#jain karma theory

[meluhha]

Cultural divides & disparities that are somehow still defined as “Hinduism”

The Vishnu-central Puranas, which contain the story of the churning ocean and golden egg, are associated with the Vaishnavite tradition of Hinduism. Later on, the emphasis from the golden egg switches to ‘Matsya’ a fish still associated with Vishnu who protects the Vedas. The churning ocean & golden egg myth is also found in Greek mythology. Further turtle creation myths are also found in ‘Native American’ and Chinese mythology, likely due to a Central Asian root.

MESOPOTAMIA: OLDEST ATTESTED CREATION MYTHS

Dating to the third millennium BCE, the Sumerian creation myth is called the "Eridu Genesis", the oldest attested creation story of the world.  In this story, the god Enki creates humanity to serve as slaves for the gods, but later intervenes to save them from a great flood. 

The universe is described as a vast, dark, and watery abyss known as "Nammu" (also the name for a goddess associated with water, incantations and protective water). From this primordial chaos, the god Marduk is said to have emerged and created the heavens and the earth. The myth describes a battle between Marduk and the chaotic forces of the universe, which Marduk ultimately defeats in order to create order and establish his own reign as the supreme god. The universe is therefore portrayed as a dynamic and ever-changing realm, with divine power constantly struggling against chaos and disorder.

Enuma Elish, a Babylonian creation myth, is one of the oldest surviving works of literature in the world, dating back to the 18th century BCE. The story is written on seven clay tablets, which were discovered in the ruins of the ancient city of Nineveh in modern-day Iraq in the 19th century. The Enuma Elish tells the story of the creation of the world and the struggles between the gods that led to their establishment of order and their dominance over the forces of chaos. The myth centers around the god Marduk, who defeats the primordial goddess Tiamat and creates the universe out of her body, and is elevated to the position of supreme God.

Similar to Mesopotamian mythology, in Shaivism and Shaktism, there is a vast, dark abyss or void that exists before creation. They also share the idea of a dynamic universe of creation and destruction. In Shaivism, this dynamic universe is often symbolized by the dance of Lord Shiva, which represents the continuous cycle of creation, preservation, and destruction. In Shaktism, the universe is seen as a manifestation of the Divine Mother's creative energy, which is constantly flowing and changing. 

The creation of humans as a result of a union between a god and a goddess in the Eridu Genesis and creation is a one-time event. However, in Shaivism and Shaktism, humans are seen as an extension of the divine, created to experience and realize the ultimate truth and creation & destruction is cyclical. These differences may stem from later developments, such as in the Indus Valley (Melakam) or later, under Shamanic influences.

Samana or ‘Shramana’ traditions  were more concerned with the nature of reality and the human condition than with the origins of the universe. 

They do not feature a golden egg or turtles or other creation myths. Rather, their theories tend to focus on the cyclical nature of the universe and the laws of karma and rebirth, advocating personal spiritual liberation through meditation, ethical conduct, and renunciation of worldly attachments. There is no beginning or end to the eternal, infinite universe in the various Shramana movements.

In Jainism, there is a story of a cosmic serpent named Ananta or Shesha, who supports the universe on his hood further illustrating the Jain concept of the universe as eternal and infinite, with no beginning or end.

VAISHNAVISM

The turtle myth may have originated from a common ancestral mythology that was shared by different cultures across Eurasia and North America. The turtle myth may have originated from the ancient cultural and linguistic exchanges that occurred between peoples of the Steppes region of Central Asia and the surrounding regions.

The story of the golden egg is primarily associated with the Rig Veda and the later Puranas, particularly the Brahmanda Purana, and is not mentioned in the Matsya Purana:

According to the Matsya Purana, the creation story of the Matsya avatar begins with a demon named Hayagriva, who steals the Vedas (the sacred scriptures of Hinduism) from the god Brahma. To retrieve the Vedas and protect them from the demon, Vishnu takes the form of a fish and goes to the bottom of the ocean where the demon is hiding.

Once there, Vishnu reveals his true identity to the demon and engages him in battle. After a fierce fight, Vishnu kills the demon and retrieves the Vedas. However, while he is in the form of a fish, a great flood occurs, and the waters rise until they cover the entire earth.

In order to save the earth and all living beings, Vishnu instructs a king named Manu to build a large boat and to take aboard one of each species of animal and plant. Vishnu then pulls the boat through the flooded waters using his horn, which he has transformed into a rope.

As the flood recedes, the boat comes to rest on the top of a mountain, and Manu and the animals disembark. Vishnu then transforms back into his human form and appears to Manu, revealing the reason for the flood and the importance of preserving the Vedas and all living beings.

SHAIVISM & SHAKTISM

In Shaivism, the creation myth is generally associated with the god Shiva. According to one version of the myth, at the beginning of time, the universe was nothing but darkness and chaos. Shiva, in his role as the destroyer, performed the cosmic dance of destruction (Tandava) on top of a demon (Apasmara). This caused everything to dissolve into a state of emptiness. From this emptiness, a new universe began to emerge, which Shiva then helped to shape and give form to. Shiva is often associated with the concept of time, and is said to exist beyond time and space. 

There are stories that mention the mountain Kailash as the abode of Lord Shiva, and the river Ganga (Ganges) flowing from the matted locks of his hair. In some Shaivite creation myths, the serpent Vasuki is also mentioned as playing a role in the churning of the cosmic ocean.

The five elements: Shaivite creation myths often describe the universe as being made up of the five elements: earth, water, fire, air, and ether. These elements are seen as the building blocks of all existence. The role of karma: Shaivite creation myths often emphasize the role of karma in shaping the universe. Good deeds are seen as leading to positive outcomes, while bad deeds lead to negative ones.Parvati, is often portrayed as the creative force behind his destructive power. In some Shaivite myths, she is even depicted as the primary creator of the universe:

In Shaktism, the creation myth is often associated with the goddess Devi or Shakti. According to one version of the myth, at the beginning of time, the universe was shrouded in darkness and chaos. The goddess Devi, in her form as the Great Mother, emerged from the emptiness and created the universe through her divine powers. Shakta creation myths often emphasize the importance of the feminine in the creative process. The goddess is seen as the embodiment of creativity, nurturing, and love.  She is often associated with the power of creation, as well as the power of destruction and transformation. 

Mount Meru is seen as the centre of the universe where Shiva & Shakti dwell - a place of spiritual power and enlightenment, where devotees of Lord Shiva often undertake pilgrimages to the mountain in order to seek his blessings. In Shaivite mythology, the guru plays an important role in guiding the devotee on the path to liberation, while in Shakti mythology, the goddess herself is often seen as the guru and guide.  In Shaivite mythology, Lord Ganesha and Lord Murugan are important figures, while in Shakti mythology, the goddess Kali and the ten Mahavidyas are revered. In Shakti traditions, the worship of the goddess is often accompanied by rituals involving the use of intoxicants and blood sacrifice, while in Shaivite traditions, such practices are generally frowned upon.

Both Shaivism and Shaktism acknowledge the concept of cyclical time, in which the universe is created, sustained, and destroyed in a continuous cycle. Interestingly, Shakti mythology places a strong emphasis on power and energy, while Shaivite mythology focuses more on the idea of liberation and transcendence.

Other cosmic dance creation myths:

In ancient Greek mythology, the god Zeus was said to have danced the cosmos into existence.

In the Navajo tradition, the Holy People danced the universe into existence, with each dance creating a new part of the world.

The ancient Chinese myth of Pangu tells the story of a cosmic egg that hatches and forms the world. Pangu is said to have danced to create the separation of yin and yang and the formation of the world.

The Māori people of New Zealand have a creation myth in which the god Tane danced to separate his parents, Rangi and Papa, who were locked in a tight embrace and preventing the emergence of light and life.

[jainismworld]

Exploring the Teachings of Jainism: Insightful Information and Learning Opportunities

Jainism, an ancient Indian religion renowned for its emphasis on non-violence (ahimsa), truth (satya), and spiritual liberation, offers profound teachings that resonate across cultures and generations. Understanding these core principles provides valuable insights into ethical living and personal growth.

Understanding the Teachings of Jainism

At the heart of Jain philosophy lies the principle of ahimsa, which extends beyond abstaining from physical harm to encompass non-violence in thought, speech, and action. This fundamental principle guides Jain followers to practice compassion towards all living beings, promoting harmony and respect for life in its entirety.

Jain teachings also revolve around the concept of karma, the law of cause and effect, which posits that every action and intention has consequences that shape one's present and future experiences. By understanding and practicing karma, Jains seek to cultivate positive actions and intentions that lead to spiritual growth and liberation (moksha) from the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara).

Information about Jainism: Insights and Resources

Accessing information about Jainism has become increasingly accessible through various resources. Books, academic articles, online platforms, and educational websites provide comprehensive insights into Jain philosophy, history, rituals, and ethical teachings.

English translations of Jain scriptures, such as the Agamas and other sacred texts, enable a broader audience to study and understand the profound wisdom embedded within Jain literature. These translations preserve the authenticity and richness of Jain teachings, offering invaluable insights into the spiritual and ethical guidelines that guide Jain communities worldwide.

Learn Jainism: Courses and Learning Opportunities

For those interested in delving deeper into Jainism, numerous courses and educational programs are available both online and in traditional settings. These courses cover a wide range of topics, including the life stories of the Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers), Jain rituals and festivals, cosmology, karma theory, and the path to spiritual liberation.

Online platforms like Learn Jainism offer structured courses that cater to both academic interest and personal spiritual development. These courses provide a comprehensive understanding of Jain teachings, allowing learners to explore the profound wisdom embedded within Jain scriptures and traditions.

Embracing Jain Values

Jainism course  encourages individuals to reflect on their actions and intentions, fostering greater empathy, mindfulness, and ethical awareness in daily life. By embracing Jain values of non-violence, truthfulness, and compassion, individuals can contribute positively to society and promote environmental stewardship and non-violent activism.

Moreover, learning about Jainism fosters appreciation for its cultural heritage and its contributions to global ethics, spirituality, and sustainable living practices. Jain teachings resonate with contemporary challenges, inspiring individuals to adopt responsible and compassionate lifestyles that benefit both themselves and the world around them.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Jainism offers timeless teachings and ethical principles that continue to inspire and guide individuals towards personal growth and spiritual fulfillment. Through accessible information, educational initiatives, and courses on Jainism, individuals can deepen their understanding of this ancient tradition and its relevance in today's world. By learning about Jainism, individuals can embark on a transformative journey towards greater compassion, mindfulness, and ethical living.

[blaze8403]

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[udaipur-patrika]

Business Adversity, A great Learning Opportunity- At JPF Seminar

At the Jito Professional Forum's organised Finance Conclave recently at Mumbai, the eminent panellists were unanimous in saying that the Business adversity brings a great learning opportunity to rebound and wealth creation.

The Panel which included some of the best names in the Industry who have faced challenges and adversity but came out as the winners were  Shri Premchand Godha,CMD -IPCA Laboratories Ltd, Shri Gautam Jain, CMD-Pokarna Ltd. Shri Tarun Jain, Director, Vedanta,Dr.Rajesh Jain,MD-Panacea Biotec and Shri Kailash Lalpuria, ED & CEO, Indo Count. The Panel was moderated by Shri Nirmal Gangwal- Founder & Chairman Brescon, an Advisory Firm creating opportunity in Adversity. Dr Ashok Ajmera (FCA) Chairman- Ajcon Global, the Convenor of the event in his opening remarks quoted Mahatma Gandhi on Adversity

'' Strength does not come from winning. Your struggles develop your strength. When you go through the hardships and decide not to surrender,thats the strength."

In the initial interaction Shri Premchand Godha- CMD IPCA Laboratories gave few mantras of success viz. never delay payment and never fail in your commitment, keep a war chest always ready, concentrate on Quality, Price and Service, delegate your authority and prepare to die now. Shri Tarun Jain - director Vedanta had all the praises for his Chairman, Shri Anil Agarwal, who according to him faced many adversities closing down 9 business after having put in a lot of efforts and money. His decisions are most of the time-based Hunch & Guts. According to Shri Tarun , keep the life simple, don’t be afraid of failures, have passion (Janoon), honesty, integrity , trust and the thought of giving back to the society.

Taking part in the Panel Dr Rajesh Jain of Panacia Biotec said that in difficult times your Rule Book for self should be only listen, observe, assimilate but don't react, keep simple diet for energy, do one hour yoga every day and in have talks with small group of people/team for resolving issues, take total responsibility for failure on you , say sorry for some wrong decisions decision ,report failure and get complex issues solved at higher level and simple at lower level. Clear transparent communication within family is also very important added Mr Jain. Confidence and trust of customers is your  balance sheet  said Mr Gautam Jain - CMD  Pokarna Ltd. who further added that never avoid situation , get personal intervention, believe in theory of Karma, focus on task in hand and remember that the  biggest strength is family that in his case was unquestioned faith of wife, support of brothers, teachings of father. Mr Lalpuria- ED & CEO of Indo Count said clear and transparent communication with all stakeholders will win the day for you. Some of the other tools specially at the time of Adversity are orientation from all employees, single minded focus, assessing your resources, keeping the   team in high spirit to get out of situation and sweating your assets can multiply outcome he added.

Shri Nirmal Gangwal- Founder & Chairman Brescon played the role of moderator and presented before the audience very simple rules to follow in Adversity .According to him Risk and Reward to be calculated, one should respond to challenge, do not defer approach, restructure - craft a solution, communicate  with stakeholders, confess & realise the problem and don't be in denial state, have commitment, take ownership of the problem and look for a solution.

All the panellists shared their life time experiences with the audience and narrated their stories of ups & downs in the business about how did they come out of Adversity.

Shri Rakeshh Mehta & Shri Prithviraj Kothari of JITO & JATF addressed the gathering and shared inspiring thoughts about JPF, JITO & JATF.

Special guests present were Mr Nishith Mishra, IPS, Addl Commissioner of Mumbai Police, South Mumbai and his wife Mrs Riddhi Dasani Mishra (Jain) Addl Director of Income tax (Vigilance), Mumbai 1.

While Shri Ravi Jain- Director Incharge of JPF and Shri Hitesh Doshi- Mumbai Zone Chairman welcomed the guests, Shri Ajay Bohora- Vice chairman spoke about the activities of JPF. Shri Vicky Oswal- Mumbai Zone Chief Secretary gave Vote of Thanks.

Dr Ashok Ajmera - Chairman - Ajcon Global and Convenor of the Conclave, anchored the whole event very nicely.

[rajkot-patrika]

Business Adversity, A great Learning Opportunity- At JPF Seminar

At the Jito Professional Forum's organised Finance Conclave recently at Mumbai, the eminent panellists were unanimous in saying that the Business adversity brings a great learning opportunity to rebound and wealth creation.

The Panel which included some of the best names in the Industry who have faced challenges and adversity but came out as the winners were  Shri Premchand Godha,CMD -IPCA Laboratories Ltd, Shri Gautam Jain, CMD-Pokarna Ltd. Shri Tarun Jain, Director, Vedanta,Dr.Rajesh Jain,MD-Panacea Biotec and Shri Kailash Lalpuria, ED & CEO, Indo Count. The Panel was moderated by Shri Nirmal Gangwal- Founder & Chairman Brescon, an Advisory Firm creating opportunity in Adversity. Dr Ashok Ajmera (FCA) Chairman- Ajcon Global, the Convenor of the event in his opening remarks quoted Mahatma Gandhi on Adversity

'' Strength does not come from winning. Your struggles develop your strength. When you go through the hardships and decide not to surrender,thats the strength."

In the initial interaction Shri Premchand Godha- CMD IPCA Laboratories gave few mantras of success viz. never delay payment and never fail in your commitment, keep a war chest always ready, concentrate on Quality, Price and Service, delegate your authority and prepare to die now. Shri Tarun Jain - director Vedanta had all the praises for his Chairman, Shri Anil Agarwal, who according to him faced many adversities closing down 9 business after having put in a lot of efforts and money. His decisions are most of the time-based Hunch & Guts. According to Shri Tarun , keep the life simple, don’t be afraid of failures, have passion (Janoon), honesty, integrity , trust and the thought of giving back to the society.

Taking part in the Panel Dr Rajesh Jain of Panacia Biotec said that in difficult times your Rule Book for self should be only listen, observe, assimilate but don't react, keep simple diet for energy, do one hour yoga every day and in have talks with small group of people/team for resolving issues, take total responsibility for failure on you , say sorry for some wrong decisions decision ,report failure and get complex issues solved at higher level and simple at lower level. Clear transparent communication within family is also very important added Mr Jain. Confidence and trust of customers is your  balance sheet  said Mr Gautam Jain - CMD  Pokarna Ltd. who further added that never avoid situation , get personal intervention, believe in theory of Karma, focus on task in hand and remember that the  biggest strength is family that in his case was unquestioned faith of wife, support of brothers, teachings of father. Mr Lalpuria- ED & CEO of Indo Count said clear and transparent communication with all stakeholders will win the day for you. Some of the other tools specially at the time of Adversity are orientation from all employees, single minded focus, assessing your resources, keeping the   team in high spirit to get out of situation and sweating your assets can multiply outcome he added.

Shri Nirmal Gangwal- Founder & Chairman Brescon played the role of moderator and presented before the audience very simple rules to follow in Adversity .According to him Risk and Reward to be calculated ,one should  respond to challenge, do not  defer approach, restructure - craft a solution, communicate  with stakeholders, confess & realise the problem and don't be in denial state, have commitment, take ownership of the problem and look for a solution.

All the panellists shared their life time experiences with the audience and narrated their stories of ups & downs in the business about how did they come out of Adversity.

Shri Rakeshh Mehta & Shri Prithviraj Kothari of JITO & JATF addressed the gathering and shared inspiring thoughts about JPF, JITO & JATF.

Special guests present were Mr Nishith Mishra, IPS, Addl Commissioner of Mumbai Police, South Mumbai and his wife Mrs Riddhi Dasani Mishra (Jain) Addl Director of Income tax (Vigilance), Mumbai 1.

While Shri Ravi Jain- Director Incharge of JPF and Shri Hitesh Doshi- Mumbai Zone Chairman welcomed the guests, Shri Ajay Bohora- Vice chairman spoke about the activities of JPF. Shri Vicky Oswal- Mumbai Zone Chief Secretary gave Vote of Thanks.

Dr Ashok Ajmera - Chairman - Ajcon Global and Convenor of the Conclave, anchored the whole event very nicely.

[thatwhichdoesnotsuffer]

The Jain theory of causation holds that a cause and its effect are always identical in nature and hence a conscious and immaterial entity like God cannot create a material entity like the universe. Furthermore, according to the Jain concept of divinity, any soul who destroys its karmas and desires achieves liberation (nirvana). A soul who destroys all its passions and desires has no desire to interfere in the working of the universe. Moral rewards and sufferings are not the work of a divine being, but a result of an innate moral order in the cosmos; a self-regulating mechanism whereby the individual reaps the fruits of his own actions through the workings of the karmas.

Jainism and Non-Creationism

[margdarsanme]

NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 4 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural Developments

NCERT Class 12 History Solutions

Chapter 4 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural Developments

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED : Q 1. Were the ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers different from those of the fatalists and materialists ? Give reasons for your answers.

Ans. The ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers is not much different from those of the fatalists and materialists. This is brought out by the following arguments.

(i) The essence of the philosophy of Jainism was already in existence in India, even before the birth of Lord Mahavir and Vardhaman.

(ii) Ahimsa or non-violence is the most important principle of Jainism. But this also form the basic thought of Hindu religion. Thus, there is a lot of similarity between the both the streams of the religion.

(iii) Upanishada believes and teaches Karma Theory. It means men and women should act and not worry about getting rewards. Fatalists also believed in the idea of work without thinking of the consequences. Thus there is a lot of similarity between the two.

(iv) Both fatalists and materislists believe that human beings are made , of four elements, earth, water, sky, air and fire.

Thus, we are inclined to agree that the idea of the Upanishad thinkers Eire not much different from that of the fatalists and materialists.

Q 2. Summarise the central teachings of Jainism.

Ans. The main teachings of Jainism are as follows:

(i) The entire world is animated. Life exists even in rocks and stones normally considered non-living.

(ii) The principle of non-violence is practised in extreme form in Jainism. No harms should be caused to animals, plants and insects and any other living beings that may include rocks and stones too. This is notable that Jains are forbidden to eat late night lest they kill insects by mistake.

(iii) The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through Karma. If one is to escape this cycle of Karma, one must practise ascetism and penance. It is possible when one renounces the world. So one has to live in monastery to attain salvation.

(iv) Jain monks have to take vows to observe the following: (a) Not to kill anyone (b) Not to steal anything (c) Not tell lies (d) Not to possess property (e) To observe celibacy. Q 3. Discuss the role of the begums of Bhopal in preserving the stupa at Sanchi.

Ans. Begums of Bhopal made a great contribution to the preservation of the Stupa of Sanchi. Following are the major contribution made by them.

(a) Shahejahan Begum and her successor Sultan Jahan Begum of Bhopal were the rulers of Bhopal, who made generous grants to the preservation of the Stupa of Sanchi.

(b) A museum was built near the stupa and it was built mainly on the financial support of Begum Sultan Jahan Begum.

(c) The support to preserve the stupa came from the Europeans also.

(d) French and British both took the plaster cast copies of the pillars of the stupas to be displayed in the museums at France and Britain. They also contributed financially to preserve the stupa. Q 4. Read this short inscription and answer: In the year 33 of the maharaja Huvishka, (a Kushana ruler), in the first month of the hot season on the eighth day, a Bodhisatta was set up at Madhuvanaka by the bhikkhuni Dhanavati, the sister’s daughter of the bhikkhuni Buddhamita, who knows the Tipitaka, the female pupil of the bhikkhu Bala, who knows the Tipitaka, together with her father and mother. (a) How did Dhanavati date her inscription? (b) Why do you think she installed an image of the Bodhisatta? (c) Who were the relatives she mentioned? (d) What Buddhist text did she know? (e) From whom dicTshe learn this text?

Ans.

(a) Dhanavati dated her inscription that she placed the inscription at Madhuvanaka in the first month of the hot season on the eighth day in the year 33 of the Maharaja named Havishka.

(b) I think that she (the Bhikkhuni Dhanvati installed an image of the Bodhisatta to show that Mahayana sect of Budhhism was becoming popular day by day and Boddhisattas were considered great personalities in Buddhism during the reign of the Kushana rulers.

(c) She has mentioned her own mother’s sister’s name Buddhamita. The lady was a Bhikkuni. She had also mentioned Bhikkuni Bala and her parents.

(d) She knew the Tipitaka.

(e) She learnt the text from the Bhikkhuni Buddhamita who was the female pupil of the Bala. 5. Why do you think women and men joined the sangha?

Ans. The important reasons why men and women joined sanghas could be as follows:

(а) Many of them wanted to renounce the worldly pleasures.

(b) They could study the Buddhist literature and philosophy by staying in the company of other monks.

(c) Many people entered sanghas to become priests and teachers of Buddhism.

(d) All were considered equal and the previous social identity was to be renounced.

(e) The environment of sanghas was democratic. The decision making within sanghas was based on voting. This attracted many and they took to the life of sanghas Q 6. To what extent does knowledge of Buddhist literature help in understanding the sculpture at Sanchi?

Ans. Buddhist literature help us upto some extent in understanding the sculpture at Sanchi. It is important that the sculptures at Sanchi depict the teachings of Buddha only. The teachings of Buddha are captured in the literature.

It is notable that Buddha used to roam around among people , preaching them on his teachings. However, he did not claim supernatural power. He told us that the world is ever changing. It is full of sorrows. Sorrow flows out of desire. Buddha asked the followers to take the middle path, not too much of penance, nor too much of indulgence. The literature of Buddhism is useful for the interpretation of the sculpture at Sanchi. People are shown in different moods and in sorrow. Different stages of life are depicted and so on. Hence, it can be stated that Buddhist literature throws valuable light on the sculptures of the Sanchi. Q 7. Discuss the development in sculpture and architecture associated with the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism.

Ans.Vaishnavism and Shaivism are the two branches of Hinduism. In case of Vaishnavism, Lord Vishnu was regarded as the chief deity. In case of Shaivism Lord Shiva was regarded as the chief deity. Both traditions were part of the Bhakti movement. Bhakti movement emphasised on the love and devotion of the devotee to the God.

This tradition of Vaishnavism and Shaivism also impacted the tradition of architecture and sculpture. The temples developed the house deities. The initial temples were small and simple. It was a small room called Garbhagriha. Later it expanded, a tall structure was built on the garbhagriha. It was called Shikhara. The walls of the temple were decorated with suitors. Soon temples were built that had huge entrance and big halls for the comfort of visitors.

Many of these temples were carved out of rocks. These artificial caves were turned into temples. The tradition of article caves is old who had renounced the world. The most important were the Ajivikas, that developed as a sect during the reign of Asoka. Later a good example of the rock-cut temple is the Kailash Nath temple of the 8th Century. It was carved out of a single piece rock. There is a copper plate inscription at the temple of Ellora wherein the sculptor exclaims, “How did I make it!” Sculpture was yet another way of expression. Deities were given many shapes and forms in the sculpture. Shiva has been shown in the form of Linga. Many deities have shown in different forms, sometimes grotesque. There were also combination of man and animal forms. Q 8. Discuss how and why stupas were built. Describe the structure of stupa with example.

Ans. About 200 years after the time of Buddha King Asoka erected a pillar at Lumbini. This was to announce the visit of Buddha to this place.Stupas were the mounds put on the bodily remains of the body of Lord Buddha or of any object that was used by him. At the place of stupas such objects were buried. These were places of great respect under the tradition of Buddhism, as they had the relics of Buddha. As per the description of Asokavadana winch a famous Buddhist book, Emperor Asoka gave Buddha’s relic to all major cities. Later on such places stupas were put. The most important stupas are at Sanchi, Bharhut and Saranath.

The structure of a stupa was like a dome and hemisphere. On the top of it, there would be a balcony called harmik. This balcony represented the abode of God. The harmik was covered with an umbrella. There used to be railings around the balcony.

The construction of the stupas was made possible by the contribution of many. On the forefront were the monarchs. The Satvahan Kings offered huge amount for the construction of the stupqs. Apart from the monarchs, merchants, artisans and common men and women also contributed to the construction of the stupas. Q 9. Of the religious traditions discussed in this chapter, is there any that is practised in your neighbourhood? What are the religious texts used today, an how are they preserved and transmitted? Are images used in worship? If so, are these similar to or different from those described in this chapter? Describe the buildings used for religious : activities today, comparing them with early stupas and temples.

Ans. The chapter discuss the religious traditions of ancient India which included, Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, so on. As I live in the walled city of Delhi have seen people practising all these traditions. The religious textbooks of all religions are preserved and kept with great respect. They have been translated in many languages including many regional languages of the country. Now they are also preserved in the form of CD and other modern devices. Images are also used by worshippers of these religions. The Hindus deities have almost same images as they had in the past. Jains and Buddhists also use images.Temples are used by hindus, buddhists and jams. Mosques are made by muslims and churches by the Christians. The structure of all these are different but with some similarities too.

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[ouryogamassagetherapistme-blog]

The History of Yoga and Its Different Philosophies

Yoga, in today's world has become a commodity and something of a statement. Arguably India's greatest cultural export, yoga has morphed into a mass culture phenomenon. All our popular assumptions about this ancient science actually date back to the last 100 -odd years. Yoga has been subjected to reinventions for thousands of years. Yoga, today involves a complex regimen of postures (asanas) - that are either held for a long duration of time or are executed in a rapid manner - along with breath control (pranayamas). However, the ancient Hindu texts, like Bhagvad Gita and the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali make no mention of body postures and breathe control. They have laid more stress on the theory and practice of meditation (dhyana).

So, what are we missing here? How did Yoga undergo such a transformation since its use in the classical scriptures? To understand this, let us have a brief look at the history of yoga.

The word Yoga was first mentioned in the oldest sacred Hindu scriptures, The Vedas. The Vedas are a collection of texts that describe rituals, hymns, mantras and songs to be used by Brahmans, or the Vedic priests. The first mention of the term yoga was found in a hymn to the Sun-God in the Rig Veda (1700-500 BCE). The Vedas were known to contain the oldest known Yogic teachings and these teachings found in the Vedas are called Vedic Yoga. This is characterized by rituals and ceremonies that strive to surpass the limitations of the mind. During the period of Vedic Yoga, people practiced the ritualistic way of life. Various rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices were considered as a means to connect to the spiritual world.

Pre-classical period 500-200 BCE:

The vedic priests or the Brahmanas, redefined and developed the yoga and they then documented their beliefs and practices in the Upanishads. Upanishads are a huge work that contains more than 200 scriptures. Upanishads changed the idea of ritual sacrifice of Vedas and taught the principles of sacrificing the ego through a medium of self-knowledge, action (Karma yoga) and wisdom (Jnana yoga). Upanishads also introduced the acoustic spells, most prominent amongst them being, 'OM', which is the spell of the Supreme Being.

Yoga also shares some characteristics with Buddhism. In the 6th century, Buddha started teaching Buddhism, which laid stress on meditation and the science of asanas. It was during this period that a number of principles of yoga theory and practice were formulated. Siddharth Gautam, was the first Buddhist to practice yoga and he became the "Awakened" or "Enlightened" One (Buddha), and so was liberated from future rebirths, realizing the extinction of suffering (nirvana) at the end of his life at the age of 35. Amongst the Indian religious groups, the Jains were the last ones to inculcate the teachings of Yoga. In 1200 BC, the great Jain teacher Rishaba, who was the exponent of the tradition of Jainism, emphasized on the principles defined by yoga, which involved efforts dedicated to the liberation of the spirit.

Later, around 500 BC, the Bhagvad Gita was scripted. Today, it is one of the oldest scriptures that define the yoga. The Gita is mainly result of the conversation that takes place between Prince Arjuna and Lord Krishna. The Gita mainly states that, our life should be filled with actions, irrespective of the rewards to be gained. Our actions have to free from the ego and be benign in nature. The Bhagvad Gita had reiterated the doctrines found in the Upanishads. Gita states that, each man should follow Bhakti (devotion), Jnana (Knowledge) and Karma (selfless actions). Teachings in the Bhadvad Gita strive to bring about unification between the Bhakti Yoga, Jnana Yoga and Karma Yoga - stating that each is responsible for the other.

Classical Period (200 BCE-500 CE)

The classical period is mainly marked by the creation of the Yoga sutras By Sage Patanjali in the 2nd century. It is composed of 195 aphorisms or sutras (from the Sanskrit word i.e., thread) that explain the Raja Yoga or the Classical yoga and its underlying principle, Patanjali's Eightfold path of 'Ashtanga Yoga' (Eight Limbs of Classical Yoga). Patanjali's sutras are the first compilation of the yoga philosophy.

Sage Patanjali believed that each individual is a composed of matter (prakriti) and spirit (purusha). He further believed that the two must be separated in order to cleanse the spirit - a stark contrast to Vedic and Pre-Classical Yoga that signify the union of body and spirit.

Post Classical Yoga (500-1500CE):

In this period, yogic principles underwent a sea-change. Here yoga no longer tries to liberate the person from reality but teaches a person to accept the present and live in it. This period asserts the teachings of Vedanta (philosophical system based on the teachings of the Upanishads), that there is fundamental unity in everything in the universe. In this period, yogis began to exploit the hidden power of the human body. As a result, yogic masters designed many new techniques that would lead to healthy bodies and prolong life. Hatha Yoga was a product of such teachings, which is now practiced widely in the world.

Modern Yoga:

Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid- 19th century along with other topics of Indian philosophy, when yoga masters started travelling to West and attracting attention and following. The first Hindu teacher to actively promote and broadcast various aspects of yoga to the western audience was Swami Vivekananda. He had come to deliver a talk in The Parliament of Religions, Chicago, in 1893. During his talk, Swami Vivekananda, a disciple of Saint Ramakrishna, addressed the gathering as, 'Brothers and Sisters of America". Through these words, he attracted many students to yoga.

In the early 21st century, Hatha Yoga was strongly practiced and followed in India due to the works of T. Krishnamacharya, Swami Sivananda and other yogis practicing Hatha Yoga. In was during 1930s and 40s, that Yoga gained more public acceptance due to its celebrity endorsement. In 1965, Shrila Prabhupada came to the United States and founded the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKON). He spread a movement based on Bhakthi Yoga (yoga of devotion).

During this period, most of the significant Indian teachers propagating yoga were from two families - one belonging to Sivananda Saraswati (1887-1963) and the other to Tirumalai Krishnamacharya (1888-1989). Many yoga masters including B.K.S. Iyengar (1918-2014), K. Pattabhi Jois (1915-2009), Swami Vishnudevananda (1927-1993), and Swami Satchidananda (1914-2002) were actively teaching the philosophies of Hatha yoga.

Today, Yoga has gained world-wide popularity and is used daily for profound mental, physical and spiritual awareness along with its benefits as a form of stretching, and as an enhancer of breath control and of core strength.

[varansai-varta]

Business Adversity, A great Learning Opportunity- At JPF Seminar

At the Jito Professional Forum's organised Finance Conclave recently at Mumbai, the eminent panellists were unanimous in saying that the Business adversity brings a great learning opportunity to rebound and wealth creation.

The Panel which included some of the best names in the Industry who have faced challenges and adversity but came out as the winners were  Shri Premchand Godha,CMD -IPCA Laboratories Ltd, Shri Gautam Jain, CMD-Pokarna Ltd. Shri Tarun Jain, Director, Vedanta,Dr.Rajesh Jain,MD-Panacea Biotec and Shri Kailash Lalpuria, ED & CEO, Indo Count. The Panel was moderated by Shri Nirmal Gangwal- Founder & Chairman Brescon, an Advisory Firm creating opportunity in Adversity. Dr Ashok Ajmera (FCA) Chairman- Ajcon Global, the Convenor of the event in his opening remarks quoted Mahatma Gandhi on Adversity

'' Strength does not come from winning. Your struggles develop your strength. When you go through the hardships and decide not to surrender,thats the strength."

In the initial interaction Shri Premchand Godha- CMD IPCA Laboratories gave few mantras of success viz. never delay payment and never fail in your commitment, keep a war chest always ready, concentrate on Quality, Price and Service, delegate your authority and prepare to die now. Shri Tarun Jain - director Vedanta had all the praises for his Chairman, Shri Anil Agarwal, who according to him faced many adversities closing down 9 business after having put in a lot of efforts and money. His decisions are most of the time-based Hunch & Guts. According to Shri Tarun , keep the life simple, don’t be afraid of failures, have passion (Janoon), honesty, integrity , trust and the thought of giving back to the society.

Taking part in the Panel Dr Rajesh Jain of Panacia Biotec said that in difficult times your Rule Book for self should be only listen, observe, assimilate but don't react, keep simple diet for energy, do one hour yoga every day and in have talks with small group of people/team for resolving issues, take total responsibility for failure on you , say sorry for some wrong decisions decision ,report failure and get complex issues solved at higher level and simple at lower level. Clear transparent communication within family is also very important added Mr Jain. Confidence and trust of customers is your balance sheet said Mr Gautam Jain - CMD  Pokarna Ltd. who further added that never avoid situation , get personal intervention, believe in theory of Karma, focus on task in hand and remember that the  biggest strength is family that in his case was unquestioned faith of wife, support of brothers, teachings of father. Mr Lalpuria- ED & CEO of Indo Count said clear and transparent communication with all stakeholders will win the day for you. Some of the other tools specially at the time of Adversity are orientation from all employees, single minded focus, assessing your resources, keeping the   team in high spirit to get out of situation and sweating your assets can multiply outcome he added.

Shri Nirmal Gangwal- Founder & Chairman Brescon played the role of moderator and presented before the audience very simple rules to follow in Adversity .According to him Risk and Reward to be calculated ,one should  respond to challenge, do not  defer approach, restructure - craft a solution, communicate  with stakeholders, confess & realise the problem and don't be in denial state, have commitment, take ownership of the problem and look for a solution.

All the panellists shared their life time experiences with the audience and narrated their stories of ups & downs in the business about how did they come out of Adversity.

Shri Rakeshh Mehta & Shri Prithviraj Kothari of JITO & JATF addressed the gathering and shared inspiring thoughts about JPF, JITO & JATF.

Special guests present were Mr Nishith Mishra, IPS, Addl Commissioner of Mumbai Police, South Mumbai and his wife Mrs Riddhi Dasani Mishra (Jain) Addl Director of Income tax (Vigilance), Mumbai 1.

While Shri Ravi Jain- Director Incharge of JPF and Shri Hitesh Doshi- Mumbai Zone Chairman welcomed the guests, Shri Ajay Bohora- Vice chairman spoke about the activities of JPF. Shri Vicky Oswal- Mumbai Zone Chief Secretary gave Vote of Thanks.

Dr Ashok Ajmera - Chairman - Ajcon Global and Convenor of the Conclave, anchored the whole event very nicely.

[uncle1milty]

Karma / Jainism

Types of Karma (Jainism) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Part of a series on Jainism

According to Jain karma theory, there are eight main types of karma (Prikriti) which are categorized into the ‘harming’ and the ‘non-harming’; each divided into four types. 

The harming karmas (ghātiyā karmas) directly affect the soul powers by impeding its perception, knowledge and energy, and also brings about delusion. 

darśanāvaraṇa (perception obscuring karma), 

Jnanavarniya (knowledge obscuring karma),

antarāya (obstacles creating karma) and 

mohanīya (deluding karma). 

The non-harming category (aghātiyā karmas) is responsible for the reborn soul's physical and mental circumstances (nāma), longevity (āyuś), spiritual potential (gotra) and experience of pleasant and unpleasant sensations (vedanīya). In other therms these non-harming karmas are: 

nāma (body determining karma), 

āyu (life span determining karma), 

gotra (status determining karma) and 

vedanīya (feeling producing karma) respectively.[1][2] 

[jainnewsviews]

Tweeted

Are you sure this Is Jainism Based? The designs are of course similar to those found in few old Jain Temples to show the Karma Theory & Life and Deaths endless cycle... Can you share more details on this

— JainNewsViews (@jainnewsviews) August 22, 2018

[themodernvedic]

The Essence of Indian Philosophy and the Universe

Indian Philosophy

Indian Philosophy is a fundamental nature of Knowledge, Reality, and Existence. It has originated from a sub-continent that includes Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain Philosophy. It is unique in its applications of analytical rigor to metaphysical, supernatural and philosophical problems. Significance of a philosophy lies in the eternal principles of human frailty, strength, beauty, and destiny. It is similar to a tree constantly producing branches from the same roots. Hence, there is a reason for everything in this universe to have its own place.

Questions Addressed in Indian Philosophy Who am I? Where have I come from?  What is the essential nature of my being (Gyaan – Self-Realization) ? What is My relationship with the manifold universe and with other human beings ? What is the Absoute truth. What is the relationship between the center of consciousness and all the objects of the world ? (Bhakti - Prayer) What are the guidelines for action (Karma - Seed) as long as one is in his physical body. Does one live after death (Moksha – Eternal Journey)?

Each person has its own talents and characteristics. If a person has a personality of a philosophical bent. Then, the approach of his life is a path of knowledge. If a person has a personality of a practical bent. Then, the approach of his life is a path of deeds(Karma). Accordingly, if a person is a disciplined one then his approach of life is spiritual control(Yoga). Lastly, a religious person approaches the path of worship.

Divisions of Life

According to Indian Philosophy, our Life is divided into four parts: Brahmacharya- Discipline, and Education. Grahsthya- Parenthood and Active work. Vanyaprastha- It is a middle age, stage of retreat in which worldly ties are loosened. Sanyasa- Life of Hermit, an old age. Every person has a place and task to fulfill in this society. The evolution of caste based on the formation of a person's mind has assigned certain tasks of responsibility. Brahmins are the priests in our society. Kshatriyas are warriors Vaishyas are merchants. A Sudra is a person of clerical level in a developed and happy society.

The Universe is an expression of 'I am Brahma'. It is a state of supreme eternal Brahma, I am in all and all are in me. The state of turning self into selfless, state of oneness. It is the relationship between an individual,the absolute,the essence of a soul, the truth, and the self. Our awareness and consciousness pervades the subtlest texture of our cosmos. It is present and active everywhere and at all the time. It energizes the physical, emotional, and spiritual realms. Hence, all the multiplicity and creation of the universe is in the form of essential Brahma. Pure Knowledge is not a means to an end but it is the END itself The Universe is everything that is living and inanimate, It includes Atoms.Galaxies, Spirituality,Materialism,heaven and Hell.

The Totality of our Universe

The totality of our universe is an experience perceived by our sense organs(Perception), Reason(Conception), and more directly by the transcendental Knowledge within us. It consists of non-materialistic entities like space, time, Ether, and consciousness. The characteristics of anything in this universe is not one or infinite. It possesses an unbroken identity of its material. The absolute reality itself is to remain absolutely one.

There are two fundamentals of this totality: Idealism- Everything is in our mind, Nothing exists in reality. It is a state of consciousness that exists. Realism- Independence of any relation to the experience of a subject. Everything that exists, exists equally whether it is experienced or not. It is considered as a substance of element, Quality,value, and change of variation.

anti-hydrogen In theories, there exists an Anti-Matter. It is the exact opposite of matter. It consists of an anti-proton, Positron, and an anti-neutron. This means that there is a parallel universe which could be the spiritual world.There are two Theories in Astronomy: The Big Bang & the Steady State Theory The universe originated billions of years ago in an explosion from a single point of nearly infinite energy density – Big Bang Theory. The universe has always existed and has always been expanding. Because the creation of hydrogen is continuous– Steady State Theory (Now it is Over). Click to Post

[margdarsanme]

NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 4 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural Developments

NCERT Class 12 History Solutions

Chapter 4 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural Developments

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED : Q 1. Were the ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers different from those of the fatalists and materialists ? Give reasons for your answers.

Ans. The ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers is not much different from those of the fatalists and materialists. This is brought out by the following arguments.

(i) The essence of the philosophy of Jainism was already in existence in India, even before the birth of Lord Mahavir and Vardhaman.

(ii) Ahimsa or non-violence is the most important principle of Jainism. But this also form the basic thought of Hindu religion. Thus, there is a lot of similarity between the both the streams of the religion.

(iii) Upanishada believes and teaches Karma Theory. It means men and women should act and not worry about getting rewards. Fatalists also believed in the idea of work without thinking of the consequences. Thus there is a lot of similarity between the two.

(iv) Both fatalists and materislists believe that human beings are made , of four elements, earth, water, sky, air and fire.

Thus, we are inclined to agree that the idea of the Upanishad thinkers Eire not much different from that of the fatalists and materialists.

Q 2. Summarise the central teachings of Jainism.

Ans. The main teachings of Jainism are as follows:

(i) The entire world is animated. Life exists even in rocks and stones normally considered non-living.

(ii) The principle of non-violence is practised in extreme form in Jainism. No harms should be caused to animals, plants and insects and any other living beings that may include rocks and stones too. This is notable that Jains are forbidden to eat late night lest they kill insects by mistake.

(iii) The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through Karma. If one is to escape this cycle of Karma, one must practise ascetism and penance. It is possible when one renounces the world. So one has to live in monastery to attain salvation.

(iv) Jain monks have to take vows to observe the following: (a) Not to kill anyone (b) Not to steal anything (c) Not tell lies (d) Not to possess property (e) To observe celibacy. Q 3. Discuss the role of the begums of Bhopal in preserving the stupa at Sanchi.

Ans. Begums of Bhopal made a great contribution to the preservation of the Stupa of Sanchi. Following are the major contribution made by them.

(a) Shahejahan Begum and her successor Sultan Jahan Begum of Bhopal were the rulers of Bhopal, who made generous grants to the preservation of the Stupa of Sanchi.

(b) A museum was built near the stupa and it was built mainly on the financial support of Begum Sultan Jahan Begum.

(c) The support to preserve the stupa came from the Europeans also.

(d) French and British both took the plaster cast copies of the pillars of the stupas to be displayed in the museums at France and Britain. They also contributed financially to preserve the stupa. Q 4. Read this short inscription and answer: In the year 33 of the maharaja Huvishka, (a Kushana ruler), in the first month of the hot season on the eighth day, a Bodhisatta was set up at Madhuvanaka by the bhikkhuni Dhanavati, the sister’s daughter of the bhikkhuni Buddhamita, who knows the Tipitaka, the female pupil of the bhikkhu Bala, who knows the Tipitaka, together with her father and mother. (a) How did Dhanavati date her inscription? (b) Why do you think she installed an image of the Bodhisatta? (c) Who were the relatives she mentioned? (d) What Buddhist text did she know? (e) From whom dicTshe learn this text?

Ans.

(a) Dhanavati dated her inscription that she placed the inscription at Madhuvanaka in the first month of the hot season on the eighth day in the year 33 of the Maharaja named Havishka.

(b) I think that she (the Bhikkhuni Dhanvati installed an image of the Bodhisatta to show that Mahayana sect of Budhhism was becoming popular day by day and Boddhisattas were considered great personalities in Buddhism during the reign of the Kushana rulers.

(c) She has mentioned her own mother’s sister’s name Buddhamita. The lady was a Bhikkuni. She had also mentioned Bhikkuni Bala and her parents.

(d) She knew the Tipitaka.

(e) She learnt the text from the Bhikkhuni Buddhamita who was the female pupil of the Bala. 5. Why do you think women and men joined the sangha?

Ans. The important reasons why men and women joined sanghas could be as follows:

(а) Many of them wanted to renounce the worldly pleasures.

(b) They could study the Buddhist literature and philosophy by staying in the company of other monks.

(c) Many people entered sanghas to become priests and teachers of Buddhism.

(d) All were considered equal and the previous social identity was to be renounced.

(e) The environment of sanghas was democratic. The decision making within sanghas was based on voting. This attracted many and they took to the life of sanghas Q 6. To what extent does knowledge of Buddhist literature help in understanding the sculpture at Sanchi?

Ans. Buddhist literature help us upto some extent in understanding the sculpture at Sanchi. It is important that the sculptures at Sanchi depict the teachings of Buddha only. The teachings of Buddha are captured in the literature.

It is notable that Buddha used to roam around among people , preaching them on his teachings. However, he did not claim supernatural power. He told us that the world is ever changing. It is full of sorrows. Sorrow flows out of desire. Buddha asked the followers to take the middle path, not too much of penance, nor too much of indulgence. The literature of Buddhism is useful for the interpretation of the sculpture at Sanchi. People are shown in different moods and in sorrow. Different stages of life are depicted and so on. Hence, it can be stated that Buddhist literature throws valuable light on the sculptures of the Sanchi. Q 7. Discuss the development in sculpture and architecture associated with the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism.

Ans.Vaishnavism and Shaivism are the two branches of Hinduism. In case of Vaishnavism, Lord Vishnu was regarded as the chief deity. In case of Shaivism Lord Shiva was regarded as the chief deity. Both traditions were part of the Bhakti movement. Bhakti movement emphasised on the love and devotion of the devotee to the God.

This tradition of Vaishnavism and Shaivism also impacted the tradition of architecture and sculpture. The temples developed the house deities. The initial temples were small and simple. It was a small room called Garbhagriha. Later it expanded, a tall structure was built on the garbhagriha. It was called Shikhara. The walls of the temple were decorated with suitors. Soon temples were built that had huge entrance and big halls for the comfort of visitors.

Many of these temples were carved out of rocks. These artificial caves were turned into temples. The tradition of article caves is old who had renounced the world. The most important were the Ajivikas, that developed as a sect during the reign of Asoka. Later a good example of the rock-cut temple is the Kailash Nath temple of the 8th Century. It was carved out of a single piece rock. There is a copper plate inscription at the temple of Ellora wherein the sculptor exclaims, “How did I make it!” Sculpture was yet another way of expression. Deities were given many shapes and forms in the sculpture. Shiva has been shown in the form of Linga. Many deities have shown in different forms, sometimes grotesque. There were also combination of man and animal forms. Q 8. Discuss how and why stupas were built. Describe the structure of stupa with example.

Ans. About 200 years after the time of Buddha King Asoka erected a pillar at Lumbini. This was to announce the visit of Buddha to this place.Stupas were the mounds put on the bodily remains of the body of Lord Buddha or of any object that was used by him. At the place of stupas such objects were buried. These were places of great respect under the tradition of Buddhism, as they had the relics of Buddha. As per the description of Asokavadana winch a famous Buddhist book, Emperor Asoka gave Buddha’s relic to all major cities. Later on such places stupas were put. The most important stupas are at Sanchi, Bharhut and Saranath.

The structure of a stupa was like a dome and hemisphere. On the top of it, there would be a balcony called harmik. This balcony represented the abode of God. The harmik was covered with an umbrella. There used to be railings around the balcony.

The construction of the stupas was made possible by the contribution of many. On the forefront were the monarchs. The Satvahan Kings offered huge amount for the construction of the stupqs. Apart from the monarchs, merchants, artisans and common men and women also contributed to the construction of the stupas. Q 9. Of the religious traditions discussed in this chapter, is there any that is practised in your neighbourhood? What are the religious texts used today, an how are they preserved and transmitted? Are images used in worship? If so, are these similar to or different from those described in this chapter? Describe the buildings used for religious : activities today, comparing them with early stupas and temples.

Ans. The chapter discuss the religious traditions of ancient India which included, Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, so on. As I live in the walled city of Delhi have seen people practising all these traditions. The religious textbooks of all religions are preserved and kept with great respect. They have been translated in many languages including many regional languages of the country. Now they are also preserved in the form of CD and other modern devices. Images are also used by worshippers of these religions. The Hindus deities have almost same images as they had in the past. Jains and Buddhists also use images.Temples are used by hindus, buddhists and jams. Mosques are made by muslims and churches by the Christians. The structure of all these are different but with some similarities too.

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