (2-1-2) - happy, cheerful, blessed

Sometimes you see an adjective without a noun. When this happens, translate the adjective as an adjective AND a noun:

fortis horrenda diu passus est.

The brave man suffered horrible things for a long time.

fortis, forte (3) - brave, strong, bold horrendus, horrenda, horrendum (2-1-2) - horrible, terrible, horrendous diu (adv.) - for a long time patior, pati, passus sum (3, deponent) - suffer, endure; allow, permit

N.B. horrenda is in the accusative neuter plural, hence ‘things’.

Verbs

The doers of verbs are shown by verb endings, unlike English which requires personal pronouns. Nominative personal pronouns can support a verb in Latin, but they are not required. They are best used to show contrast, unity or general emphasis - as if someone were pointing a finger at you - and this is why they are not seen often. Both sentences below are grammatically correct, but the second flows better:

ego dormire amo, tu dormire amas, nos amici apti sumus.

dormire amo, dormire amas, amici apti sumus.

I like to sleep, you like to sleep, we are suitable friends.

dormio, dormire, dormivi, dormitum (4) - sleep ego, me, mei (pers. pron.) - I, me, my tu, te, tui (pers. pron.) - you, you, your nos, nos, nostri (pers. pron.) - we, we, our amicus, amici; amica, amicae (2/1, m./f.) - friend aptus, apta, aptum (2-1-2) - suitable, apt, appropriate sum, esse, fui, futurum (irreg.) - be; be alive, exist, live

Latin uses the following tenses: present, future, future perfect, perfect, imperfect and pluperfect - and each comes with its own set of endings. There are also participles, supines, infinitives, imperatives, gerunds, gerundives, actives, passives, deponents and other structures to show contemporary, previous, subordinate or hypothetical events - these also come with their own stems and endings, but they often work like adjectives and so are not entirely unrecognisable.

Dictionaries present verbs as ‘present active, present active infinitive, perfect active, supine (conjugation)’. There are 4 conjugations, which are different sets of verb endings.

All Latin verbs come as either 1. active (I kill), 2. passive (I am killed) or 3. deponent (passive in form, active in meaning). Each comes with its own set of endings.

1. hic homo me interficit!

This man is killing me!

2. hic homo interficitur!

This man is being killed!

3. hic homo me interficere conatur!

This man is trying to kill me!

hic, haec, hoc (pron.) - this; he/she/it interficio, interficere, interfeci, interfectum (3) - kill, destroy conor, conari, conatus sum (1, deponent) - try, attempt

N.B. While most verbs can be active or passive interchangeably, deponents never switch. They are never seen with active endings or passive meanings.

The indicative (1) and subjunctive (2) moods distinguish expectations from reality. The indicative presents facts, while the subjunctive anything hypothetical from questions to wishes to fears. Each mood comes with its own set of endings.

1. vir dives me cupit.

The rich man wants me.

2. vir dives me cupiat.

May the rich man want me.

vir, viri (2, m.) - man; husband dives, divitis (gen.) (3) - rich, wealthy; wealthy man cupio, cupere, cupivi, cupitum (3) - desire, want, long for

Learning ancient versus modern languages

I’ve seen language-learners new to Latin comment on the difference in tone and content, sometimes even being discouraged by it.

Learning an ancient language which is no longer spoken today, i.e. ‘dead’, is very different from learning a modern foreign language. Some basic techniques don’t change, such as how to memorise vocab. However, the overall approaches are different because the overall goals are different - unless the goal is simple pure enjoyment, which is in fairness the best reason to learn!

Modern language studies are to encourage international communication and many other reasons.

Ancient language studies are almost entirely to study the ancient world, how it led to the modern world, and this is mostly done through analysing ancient sources in their original languages.

When studying Latin, you therefore are more likely to learn heavy vocabulary such as ‘die’ or ‘sacrifice’ before you learn ‘take a bath’ - some of the examples I use in this post aren’t cheerful. Classicists learn how to translate heavier content first because it is more commonly mentioned in the ancient sources which the entire subject relies upon - death comes up much more frequently in Caesar’s Gallic Wars than greetings.

Recommended resources

- Duolingo Latin course - if you want to learn Latin as you would a modern language.

- Memrise Latin courses - almost infinite number of vocabulary and idiom lists.

- Massolit Classics ($) - online lectures covering Greek and Roman history, culture and literature.

- Amazon page for John Taylor ($) - esteemed author of Latin textbooks from beginner level up.

- William Whitaker’s Words - reliable vocabulary translator in both directions.

- Perseus Digital Library - public archive of ancient texts in their original languages and many different English translations.

- Logeion - online dictionary for Latin and Classical Greek.

Final Word

Absolutely do not fret if anything confuses you; like all things worth doing, understanding and applying it will take time. I am making more in-depth posts on various aspects of Latin grammar and vocab, with exercises, in the very near future, so hold on tight. Thank you for reading!

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rainycloudh-blog · 6 years ago

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Dictionary of literary terms (A-U)

Alliteration:

The repetition of sounds at the beginning of words. It is what gives many a tongue twister its twist: How can a clam cram in a clean cream can.

Allusion:

An (in)direct reference to another text, e.g. the Bible

Anaphora:

The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses.

Antagonist:

An antagonist is the opponent to the protagonist/main character.

Antithesis:

A rhetorical or literary device in which an opposition or contrast of ideas is expressed.

Bias:

A prejudice for or against one person or group, especially in a way considered to be unfair.

Broadsheet:

A newspaper with a large format, traditionally regarded as more serious and less sensationalist than tabloids.

Byline:

A line at the top of an article giving the writer's name.

Caption:

A text that accompanies a photograph or illustration.

Character:

Character is the term used about the persons in a work of fiction. We distinguish between main characters (see below) and minor characters. In contrast to the main characters, who may be round and dynamic, the minor characters tend to be rather flat: they do not change or develop.

Chorus:

Part of a song that is repeated after each verse (= refrain in poetry)

Cliché:

A cliché is an idea or phrase that has been used so much that it does not have any meaning any more.

Climax:

The climax is the moment at which the conflict comes to its point of greatest intensity and is resolved. It is also the peak of emotional response from the reader.

Column:

a. A regular article on a particular subject or by a particular writer.

b. A vertical division of a page or a text.

Composition

Composition is the term used about the structure or organization of the events in a story – the elements of a text. A typical composition gives the events in chronological order, maybe with a flashback or two.

Dialogue:

Dialogue is a conversation between two or more characters in a piece of literature. It can be written as direct speech (with quotation marks and “he said”) or the conversation can be presented as indirect speech (reported speech), not using the exact words used by the characters.

Editorial:

A newspaper article expressing the editor's opinion on a topical issue.

Ellipsis:

Ellipsis is the term used when there is a significant jump in time to a later point in the story. The word refers to the fact that something has been left out.

Essay:

An essay is a composition giving the writer’s personal thoughts on or opinion of a particular subject or theme.

Ethos:

A form of appeal based on the speaker's character (e.g. reliability).

Exposition:

Exposition is a narrative technique that provides some background and informs the reader about the plot, character, setting, and theme of a story. In classical short stories, the exposition will be placed in the opening, but in modern short stories it may be placed anywhere – or even left out.

Figurative language:

Figurative language is often associated with poetry, but it actually appears quite often in prose as well. It describes things through metaphors and other figures of speech.

First-person narrator:

The first-person narrator uses an “I”, takes part in the story but has no direct access to the thoughts and feelings of the other characters. Be aware that the “I” can only see things from his/her own point of view, and this also limits the reader to that one perspective – can he/she be trusted? (See unreliable narrator.)

Flashback: Flashback is an entire scene which leaves the chronological narration for a while and jumps back in time from the point which the story has reached. The purpose of a flashback is to provide background for present events.

Flashforward:

Flashforward is an entire scene which leaves the chronological narration for a while and jumps forward in time from the point the story has reached. The opposite of flashback.

Foreshadowing:

Foreshadowing is hints or clues in a story that suggest what will happen later. Some authors use foreshadowing to create suspense or to convey information that helps readers understand what comes later.

Formal language:

Formal language is a style of writing that often uses fairly complex sentences and neutral, sometimes technical, words that tend to be more difficult/abstract than common everyday words. Formal language is often used in official public notices, business situations, and polite conversations with strangers.

Genre:

We say a poem, novel, short story, fairy tale, etc. belongs to a particular genre if it shares at least a few characteristics with other works in that genre.

Hero:

The hero is the central character around whom the events revolve and with whom the audience is intended to identify. If the hero is female, we may use the term heroine. If the hero (or heroine) has an opponent, the villain would often be the preferred term for him (or her). If the hero behaves in an unheroic way, we could talk about an anti-hero.

Informal language:

Informal language is a style of writing that uses everyday (spoken) language. It usually uses simple sentences and everyday words, sometimes slang and/or dialect.

Imagery:

Imagery is the use of vivid description, usually rich in words that appeal to the senses, to create pictures, or images, in the reader's mind.

In medias res:

In medias res is the term used when a story does not begin at the beginning, introducing the setting, the characters or the context of events, but instead opens “in the middle of things” (this is what the term means in Latin).

In retrospect:

Most stories are told in the past tense, thus indicating that they describe past events. But some stories - especially first-person narratives - make this much clearer than others, probably to remind the reader that the narrator is no longer the same; he or she is now older, maybe even wiser. The reader also understands, of course, that the events still mean something to the narrator. A story like this is told in retrospect, we say.

Interior monologue:

The written representation of a character's inner thoughts, impressions and memories as if the reader "overhears" them directly without the intervention of a narrator or another selecting and organizing mind.

Inverted pyramid:

The metaphor used in journalism to illustrate the placing of the most important information first.

Limited point of view:

A narrator with a limited point of view knows only the thoughts and feelings of a single character, while other characters are presented only from the outside. This is also called a restricted point of view.

Logos:

Appealing to the receiver's logic and reason.

Main character:

The main character is the central character around whom the events revolve and with whom the audience is intended to most identify.

Metaphor:

A direct comparison, used when you describe someone or something as if they were something else. If the comparison uses the words 'as' or 'like', it is called a simile: Human breath is like a dangerous weapon.

Narrator:

The narrator is the one who tells a story, the speaker or “the voice” of an oral or written work. Although it can happen, the narrator is rarely the same person as the author.

Novel:

A novel is a long and complex story, usually with several characters and many related events.

Omniscient narrator:

An omniscient narrator has a godlike perspective, seeing and knowing everything that happens, including what all the characters are thinking and feeling.

Onomatopoeia:

A term used about words that sound like the thing that they are describing. Animal sounds may be the best examples: quack, meow, croak, and roar!

Oxymoron:

A paradoxical antithesis with only two words: freshly frozen, deathly life.

Parallelism:

The use of successive verbal constructions in poetry or prose which correspond in grammatical structure, sound, metre, meaning, etc. E.g. Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I may remember. Involve me and I will learn.

Paraphrase:

When working with difficult and/or condensed texts - typically poetry (and Shakespeare's plays), it is a good idea to make a paraphrase of the text to clarify its meaning. To make a paraphrase, you "translate" somebody else's words into your own, thus making the text simpler but without losing its essential meaning. A paraphrase is written in prose and can be done line by line, stanza by stanza, or whatever suits the text and your purpose.

Pathos:

Appealing to the receiver's emotions.

Personification:

A figure of speech which gives human qualities to inanimate objects, animals and ideas. The wind can howl, cats can smile, and hope can die.

Plot (and story):

The plot of a story is the order in which the author has chosen to tell the events of a story. It may or may not be chronological. The chronological order in which those events would have happened is called story.

Point of view:

The position from which the events of a story are observed or considered is called point of view. The author must choose to present the story from either a neutral point of view, one person’s point of view, or the points of view of several characters. They can be participants in the events, or simply observers.

Protagonist:

Protagonist is another term for the central character around whom the events revolve and with whom the audience is intended to most identify. If the protagonist has an opponent, he/she would be called the antagonist.

Receiver:

In the communication model it is the general term used for the audience/listener/reader.

Refrain:

The part of a song of poem that is repeated, especially at the end of each verse (song) or stanza (poem).

Rhetoric:

The art of using language in a way that is effective or that influences people - rhetorical device.

Rhetorical question:

A question you answer yourself, or that needs no answer.

Rhyme:

When two words sound the same, especially at the end of each line.

Rhythm:

- or metre - a sequence of feet. A foot is a combination of stressed and unstressed syllables. The most common foot is an iamb: an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one, as in da-DUM.

Scene:

In prose fiction, a scene is one part of the story during which there is no change in time or place.

Second-person narrator:

The second-person narrator uses a “you” about the main characters and his/her actions. It will feel as if this type of narrator is addressing the reader, or as if the reader is a character in the story, which is quite weird, and therefore a second-person narrator is rarely seen.

Sender:

In the communication model it is the general term used for the speaker/writer.

Setting:

Setting refers to the time and place of a story. If the focus is on the conditions and/or values and norms of people at a particular time and place, we talk about milieu or social environment.

Short story:

Short story is the term used about a brief work of prose fiction which usually focuses on one incident, has a single plot, a single setting and few characters. It tends to provide little action, hardly any character development, but simply a snapshot of life.

Showing: Showing is a narrative technique in which a character’s feelings and mood etc. are expressed in an indirect way (through what the character says and/or does) so that the reader may create his/her own images and understanding.

Six Ws:

The six elements that must be covered in an article: What has happened to Who, Where and When, How and Why.

SOAPSTone:

Acronym for the elements you look at when analysing non-fiction: Speaker - Occasion - Audience - Purpose - Subject - Tone.

Sonnet:

A classical poetic form which has 14 lines, subdivided through its rhymes into two parts. The Petrarchan or Italian sonnet: I = 8 lines, an octave, rhyming abbaabba, and II = 6 lines, a sestet, rhyming cdcdcd (or cdecde). The metre is an iambic pentameter (da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM). Shakespeare created his own version which has slightly different rhymes.

Standfirst:

An introductory paragraph in an article, separated from the body of the text, which summarizes the article.

Stanza:

The grouping of lines in a poem, like the 'paragraphs' of the poem.

Strapline:

An additional headline above or below the main headline.

Stream of consciousness:

In literature, stream of consciousness is a narrative technique in which a character’s thoughts and feelings are expressed as a continuous flowing series of images and ideas running through the mind, thus imitating the way humans think.

Symbol:

A symbol is an object, a person or an event that represents or stands for something else, usually a general quality or an abstract idea.

Tabloid:

A newspaper with small pages, traditionally popular in style and dominated by sensational stories, e.g. The Sun. Today, also some serious newspapers use the small size.

Telling:

Telling is a narrative technique in which the narrator tells the reader directly what characterizes the characters in a story – what they are like.

Theme:

Theme is the central idea, opinion or message that is expressed in the story. The heart and soul of the story.

Third-person narrator:

The third-person narrator uses “he”, “she” or (more rarely) “they”. This type of narrator provides the greatest flexibility to the author and is therefore the most commonly used narrator in literature. The third-person narrator’s point of view is what determines the type even more. If the point of view is from the outside, with no access to the thoughts and feelings of the characters, we call it an objective third-person narrator. If the narrator has access to one character’s thoughts and feelings, it is a limited (or restricted) third-person narrator. And finally, if the narrator has access to the thoughts and feelings of several characters, it is an omniscient third-person narrator.

Tricolon:

A list of three items, building to a climax, e.g. ... the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth.

Turning point: A turning point is a point (usually an event) in a story where the plot takes a (sometimes unexpected) turn, and things change because of this. In long texts, there may be more than one turning point.

Unreliable narrator:

An unreliable narrator (usually a first-person narrator) gives his or her own understanding of a story, instead of the explanation and interpretation the author wishes the reader to obtain.

#college #university #dictionary #list #english literature #english lit major

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certified-translation-us · 2 years ago

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French To Arabic Translation Facts

French to Arabic Translation Considering the fact that English language is very common and not so much a difficult language, many people can easily find their way through translating from other languages to English. However, one question I would like to put across to you is how much do you know about the process of translating from French language to Arabic language? Well, in case you are not sure, this article has been designed to guide you the basics you need to arm yourself with when considering translating your documents from French to Arabic. Ready for this? Pull up a couch and read on. A translation is never word-for-word Translation is never a word-for-word translation. Your translator should always translate the sentence and understand the context in which it was written, not only focus on what the words mean. Machine translation engines like Google's free service can help, but nothing will replace human assistance. They can make up for not knowing vocabulary or having difficulty understanding the meaning of certain words by adjusting sentences or choosing synonyms with different meanings. Our French-Arabic translation search engine can help you find the best translator for your needs. There are only about 70,000 words in the average language French language translation is necessary for many people and groups of people around the world who need French. There are only about 70,000 words in the average major languages. With so few words, even a native speaker can struggle with writing and speaking fluently. The same goes for translators who work on French texts or texts in other languages, such as Arabic. A foreign language translator will have experience translating all sorts of French texts such as official correspondence, technical documents, oral interviews, websites and others. There are many types of translation services available at Language Trends including literary translation services, document translation services and more! Many languages use similar prefixes and suffixes One factor that sets French and Arabic apart as languages is the influence that other languages have had on each. France was influenced by the Germanic invasions in the 5th century, where as Arab culture was influenced by Iranian, Semitic, Turkic and European cultures. One more thing that sets these two languages apart is how similar they are in their morphology, meaning the way each word changes form depending on its grammatical context. The French verb 'faire' for example changes into 'fait' when followed by an object (which means 'do'). In English this would not happen, as there is only one infinitive form of a verb- do. A further reason for why these two languages are very different despite similarities is because of the different linguistic features in each. Grammar is more than just nouns and verbs All you need to know about translating French to Arabic is that translators are special and do more than just translate the language. They are a cultural connector, providing a bridge for people who speak different languages. If you have specific content needs, translators can use specialized resources that allow them access to other languages that would otherwise be inaccessible without additional effort. The more advanced translators have access and the ability not only to translate but also to create translated content in as many target languages as needed. This is where a business may seek translation for branding materials, advertisements, marketing content, and more. There is also a database of translators available with searchable criteria that allow companies looking for linguists with particular expertise such in engineering, journalism, law etc. Some languages have different grammar rules than English Arabic is spoken in many different countries and has a rich culture that's also largely unexplored. This can make translation a complex process because the language's grammar rules are different than those of English. Know the list of the most common English words. Here are 5 top facts about translating from French to Arabic for your edification. 1) French is not an official language of the Arab world, but there are many more speakers of it than one might expect. 2) Technically speaking, the word arab refers to any native speaker of the language, but in most cases it's used when referencing an inhabitant of the Middle East and North Africa region who shares its common faith and culture. 3) The Arabic language includes over 100 million people across all dialects. 4) Arabs speak what's called Modern Standard Arabic or MSA, which is similar to other modern European languages like French and Spanish with some exceptions that exist between their respective cultures. 5) French is considered an official language in Tunisia while Algeria recognizes both French and Arabic as co-official languages under their constitution, which was amended after independence from France. The best translators can speak their source language fluently French is the official language of 29 countries. French translation into Arabic is sometimes very difficult, and this is because the best translators can speak their source language fluently. For example, if someone has studied Spanish for four years in high school and one year at college, then they would be considered fluent in Spanish. This can also be referred to as being native-level in a language. It's also worth noting that French translation into Latin or Romanian would also be challenging for someone who does not have knowledge of these languages. This is because there are not many resources available on these two languages that are accessible enough for an individual who doesn't know the vocabulary or grammar of these languages. Good translation takes time When you're dealing with a large number of words, translators should allow for time and make sure that the translation is read over before publishing it. It's no use publishing hastily translated content that makes no sense because it's been done in a rush and your customers are more likely to share those errors than things that make sense. When translating between languages there are always linguistic difficulties and differences but when you translate French into Arabic, there are additional issues that arise. Unlike English, Arabic does not have a letter for every sound so some letters have to be used in different ways depending on the word they're being used with. There are also many different dialects which mean that one person might say ma while another says man or the, meaning the same thing can be spelled differently as well as spoken differently. Finally, because most people speak less formal Arabic at home and more formal Arabic at work or school (there are only two dialects), people will sometimes use phrases that would sound strange if translated literally without understanding what they mean such as What is this? instead of asking What is this? (In this case they don't want someone else telling them what something is). FAQ'S Arabic is the native language of 220 million people, most of whom live in the Middle East and North Africa.The best French-Arabic translation service is often determined by the customer's needs and budget. For example, if you're looking for a one-time document translation, then a standalone French-Arabic online translator will suffice.Since French is the official language of France, it's only natural that a translator would know how to speak it. Read the full article

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soul-error-blog · 7 years ago

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Part I – Understanding Language Revision

Unit 1. What is Language? Introducing the study of Language

Whatever else people do when they come together – when ether play, fight, make automobiles, construct buildings or raise children – they talk. We live in a world of language. We talk to our friends, our associates, our parents, our lovers, our teachers, our rivals, even our enemies. Hardly a moment of our waking lives is free from words, and even in our dreams we talk and are talked too. The possession of language, perhaps more than any other attribute, distinguishes humans from other animals. To understand our humanity, one must understand the nature of language that makes us human. According to the philosophy expressed in the myths and religions of many peoples, language is the source of human life and power. Language is involved in a wide variety of human situations, perhaps every situation. If something permeates every aspect of human life and is so complex that we cannot measure its influence, we should study it. The scientific study of language is one of the keys to understanding much of human behavior. The study of language will not in itself solve all the world’s problems. It is useful enough to make people aware that these problems of language exist and that they are widespread and complex.

Some of the questions we discussed in class was answered but many of the questions concerning language and its functions not only as a means of communication, but also as a means of many other functions – such as language as a tool of interaction between people, language as highly productive system of new, language as representation, language as a tool of expressing power and identity, language as a system of signs, language expressing and embodying one’s cultural realities and etc., are still to be discovered and worked on during the second part of the semester. Despite the countless questions of the study of language that could be asked and researched for an adequate answer, we reached that point of knowing that some of the fundamental questions could be answered with confidence, such as:

What is language?

What do we know when we know a language?

2. Do other animals, such as chimpanzees using American sign language, show linguistic capacities?

3. How did language originate? How did it contribute to the human evolution and the development of culture?

4. How are languages acquired?

5. How can languages be classified to show the relationships among them?

6. . What is linguistic competence?

What is communicative competence?

7. What is meaning? How is it bestowed? How is it learned?

We can use many definitions of language and also create our own definition based on our knowledge:

Q1. Put your own definition on what language is………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Why study language?

The possession of language, perhaps more than any other attribute, distinguishes humans from other animals.

To understand our humanity, we must understand the nature of language

We must have understanding of the complexity of the systems that humans use to express complex thoughts and ideas

Language also reflects one’s self-identity

It is inseparable from our day to day interaction with other individuals

Studying languages reveals interesting facts about other cultures and societies

The study of language has many practical applications:

- design computers that can interact with humans using language (all operating systems use language and its structure for their functions)

- appliances for people prevented from hearing to process and understand the spoken language

- apps for translation, and etc.

More………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

What do you know when you know a language?

Knowledge of the sound system – what sounds are in that language and what sounds are not (phonetics)

Knowledge of words – knowing that certain sound sequences signify certain concepts of meaning (morphology and lexicon)

Knowledge how to order these sound sequences into larger meaningful speech chains – phrases and sentences (syntax)

Knowledge of the grammatical rules and how to use them effectively (grammar)

More………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

But evidently, there is a difference between having the knowledge necessary to produce sentences of a language and applying this knowledge. It is a difference between what you know, which your linguistic competence is, and how you use this knowledge in actual speech production and comprehension, which is your linguistic performance.

Unit 2. Language as a system of signs

A human language is a highly elaborate system of signs which is used both for communication and to support and guide thought. It is a primary means of creative expression for individuals and groups. Languages consist of tens of thousands of signs, which are combinations of form and meaning. Form in spoken languages is a sequence of sounds, in written languages, for example, a sequence of letters (depending on what kind of writing system we are talking about) and in the sign language of the deaf people a certain combination of gestures.

According to F. de Saussure “Language is a system, orderly set of rules and words related to each other” and

language system is consisted of sign units representing different meaning that are related to each other and can be combined following specific rules to form word chains, phrases, sentence and bigger discourse units. The sign is the central fact of language.

A language represents a vast repository of conventional understandings and cultural traditions: as such it shapes our view of the world. There are many different languages and there are also many different worldviews embodied by them.

Important: Language is symbolic in more ways than can be summarized in a sentence or paragraph, but generally we are talking about how symbols can stand for something else, how they can be used to communicate, and how they can be filled with meaning, in this sense is the explanation of Saussure about the linguistic unit (word) that is the linguistic sign having two-sided psychological entity that can be represented by two properties:

Signifier ‘ROSE’ Signified

form mental concept

(written or acoustic) (the image that we have in our mind)

The sings are arbitrary insofar as there is no direct link between the form and the meaning of a sign.

Important: Communication depends on accessing a system of signs. The signs of language follow conventions implicitly accepted by groups of people who use the language. The language also has conventions for, when and how to combine signs. Together, the signs and conventions provide a rich system of communicative choices. Successful communication requires these signs to be shared: otherwise non-communication or miscommunication results. Successful communication also requires shared knowledge and assumptions.

Q1. Arbitrary or Iconic – ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Q2. Arbitrary or Iconic - ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………

coo-coo, woof , meow/miaow

Q3. Who says what is right and what is wrong in the use of language signs? ……………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Unit 3. The evolution of language

Some theories on evolution of language

Chars Darwin’s vision about the origin of the language.

“It is a natural process developed from the musical ability close to language production used to impress each other.”

The divine source theory.

All religions and mythologies contain stories of language origin. Philosophers through the ages have argued the question. Scholarly works have written. Despite the difficulty of finding scientific evidence, speculations on language origin have provided valuable insights into the nature and development of language. According to Judeo-Christian beliefs, God gave Adam the power to name all things. Similar beliefs are found throughout the world. Belief in the divine origin of language is intertwined with the supernatural properties that have been associated with the spoken word. Children in all cultures utter magic words like abracadabra ward off evil or bring good luck. While myths, customs and superstitions do not tell us very much about the importance ascribed to language. Among the proponents of the divine origin theory, a great interest arose in the language used by God, or given to Adam. For millennia ‘scientific’ experiments have reportedly been devised to verify particular theories of the first language.

Social Interaction source

Language does not exist in a vacuum, but rather requires a community of speakers who can use it. One question is whether, in the course of human evolution, the size of the social community had any influence on whether the language was necessary, or not. The social hypothesis for language origin is premised on the claim that language evolved out of the great need of human to cooperate and organize their social life within the social group to establish social relationships – grooming, mating, motherhood, leadership, managing everyday life which enhancing the chances of surviving and producing healthy offspring. It is a complex process - early humans must have reached a certain level of cognitive capacity before language began to evolve at the social level, and possibly began to influence the evolution of human cognition further along the way.

The natural sound source.

According to Otto Jespersen and the “bow-wow” theory or “pooh–pooh” theory: The evolution of human language resulted from the natural reaction of humans to imitate the sounds of the surrounded environment and animals.

Onomatopoeia - 1. the formation of words whose sound is imitative of the sound of the noise or action designated, such as hiss, buzz, and bang http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Onomatopoea

2.the naming of a thing or action by a vocal imitation of the sound associated with it (as buzz, hiss) http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/onomatopoeia

The physical adaptation source

The main idea behind this theory is that despite looking only for the social dynamics – changes in society and culture must have played a central role in the entire evolutionary process in language origins, but linguistic production and comprehension presupposes the development of the specific human features distinct from other creatures involved in the productions and comprehension of language – teeth and lips, mouth and tongue, larynx and pharynx, brain size increased, the development of these features made it possible for the speech to be produced and comprehended.

Tool-making source

Humans started to making tools and manipulating objects using both hands. This theory leads to the subject of the increase of the human brain and development of the manual gestures that may have been a precursor of language: the connection between oral expression and gestures. Once learned to use the both hands for making tools and using them in their everyday interaction and food gathering, humans developed the capacity for using hands in the expression of some manual gestures used for communication and organization of the everyday life. This is evidence that humans developed brain capacity that works.

Q1. What was the case study discussed in class disproving the divine source theory?

Q2. Write down the peculiar features of the human, responsible for the production of speech:……………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Q3. What is your understanding of the graphics below? How is the evolution of language explained?

Unit 4. Animals and Human Language

The primary means of human language is to be used as a code of communication. But all animate creatures have some forms of communication. When we communicate we have some signs – signals. We should first distinguish between specifically communicative signals and those which may be unintentionally informative signals (body language). So, it is very important, when we talk about the distinctions between human language and animal communication to consider both in terms of their potential as a means of intentional communication. During the discussion in class on the topic we provided so many examples in support of the claim that, although enormously complex (remember the system of communication of the bees when they communicate the location of the source of food to the other members of the family), animal systems are quite different from the human language. The characteristics of human language are known as the properties of language that are distinct from the communicative systems of those of the animals.

Properties of Human Language:

Displacement – communication about things or events that are distant in time or space. Communication about abstract things which existence is uncertain.

Arbitrariness - There is an arbitrary relationship between a signal and its meaning. That is, the signal is related to the meaning by convention or by instinct and has no inherent relationship with the meaning.

Productivity – Language is an open system. We can potentially produce an infinite number of different messages by combining the elements differently.

Cultural transmission – Each generation learns the system of communication from the preceding generation within its social and cultural environment. The vocabulary of the language is not merely an inventory of arbitrary labels – words also convey many kinds of cultural values embedded in their meaning and express the knowledge and understanding of the cultural models of the speakers.

Duality – the duality of patterning is a characteristic of human language whereby speech can be analyzed on two levels:

(1) as made up of meaningless elements (i.e., a limited inventory of sounds or phonemes), and

(2) as made up of meaningful elements (i.e., a virtually limitless inventory of words or morphemes).

That is language can be said to be built up from different units: on the level of phonetics by sounds expressed individually not carrying meaning, only when these strings of sounds are ordered in particular order they form meaningful units that could be recognized by the speaker and have their own meaning.

Ex. [c], [t], [a] mean nothing articulated separately, but articulated as [c΄at] means – domestic small animal, with fluffy fur, producing the sound meow.

Design features of human language

There are three modes of linguistic communication, corresponding to different modes of perception: oral communication, relying on the use of speech and hearing organs, writing, expressing written mode if communication, and signing.

Speaking - the most common vehicle of linguistic communication if the voice, and speech is thus a primary mode of human language, with some advantages over the other modes.

Writing –The representation of language by graphic signs and symbols, is a comparatively recent cultural development, having occurred within the past five thousand years and only in certain parts of the world. Long before the invention of writing, people painted stories on cave walls and exploited other visual signs to record events.

Signing – the third mode, of the use of visible gestures to communicate. To accompany their talk, speakers often use gestures and facial expressions to convey meaning in support of oral communication, but signing can be used as the sole means of accomplishing the work of language.

Animal communication and language

The communication systems of animals are qualitatively different from the language used by humans.

The significant difference between humans’ and animals’ communication is that human use of language is not just an immediate response to external, or even internal, emotional stimuli – animals communicate by fixed stimulus – bound messages while human language possesses the properties listed above and messages can be conveyed in all the modes mentioned. Animal communication is the transmission of a signal from one animal to another such that the sender benefits on the average from the response of the recipient.

Q1. Why can’t chimpanzees speak like humans?

Q2. Do you agree or disagree with the claim that humans have an instinct for language?

Unit 5. The sounds of language. Introduction to phonetics and phonology

Phonetics describes the concrete, physical form of sounds (how they are produced, heard and how they can be described), while phonology is concerned with the function of sounds, that is with their status and inventory in any given language. Letters itself are not studied by phonetics, because of their specific functions as symbols designating particular sounds.

Three main sub-fields of phonetics:

Articulatory phonetics aim to study the process of articulation of the sounds in speech production; Auditory phonetics - the study of hearing and the perception of speech sounds;

Acoustic phonetics - is concerned with the properties of sound waves.

2. Basic tasks of phonetics are the transcription and the classification of sounds also called phonemes in this context. The phoneme is, therefore, the basic unit of phonetics and it refers to the concrete sound substance as such.

3. In representing the phonetic structure of the word we cannot use customary written representations to analyze sound structure because, even within a single language, some sounds correspond to more than one letter, and a letter to more than one sound. Thus, in describing a word pronunciation we need to use the phonetic alphabet that is an independent system to represent the actual sounds and contain a separate character for each distinguishable speech sound.

Sound producing system or Vocal tract

The so-called organs of speech consist of all the movable parts in the oral cavity (mouth), the nasal cavity, the pharynx (throat), and the lungs, together with muscles that move these parts. Collectively this region is the sound-producing system or vocal tract.

Classification of sounds

Traditionally, sounds are classified into consonants and vowels

Consonants are sounds that are produced with a major obstruction in the mouth cavity.

Note: Traditionally, consonants in most European languages are described in terms of three properties:

Voicing - whether the vocal cords are vibrating or not. It is the larynx that is involved in the production of the sound and one producing the voiced (+V) sound can feel the vibration of this organ – it is popularly called Adam’s apple. [zzzzzzzzzz] and [sssssssssssssss] try to pronounce this sounds and you can feel the difference. [z] is pronounced with vibration of the larynx and [s] without. Any sound made with the vocal folds in this position is said to be voiceless (- V).

Manner of articulation – that is whether in the production of the sound the airstream is obstructed with which particular organ of the vocal tract – lips, teeth, or other narrowed passage of the vocal tract. That is there are stops, fricatives, affricates, nasals, liquids, glides.

Place of articulation – where the airstream is most obstructed. Once the air passes through the larynx, it comes up and out through the mouth and/or the nose. According to their place of articulation, consonants are bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal consonants according to manner of articulation

Classification of vowels

Depends on the different position of the tongue in the oral cavity during the process of articulation:

According to its position of the tongue raised from the low part of the oral cavity to the highest place and the very same roof of the cavity - vowels can be classified into high, low, and mid vowels.

According to the part of the tongue involved in the production of the vowels – front, central and back.

Q1. What is consonant cluster like?

Q2. Other articulatory features of the vowels that are discovered in the Indo-European languages are rounding, nasalization and tone. Give a brief explanation of these processes?

Unit 6. Word Formation

Word - a unit of language that speakers can identify. When we think about our native language, the words seem to exist naturally in the language and they are obvious. Language units that we hear are words. The list of words for any language, though not a complete list, is referred to as its lexicon.

1. Word is the container of information

Its sounds and their sequencing (phonetical/phonological information)

Its meaning (semantic information)

How related words, such as the plural forms ( for nouns) of past tense (for verbs), are formed (morphological information)

Its category and how to use it in a sentence (syntactic information)

2. How does a language increase its vocabulary?

New words can be formed from existing words and word parts

Words can be ‘borrowed’ from another language

New words can be made up, created from scratch

2.1. Productive word-formation processes

Borrowing - That is taking the word of a particular thing, process, appliance or something that is newly invented from another language and fulfilling the gap for naming the particular object, ex. lilac (Persian), piano (Italian), ski (Norwegian), tattoo (Tahitian), moccasins (Algonquin language – language of Indian tribes occupied the lands of North Virginia). Borrowing of lexical units is also connected with the development of one nations’ culture – words such as computer, bottle, waffle, or when a nation borrow the use of new invented appliances the word for it is borrowed from the donor language.

Calque (loan-translation) - that is direct translations of the elements of the loan-word form the donor language to recipient language.

Derivation is one of the three major (and most productive) types of word-formation processes visible in English and used in other languages in the world – work-er (derivational suffix used to form a word with different meaning)

Compounding – free morphemes (lexemes) are combined to form new, longer ones - noun + noun (N+N), adjective + adjective (Adj + Adj), adjective + noun (Adj + N). Type of compounding in the process of blending, another word-formation process that is combining two separate forms to produce a single new term – motel (motor/hotel)

2.2. Less productive word-formation processes

Clipping - when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form usually beginning in casual speech – facsimile (fax), gasoline (gas), fanatic (fan), etc. Another type of clipping is hypocorism – a longer word is reduced to a single syllable than –y, or –ie is added – hankie (handkerchief), Barbie (Barbara). Backformation – another type of reduction when from nouns are formed verbs by reducing the form of the noun – babysitter > babysit.

Conversion - the functional shift of a word from one part of speech to another without any change in its form – Prof. Alen is the chair of the comity, but Today prof. Alen will chair the Conduct Council hearing.

Coinage - a process in which a new word is created either deliberately or accidentally without using the other word formation processes and often from seemingly nothing - aspirin, escalator, heroin, band-aid, Frisbee, google,, nylon, Xerox, zipper. Type of coinage is Eponym, or the creation of new words based on someone’s or some place’s name: sandwich, atlas, cardigan (James Thomas Brudnell, 7th Earl of Cardigan), guillotine (Joseph Ignace Guillotin)

Acronyms - AUBGer, NASA, PIN, radar.

Q1. Explain what is the meaning of the term etymology?

Q2. Can you identify the word-formation process in the sentence: Do you have a xerox machine?

Q3. Can you identify the word-formation process in the sentence: Don’t they ever worry that they might get AIDS?

Unit 7. Intro to Morphology

Morphology comes from a Greek word meaning ‘shape’ or ‘form’ and is used in linguistics to denote the study of words, both with regard to:

their internal structure (morphemes, types of morphemes and their combinations) - teach-er

their usage and combination of larger units (phrases, sentences) and the knowledge of their grammatical and lexical categories.

1. Morphemes: Building blocks of words

Morphemes

Words are composed from parts, as in trees = tree + s, and redoable = re + do + able.

Linguists use the term, morpheme, for these parts of words. More precisely speaking - Morpheme is the smallest meaning-bearing unit.

Exercise: Divide the following words into morphemes.

(a) untrue (b) owner (c) incompletely

(d) government (e) development (f) rewrite

(g) fewest (h) immobilize (i) disrespectful

Free vs. bound morphemes

Free morpheme - A morpheme that can stand on its own. Examples: the, cat, people

We tend to consider free morphemes as words. Free morphemes can, but need not, have other morphemes attached to them, as in talk-ing, where talk is a free morpheme.

Bound morpheme - A morpheme that can’t stand on its own. Examples im-, -ize, -ly . A bound morpheme needs to be a subpart of a larger word.

Root (stem): Main morpheme of a word

Root (stem) is the main morpheme of a word, morphologically and probably semantically that carries the main lexical information about the word and one that cannot be decomposed into smaller parts. In English, roots tend to be free morphemes, but there are some bound ones. For example, (1) -fer as in infer and transfer (-fer means „bring‟), (2) ling- as in linguist and lingual

Affix - a morpheme that attaches to others (i.e., to stems)

Types of affixes:

(a) prefix - An affix that goes on the front. We’ll signal that a morpheme is a prefix by ending it with a hyphen, dis-, dis-respectful

(b) suffix - An affix that goes on the end. We’ll signal that a morpheme is a suffix by starting it with a hyphen -ing, -ness, polite-ness

(c) infix: An affix that goes in the middle. We’ll signal that a morpheme is an infix by wrapping it with hyphens. A few examples: un-friggin-believable, abso-bloody-lutely. Infixes are very rare in English, so you can normally suppose that every English affix you encounter is a prefix or a suffix (The only exceptions are affixes like -friggin- or -bloody-) but these are used in the process of making new words as the one demonstrated above.

Derivational or inflectional

Two types of affixes in morphological process of forming new words, or new form of the word.

derivational affix: an affix that produces a meaning change when added to a stem

Derivational affixes often (but not always) produce a lexical category change as well,

Examples:

-er (own-er), -ful (beauti-ful), un- (un-do), etc.

inflectional affix: a purely grammatical affix, which bears grammatical meaning

Inflectional affixes can result in grammatical category change,

Examples:

With nouns forming plural from singular by adding -s (tree-s),

With adjectives forming comparative of superlative form by adding –er (smaller), -est (small-est), etc.

REMEMBER: English inflectional affixes

English has only 8 inflectional affixes. Below is the list of them.

Affix Example Attaches to a….. Forming a…..

Plural -s dogs �� N (noun) N

Possessive –‘s Bill‟s hat N N

3rd person singular nonpast -s She sings lovely. V V

Progressive -ing She is singing lovely. V V

Past tense –ed He cooked dinner. V V

Past participle –en/-ed He has cooked a meal. V V

Comparative –er cheaper A A

Superlative –est cheapest A A

Some English derivational affixes:

Below is a list of some derivational affixes in English. The table tells you what the affix means, what it attaches to (what part of speech) and what part of speech it forms once attached.

Affix Meaning Examples Attaches to a…. Forming a…

ex- former … ex-president, ex-con N N

dis- not … dishonest, disloyal, dissatisfied A A

fore- before foresee, foreshorten, foreshadow V V

in- not … incompetent, incomplete, intolerable A A

mid- in the middle of … midseason, midweek, midair N N

mis- … in a wrong manner mistake, misunderstand, misspell V V

re- … again rework, rethink, reevaluate, redo V V

un- not … unhappy, untrue, unsure, unconscious A A

un- do the opposite of … untie, unwrap, uncover, undo, unfold V V

-able able to be … ed lovable, fixable, breakable, washable V A

-age the result of … ing breakage, bondage, dosage V N

-(i)al pertaining to … national, musical, presidential N A

-ate make … activate A V

-ation act of … ing relaxation, meditation, realization V N

-dom state of being … wisdom, freedom, boredom A N

-en make … gladden, widen, soften, roughen, redden A V

-er one who … s baker, teacher, owner, wanderer V N

-ful full of … graceful, joyful, playful, hopeful N A

-hood state of being a … sisterhood, childhood, neighborhood N N

-ic pertaining to … organic, atmospheric N A

-ify make (into a) … classify, objectify, solidify N/A V

-ion act or result of … ing protection, compensation, reflection V N

-ish like a … boyish, childish, foolish, sheepish N A

-ity the quality of being … sanity, activity, passivity, masculinity A N

-ive tending to … assertive, comprehensive, reflective V A

-ize make … visualize, unionize, crystallize N/A V

-less without … penniless, priceless, hopeless N A

-ly like a … friendly, womanly, manly, cowardly N A

-ly in a … manner slowly, happily, hurriedly, foolishly A Adv

-ment act or result of … ing adjournment, government, movement V N

-ness quality of being … happiness, firmness, kindness A N

-ous characterized by … famous, poisonous, rancorous N A

-ship state of being (a) … championship, kinship, governorship N N

-y …like mealy, pulpy, mousy, icy, fruity, fiery N A

2. Lexical Categories (Parts of Speech) or Word Classes

How to identify lexical categories?

Focus on closely related forms of a word, ex. book and books; boy and boys; girl and girls;

these pairs show parallel patterns of related forms, and words with parallel forms belong to the same category – in our case nouns.

2. Which words and categories can occur together in phrases, ex. the nouns mentioned above can be preceded by definite or indefinite article – the, a/an.

3. Meaning of the word used in the context - to chair the meeting, he is chair of the department

ex. nouns name persons, places, or things.

Parts of the Speech (Word Classes):

Noun – nominative function (to name) and refer to people, objects, creatures, places, qualities, phenomena, and abstract ideas.

Verb – describing actions, states, feelings, etc.

Adjective - qualifies nouns, designates qualities, properties of the noun

Pronoun – substituting nouns or adjectives

Adverb – words functioning as modifying verbs, modifying adjectives, modifying sentences and even adverbs.

Article – definite/ indefinite

Preposition/Postposition – in some languages have functional words that are equal to prepositions by following the noun phrase instead.

Conjunction – coordinating (and, but)/ subordinating (because, while) function in the sentence

Q1. What is the difference between grammatical gender and natural gender?

Q2. What type of affix you can identify in the underlined word: That’s really fandamnastic.

Q3. Can you classify the affixes (a) - (f) into two types?

(a) dog + -s > dogs

Type of affix: ___ ____

(b) play + -ed > played

Type of affix: ___ _____

Type: _____ ______

(d) crystal + -ize > crystallize

Type: _____ ________

(e) bake + -er > baker

Type: ___ ____

(f) penny + -less > penniless

Type: ____ _______

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