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juniperpublishersoceanography · 3 years

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Effect of Different Water Sources on Survival Rate (%) Growth Performance, Feed Utilization, Fish Yield, and Economic Evaluation on Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Monosex Reared in Earthen Ponds- Juniper Publishers

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of water source on survival rate %, growth performance, feed utilization, fish yield, economic evaluation and production of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) monosex reared in earthen ponds. Nine earthen ponds were used and divided into three categories of three earthen ponds each. The average size of each pond was approximately 5200m2, 6000 monosex all male Nile tilapia were used in each pond and were stocked for 192 days. The fingerlings average weight was 4.38±0.03g/ fish, the fish were fed using a floating feed 25% crude protein, and were fed at a daily rate of 3% of their body weight. Results showed that body weight was increased significantly (P<0.05) with well water to 472.33g/fish. While were 354.17 and 320.17g/fish for fresh and agricultural drainage water, respectively. Specific growth rates (SGR%) increased with well water compared to both fresh and drainage water. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) and protein efficiency ratio (PER) were improved with Agriculture drainage water. Survival rates with fresh and well water were 98.53% and 98.31% respectively, however, was 95.05% with Agriculture drainage water. Total fish yield were affected significantly by treatments. It was 2128, 1921.8, and 2837.7kg at fresh, drainage and well water respectively. Net return arrived to 12996 for well water source when it was 6784LE for agricultural drainage water and 9158LE for fresh water.

Keywords: Water resources; Nile tilapia; Growth per

Introduction

Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus) is one of the most important freshwater fish in world aquaculture [1]. It is widely cultured in many tropical and subtropical countries of the world [2]. Rapid growth rates, high tolerance to adverse environmental conditions, efficient feed conversion, ease of spawning, resistance to disease and good consumer acceptance make it a suitable fish for culture [3]. Farmed tilapia production increased semi dramatically in recent years, increasing from 383,654mt in 1990 to 2,326,413mt in 2006 [4]. Tilapia has established a secure position in a number of water impoundments of India. But, its performance in open water ponds of the country has been discouraging over the years [5]. For tilapia aquaculture is excessive reproduction and the resulting small size of the fish produced.

Egypt has suitable natural conditions for desert aquaculture. Egypt has vast resources of groundwater [6]. Fresh groundwater resources in Egypt contribute 20% to the potential water resources in Egypt. One of the groundwater resources is the Nile Valley and Delta system with the storage capacities of 200 billion m3 and 300 billion m3, respectively. Oasis water in the west desert, Bahariya, Farafra, Dakhla, Kharga, and Siwa, were established from underground natural wells and springs.

With the prohibition of the establishment of fish farms on agricultural land, with the prohibition of the use of Nile water for fish farming, with increased competition for spaces adjacent to the lakes and sources of agricultural drainage water, despite its disadvantages, has caused the possession of new fish farm in the Nile [7]. Valley of the most difficult things and out of reach. Hence the search for an alternative to invade the desert, especially with the development of methods of fish farming and providing the requirements of education and with the provision of underground water of the highest purity with different salinity (fresh & brackish & marine) and where the trained professionals are available [8]. In the hope to produce clean fish with improved quality and cheaper than other animal proteins we conducted the present research in a private fish farm located in the desert belonging to Noubaria Agricultural Development company (Ragab Farms) aiming to study the effect of water source on survival rate (%) growth performances, feed conversion ratio, protein efficiency ratio, annul fish yield and profitability Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) monosex commercial farming.

Materials and Methods

Water Source

Three types of water sources: fresh water, agricultural drainage water, and well water were compared in the present experiment. Water supplies were replaced three times during the experimental period (192 days).

Experimental design

Nine earthen ponds (5200m2) were used in these experiment were divided into three categories of earthen ponds even three ponds represent one treatment (fresh water, drainage water and well water.

Stocking density

6000 monosex all male Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fingerlings of average weight (4.38±0.03g/ fish) were stoked in each pond on April 11, 2007 and observed through October 19, 2007. The area of each pond 5200m2.

Experimental Fish

Fingerlings of all male Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) monosex were collected from Noubaria Agricultural Development Company (Ragab Fish Hatchery) and were over wintered in earthen ponds to provide suitable fingerlings for the beginning of the growing season. All ponds in this experiment were sampled monthly using a cast net method. Sample sizes were 1% of the stocked numbers and the average individual fish weight was calculated to determine growth rates. Then, with these calculations, the feed amounts were adjusted for the following month.

Experimental diet

The floating commercial diet used in this experiment was fed at a daily rate of 3% of the fish body weight by using self feeders The ingredients of the commercial diet used in the experiment is presented in (Table 1). The dietary composition of vitamin and mineral premix is listed in. Fish were fed a floating ration for 6 days per week. Feeding rate was adjusted monthly based upon the calculated biomass of fish obtained through the monthly sampling and assumption of 100% survival.

Water quality

Physical parameters: Water temperature °C was determined at every days in the experiment.

Chemical Parameters: Samples for determination of dissolved oxygen (DO) were immediately fixed after sampling and DO concentration was determined according to Winkler's technique. Methods described by Golterman et al. [9] were used in determination of ammonia. Also pH was measured by digital pH meter (Orion model 720 A, s /No 13602) in all experiments.

Chemical Analysis of the commercial of Diet: Chemical analysis of the commercial diet used in the experiment was done according to AOAC (2000) as shown in Table 1.

Growth parameters and Statistical analysis: Data on growth, feed utilization, survival rate and proximate and chemical composition of whole fish body were subjected to one-way ANOVA [10]. To locate significant differences between fish size within different water resources of pond. Duncan's multiple rang test [11] was done. All percentages and ratio were transformed to arcsine values prior to analysis [12].

Results and Discussion

Experimental diet

The commercial diet used in the present experiment contained 25% CP and 4.3kcal/g gross energy (Table 1). Although there are large variations in the data available about the optimum protein level for tilapias which range between 20 and 40% crude protein [13-15] practical diets as low as 25% protein was successfully used for rearing monosex tilapia [3].

Vit. A 8000 I.U. Vit. D3 4000 I.U.; vit. E 50mg; Vit. k3 19mg;

Vit. B1 40mg; vit. B2 25 mg; Vit. B6 125mg; vit B12 69mg;

Pantothenic acid 40mg; Nicotinic acid 125mg; Folic acid 400mg;

Water quality

Collected data on water temperature and dissolved oxygen (DO), pH and ammonia are summarized in Tables 2-4. Water temperature throughout the present experiments ranged between 24.13±0.53 and 30.26±0.45 °C in fresh water experiment, 24.23±0.53 and 30.65±0.53 °C in drainage water experiment and between 29.94±0.12 and 33.63±0.43 in well water experiment which was the high temperature and closely related to the average of optimal value for tilapia (28-30 °C). Our results were agreement with Broussard [16] reported that tilapia as a warm water fish that dominate African lakes, are known to grow well in high temperature. The fluctuation of water temperature are reached its maximum values during August, however its minimum were during April and November.

*Each value was on average of four sub samples

Biotin 20mg; cholin chloride 80 mg; copper 400mg; Iodine 40mg;

Iron 120mg; Manganese 220mg; Zink 22mg; Selenium 4mg

Means in the same column having different letters are significantly different (P<0.05).

Overall means of water dissolved oxygen (DO) throughout the present experiment were 7.20±0.37mg DO/I for fresh water, 7.19±0.36mg DO/I for drainage water and 6.33±0.36mg DO/I for well water. The fluctuation of water dissolved oxygen (DO) showed that the maximum values of DO were obtained in November for the fresh and drainage water and August in well water, however, the lowest values were in April. In general, dissolved oxygen levels were within the high standards and higher than cited by Boyd [18] for good production of tilapia (4.20 to 5.90mg DO/I) in aquaculture ponds. One of the most important environmental factors is dissolved oxygen. It is considered a limiting factor for success or failure in intensive culture. An excellent aquaculture attribute of tilapia is their tolerance to low dissolved oxygen concentration [16]. The dissolved oxygen content in earthen ponds depends on the pond water temperature, fish biomass and rate of water exchange [18]. Chervinski [19] reported that O. niloticus survived short term exposure to 0.1mg DO/ l. However, Collins [20] observed in a review on oxygen concentration of various studies, that growth rate of non-salmonid fish was increasingly depressed as dissolved oxygen fall below 50% saturation. Rappaport et al. [21] reported that growth of carp was reduced by predawn dissolved oxygen less that 25% saturation. Tichert-C & Green [22] compared the growth of tilapia monosex in earthen ponds aerated or unaerated at 10 or 30% saturation of dissolved oxygen. They found that tilapia production and final weight were significantly greater in aerated ponds than unaerated ponds.

The water pH values throughout the present experiments ranged between 8.00±0.13and 8.10±0.13 with an overall mean of 8.04±0.13 in fresh water and ranged between 8.01±0.13 and 8.10±0.13 with an overall mean of 8.05±0.13 in drainage water and ranged between 7.98±0.13and 8.01±0.13 with an overall mean of 8.00±0.13 in well water. The fluctuations of pH reach the highest value of 8.10+0.13 during August in fresh and drainage water and 8.01+0.13 in well water. The results showed that the present pH values are suitable. For rearing tilapia monosex in earthen ponds. Johnson [23] recommended the range of pH 6.5 to 9.0 for most of freshwater fish species.

The water un-ionized ammonia (NH3) throughout the present experiments ranged between 0.09±0.01 and 0.12±0.01 with an overall mean of 0.11±0.01 in fresh water and ranged between 0.10±0.01 and 0.13±0.01 with an overall mean of 0.11±0.01 in drainage water and ranged between 0.06±0.01 and 0.10±0.01 with an overall mean of 0.077±0.01 in well water. The fluctuations of un-ionized ammonia reach the highest values of 0.13mg/ l during August. Unionized ammonia concentrations in the experimental ponds generally remained below levels which would cause chronic toxicity problems in tilapia. Tilapia is more tolerant to elevated levels of ammonia than more other sensitive species such as salmonids [23]. Some tilapias have been shown to acclimate to higher levels of ammonia after chronic exposure to low levels [24]. Johnson [23] showed that levels of un-ionized ammonia which may adversely affect growth in tilapia range from 1mg/ l to 2mg/ l ammonia where temperature and pH are within normal range.

Growth performance of tilapia monosex

Mean weight: Results of the present study showed that the mean weights at all rearing intervals different significantly (P<0.05) during all the experimental periods (Table 5 & Figure 1). Averages of fish body weights for fresh water, drainage water and well water were found to be 23.16, 18.66 and 25.16g, respectively after the 1st month of stocking. The statistical evaluation of results indicated that live weights at this period increased significantly (P<0.05) with using well water. A similar trend was also observed in fish body weights during the other growing periods. At harvest average body weight of fish stocked at well water was significantly (P<0.05) higher than that of fish stocked in fresh or drainage water, which indicates that weights fish were decreased in fresh and drainage water with increasing for used well water at harvest were 354.17g, 320.17g and 472.33g for fresh, drainage and well water, respectively. This significant advancement in fish body weights with increasing at higher temperature of water advocated by Azaze et al. [25] reported that the final mean weight was significantly higher at 26 and 30 °C than at 22 and 34 °C. This finding agrees with our results.

Average daily gain (ADG g/day): Results presented in Table 5 revealed that water sources, affected significantly (P<0.05) ADG during all experimental periods tested (30, 60, 90.120.150.180 and 210 days after start). In general these results indicated that the well water favored significantly ADG of the tilapia monosex in intensive culture system. The results of this point were in agreement with those found by [17] who grew O. niloticus from 49g to 271g in 122 days (1.4%/day). Siddiqui et al. [15] found that ADG of tilapia O. niloticus reared for 98 days at different water exchange in outdoor concrete tanks was 1.06g / day at 30% dietary crude protein. In the present study the average daily gain was higher with 25% crude protein at all treatments. However, the optimal feeding rate depends on fish size and Specific Growth Rate (SGR %): Results presented in Table 5, revealed that water sources, affected significantly (P<0.05) SGR% during all experimental periods tested (30, 60, 90.120.150.180 and 205 days after start). In general these results indicated that the well water, favored significantly (P<0.05) SGR% of the tilapia monosex in intensive culture system.

During all tested experimental periods tested (30, 60, 90.120.150.180 and 205 days after start) SGR% increased significantly (P<0.05) in almost linear manner in the well water than fresh and drainage water In the present study SGR% values in case of well water continuously higher than fresh or drainage water in all experimental periods. This may be due to the higher temperature of the well water (average 31.94 °C) compared to 27.47 and 27.81 °C for fresh and drainage water, respectively. The results obtained in SGR% are in agreement with those found by Eid & El Denasoury [27] who indicated that increasing temperature from 16 °C to 27 °C improve growth rate of Nile tilapia, which using well water.

Feed conversion ratio (FCR): Results presented in Table 5, show that there were significant (P<0.05) effects of water sources on FCR, feed conversion ratio was observed at harvest was 2.87 at fresh water, followed by 2.83 at well water and 2.80 at drainage water and 2.94 for 1700m2 followed by 2.89 for 4000m2 followed by 2.75 for 5200m2 and was 2.57 for 6000 fish/ acre, 2.75 for 8000 fish/ acre and 2.78 for 10000 fish/ acre. The analyses of variance of the FCR values are presented in Table 5. The FCR is affected by the physiological state of the fish, environmental condition, [28]. Lovshin et al. [29] found that FCR for all male tilapia in earthen ponds was higher (4.3) than when compared with all male and female tilapia in earthen ponds (FCR=7.2). while, fish growth is affected by the amount of feed consumed and the efficiency of assimilation [30].

Protein efficiency ratio (PER): Results of protein efficiency ratio (PER) are presented in Table 5, There were significant (P<0.05) effects of water sources, on PER, it improved significantly (P<0.05) with each increase in pond sizes and decrease stocking density throughout the experimental periods. The best PER observed at harvest was 1.42 with drainage water, followed by 1.40 at well water and 1.38 at fresh water Nyina-W et al. [31] confirmed that when protein supply is appropriate (400500g protein/kg feed for percid fish), different lipid contents in feeds do not have an impact on the rearing results of pikeperch.

Fish survival rate: Results in Table 6 showed that survival rates were changed significantly (P<0.05) by water resources, in fresh and well water were insignificantly (P<0.05) different but survival of the fish in drainage water was 95.05% which was less than survival rates in both fresh water and well water indicating the probable effect of some faction of water quality.

Fish yield: Results of Table 4 show fish yield (kg) per acre as affected by water sources,. Results revealed that total yield increased significantly (P<0.05) with well water. The total production was found to be 133.34% and 90.31% for well water and drainage water, respectively, while it was found to be 76.33% and 68.84% for 4000m2 and 5200m2.

The results of the present experiment were similar to those of Tal & Ziv [32] who showed that the net yield of tilapia monosex in earthen ponds was 16750Kg /ha (7035.0kg/ acre) after 100 days of stocking of 80.000 fish/ha, (33600 fish/acre, 8 fish/m2) on the other hand Eid & Denasoury [27] indicated that increasing temperature from 16 °C to 27 °C improved growth rate of Nile tilapia. Watanabe et al. [33] found that growth rates generally increase with increasing temperature and where markedly lower at 22 °C and well water is the best because the temperature constant through the year and the best quality of the water. [34] found the higher yield obtained in small pond sizes because the bigger ponds with greater surface area were more difficult to manage and often resulted in lower fish yields.

All fish species are characterized by an ideal range of temperature in which they show their maximum growth [3537]. Several studies have been reported that the specific water temperature range showed the faster growth in Pikeperch, Sander lucioperca at 20 °C to 25 °C [38-40]. Low temperature causes sluggishness by retarding the digestion speeding of fish [41]. Some researchers have found that the digestion rate has been increased as the temperature increases [42]. Environmental temperature is one of the most important ecological factor which also influence the behavior and physiological process of aquatic animals [43].

One of the major advantages of groundwater sources is their constant temperature throughout the year. Shallow sources of groundwater approximate the mean air temperature of the area. The chemistry of groundwater is directly dependent on the geology of the area surrounding the source. In limestone areas, groundwater is hard, and high in calcium and carbon dioxide [44]. In areas of granite formation, the groundwater tends to be soft, low in dissolved minerals and carbon dioxide. As will be discussed later, there are advantages and disadvantages to both, emphasizing the need for early extensive water quality testing.

Water temperature has substantial effect on fish metabolism. In response to decreasing of water temperature the enzyme activity of tissues have been increased [45]. Velmurugan et al. [46] have investigated that histopathological and tissue enzyme changes of C. gariepinus exposed to nitrite when water temperatures changes from 27 °C to 35 °C. In a stressful and unfavorable environmental condition GPT and GOT may increase in blood serum. In the present study serum GPT and GOT level were affected by different water temperature. Serum GPT and GOT amount in different fish fed at 20 °C are comparatively lower than those of fish fed at 16 °C and 24 °C experiments (Tables 1-3). These results indicated that 20 °C may be a favorable water temperature for better growth of 16g juvenile Korean rockfish [47,48].

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jaincoexports · 4 years

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annieboltonworld · 5 years

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Juniper Publishers-Open Access Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources

Comparative Assessment of Physicochemical Parameters of Udaipur City, (Raj.) India

Authored by Chandra Shekar Kapoor

Abstract

Urbanization and Industrial activities lead the water contamination. It’s a serious problem now a day. Analysis of the water quality is essential to take a safety measures to protect & preserve the natural ecosystem. As a part of this study, Assessment of the water quality was carried out for different lakes in the City of Udaipur. The present analysis is aimed to assess the physicochemical parameters of water in Udaipur City. For determining the present water quality status by statistical evaluation 35 different parameters have been considered Viz. pH, color, total dissolved solids, electrical conductivity, total alkalinity, total hardness, chromium, zinc, manganese, nickel, BOD, COD, fluoride, zinc etc. The study of physicochemical and biological characteristics of this water sample suggests the evaluation of water quality. The indices had been computed from Jan 2013 to Dec. 2015.

Keywords: Physicochemical Parameters; B.O.D; C.O.D; Drinking Water Standard; Water Quality; Coliform

Introduction

Water is the most crucial factor in shaping the land and regulating the climate. It is one of the most important compounds that profoundly influence life. Wetlands are probably the earth’s foremost freshwater resources that provide food and habitat for numerous aquatic life including threatened and endangered species. Therefore conservation of wetlands is pretty essential as wetlands are one of the most threatened habitats in the world. The most important step for conservation of wetlands is to maintain a proper water quality. The water quality is directly related to the health of the water body hence proper management of water quality of the aquatic environment is very much crucial. Analysis of the British Columbia water quality index for watershed managers: a case study of two small watersheds [1]. The application of water quality indices and dissolved oxygen as indicators for river water classification and urban impact assessment [2]. Some of the most recent work on water quality of various aquatic environments. Assessment of bacterial indicators and physicochemical parameters to investigate pollution status of Gangetic river system of Uttarakhand, India [3]. DO-BOD modeling of River Yamuna for the national capital territory of India using stream II, a 2D water quality model [4]. Comparative analysis of regional water quality in Canada using the water quality index [5]. Physicochemical and microbiological study of Tehri dam reservoir, Garhwal Himalaya [6]. Water quality analysis of River Yamuna using water quality index in the national capital territory, India [7]. The impact of pharmaceutical industry treated effluents on the water quality of river Uppanar, south-east coast of India: A case study [8]. Seasonal variations in Physico-chemical characteristics of Rudra sagar wetland- a Ramsar site, Tripura, India [9].

Material and Methods

Study area

The city of Udaipur (state Rajasthan, India) known as ‘city of lakes’ is situated about 600 m above the mean sea level and is located among the lush green hills of Aravali range between 24°35’ N latitude and 73°42’ E longitude. There are three major lakes around Udaipur and within, e.g., Fateh Sagar, Udai Sagar and Pichhola. The city population is around 0.65 million and It has a distinctly tropical climate with marked monsoonal effect. The climate of Udaipur can be divided into three distinct seasons, i.e., summer (Mar-Jun), rain (Jul-Oct) and winter (Nov-Feb). The average temperature ranges from 5°C in winter to maximum of 41°C in summers. The annual average rainfall ranges from 62.5 cm to 125 cm during normal monsoon regime. The climate is divided into three seasons, Summer(Apr-Jun), Rainy (Jul-Oct) and Winter (Jan-Feb). The present study was conducted on the Physico-chemical parameters of the Fateh Sagar, Udai Sagar and Pichhola lakes.MethodologyThe physicochemical parameter, water temperature was measured in situ by using hand mercury thermometer, pH was estimated by Digital pH –meter (Elico-120).Turbidity was measured by Water Analyzer, EM-61, Electrical conductivity was measured by conductivity meter. (Tanco EE-014 Series Digital Conductivity Meter), TDS was measured with the help of Digital TDS meter. Other parameters, i.e. Total Alkalinity, Dissolved Oxygen, Biological Oxygen Demand(BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Chloride, Sulphate, Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, Total Hardness, Phenolphthalein Alkalinity, Phosphate, Nitrite, Fluoride, Ammonical Nitrogen, Boron Dissolved, Potassium, Cyanide, Cadmium, Lead, Chromium, Zinc,Iron, Copper, Nickel,Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen. The analysis of Total Suspended solids, Total Dissolved Solids, Fixed Dissolved Solids, Fecal Coliform and Total Coliform of water performed as per the standard methods [10-12] in the laboratory.

Results

The results of investigations of various parameters of Pichola lake water quality were recorded for two years (Jan 2013 to Dec 2014). During this period (Tables 1 & 2), analysis of various physicochemical parameters of different physical sites of Udaipur city was performed and it was revealed that the range of temperature in different sampling sites was 18 degrees centigrade (minimum) to 25-degree centigrade (maximum). The pH was found 7.70 (minimum) in the month of Jan-Feb, 2013) and 8.60 (maximum) in the month of May-Jun, 2014. The amount of Conductivity in the different samples were minimum at 558 (Jul- Aug, 2014) and maximum 732 (Jul-Aug, 2013). The amount of Total Alkalinity recorded minimum at 5.50 mg/l and maximum 152 mg/l. The amount of Dissolved Oxygen recorded minimum as 0.9 mg/l in Jul-Aug, 2013 and maximum 6.45 mg/l in May- Jun, 2014. In the case of B.O.D. lowest value was recorded in the month Jan-Feb, 2013 at 0.081mg/l and highest in the month of Sep-Oct, 2013 at 1.85 mg/l. C.O.D. content in the water samples was recorded highest during Sep-Oct, 2013 (25 mg/l) and lowest during May-Jun, 2013 (5.69 mg/l). Similarly in the samples of Chloride, Sulphate recorded highest in the months of Jul-Aug, 2014 (114 mg/l) and in Mar-Apr, (65 mg/l), and minimum in the samples of Sep-Oct, 2013 (49 mg/l) and of Jul-Aug, 2013 (31.0 mg/l ). Sodium content was observed maximum in the months of Jan-Feb, 2014 (94 mg/l) and minimum in those of during Sep- Oct, 2013 (32 mg/l). ). The amount of Calcium and Magnesium was recorded higher in the months of and Mar-Apr, 2014 (49.5 mg/l; 19.51 mg/l) and lower in Jul-Aug, 2013 & Nov-Dec, 2014 (26.1 and 1.80 mg/l) in the sample of Pichola Lake respectively. Fecal Coliform content recorded maximum and minimum in the months of Nov-Dec, 2014, (7 MPN /100ml); Jan-Feb, 2013 (4 MPN /100ml). The amount Phenolphthalein Alkalinity as recorded of the different samples as maximum 8 mg/l Jul-Aug, 2014. The amount of Turbidity ranged between 0.39 and 9.3 NTU. Similarly, the amount of Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen was minimum at Nov-Dec, 2014, 0.80 mg/l and Jul-Aug, 2014 maximum 2.24 mg/l. The Total Hardness content was recorded highest during Mar- Apr, 2014 (186 mg/l) and lowest value (89 mg/l during Jul-Aug, 2014). Total Coliform content was higher during Mar-Apr,2013 (19 MPN/100ml), lower value 3 MPN/100ml Nov-Dec, 2014. Total Dissolved and Fixed Dissolved Solids recorded highest in the months of Jun-Feb, 2014 (389 mg/l & (219 mg/l), and minimum in the samples of Sep-Oct, 2013 (270 mg/l) and Mar- Apr, 2013 (139 mg/l). The lowest values of Ammonical Nitrogen were recorded during (Jan-Feb, 2013, 0.03 mg/l)and the highest values in Nov-Dec, 2014 (0.81mg/l).The amount of Boron Dissolved were recorded highest during Nov-Dec, 2013as 0.79 mg/l and lowest 0.001mg/l in Jan-Feb, 2014.The highest amount of Phosphate was recorded during the Sep-Oct, 2013 (0.03 mg/l) lowest 0.0 mg/l Nitrate was recorded highest during Mar-Apr, 2014 (0.07mg/l) and lowest during Jul-Aug, 2013(520). It was observed that the amount of Potassium in the water sample of Pichola lake was high in Jun-Feb, 2013 (0.69mg/l) and lower in Jul-Aug, 2013 (0.4 mg/l).Total Suspended solids were found high during Mar-Apr, 2013 in the sample water of lakes (33 mg/l) and minimum value in Jan-Feb,2013 (1.8 mg/l). Highest Fluoride content was recorded in (0.99 mg/l during Jul-Aug, 2014) and lowest in the sample of industrial area (0.06 mg/l during Jan- Feb, 2013). Pichola Lake and Fateh Sagar area were computed (Tables 3-8).During two years of study of water sample of Fateh Sagar (Tables 3 & 4) very low temperature was recorded in Jan-Feb, 2014 (20-degree centigrade) whereas the high temperature was recorded during Mar-Apr, 2013 (24.6-degree centigrade).The pH content was higher during Jan-Feb, 2013 (8.7), lower in Jul-Aug, 2013(7.84). Conductivity was recorded highest during Jul-Aug, 2013 (1281) and lowest during Jul-Aug, 2014 (520). The amount of total Alkalinity was recorded higher during Sep-Oct, 2014 (150mg/l;) and lowest during Mar-Apr, 2013 (115mg/l) at lake sites. Higher values of Dissolved Oxygen were estimated during Jul-Aug, 2013 (6.74mg/l) and lower values estimated in Sep- Oct, 2013 (4.16mg/l) in Fateh Sagar’s water sample. The B.O.D. content was recorded higher during Jan-Feb, 2013 (3.40 mg/l) and lower during Jul-Aug, 2014(3.30 mg/l). The C.O.D. recorded highest during Nov.-Dec 2013 (63.1 mg/l) and the lower amount was recorded in the samples of industrial area’s water during May-Jun, 2013 (7.2 mg/l). The Chloride content was recorded highest during Mar-Apr, 2013 (122 mg/l) and lowest during Jul-Aug, 2013 (12.1mg/l). The lowest values of Sulphate were recorded during Jan-Feb, 2013, (29mg/l) and highest values in Jul-Aug, 2014 (68 mg/l). Sodium was found to be highest in the water samples of the lakes with its highest value recorded during Nov-Dec 2014 (81mg/l) and lowest value in Jul-Aug, 2013 (28 mg/l). The amount of Magnesium was recorded higher during Mar-Apr, 2013 (23.40 mg/l) and lowest in Jan-Feb, 2014 (2.80 mg/l). The Fecal Coliform content was recorded lowest during Jan-Feb, 2013 (3 MPN/100ml) and during Jul-Aug, 2014(7 MPN/100ml).Water samples Phenolphthalein Alkalinity lower values were estimated as zero and highest values in Mar-Apr, 2013 (27 mg/l). In Fateh Sagar’s water, Turbidity was highest during Mar-Apr, 2013(4NTU) and lower May June 13 0.27 NTU, respectively. In the samples of Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen were recorded maximum during Mar-Apr, 2013(1.93 mg/l) and minimum in Jan-Feb, 2013 (0.56 mg/l). In the case of Total Hardness, the lowest value was recorded in the months of Jul- Aug, 2013, at 99 mg/l and highest in the month of May-Jun, 2014 at 180 mg/l. Total Coliform lowest concentration was observed in the month of Mar-Apr, 2013 at 7 MPN/100ml and highest in the month of May-Jun, 2014 at 22 MPN/100ml. In comparison, the lowest concentration of Total Dissolved Solids was recorded in the month of May-Jun, 2013 at 226 mg/l and highest in the month of Nov-Dec, 2014 at 318 mg/l. In the case of Fixed Dissolved Solids lowest value was recorded in the month of Mar- Apr, 2013 at 84 mg/l and highest in the month of Mar-Apr, 2014 at 200 mg/l. While the highest value of Phosphate was recorded in the month of Jul-Aug, at 0.001 mg/l. Lowest concentration of Ammonical Nitrogen was observed at 0.07 mg/l in the month of Jan-Feb, 2013 and it was highest in the month of Mar-Apr, 2014 at 1.4 mg/l. During study period Boron Dissolved was highest in the month of Nov-Dec, 2014 at 0.23 mg/l. Higher values of Nitrate were estimated during Jan-Feb, 2014 (0.82mg/l) and the lowest Nov-Dec, 2014 (0.07mg/l). The lowest values of Potassium were recorded during Jan-Feb, 20130.4 mg/l and the highest value 2.7 mg/l in the month of Mar-Apr, 2014. The total Suspended solids content were recorded highest during Mar- Apr, 2014 (50 mg/l) and lowest Jul-Aug, 2014 (3.5 mg/l). The Lowest concentration of Fluoride was observed at 0.03 mg/l in the month of Jan-Feb, 2014 and it was highest in the month of Jul-Aug, 2014 at 0.70 mg/l. In present study the various kinds of pollutants in the water quality of the study sites and activity has been represented (Figures 1-4) of Pichola lake and Fateh Sagar.

Discussion

The use of water quality indices to verify the impact of Cordoba City (Argentina) on Suquia River [13]. water quality evaluation and trend analysis in selected watersheds of the Atlantic region of Canada [14]. An innovative index for evaluating water quality in streams [15]. Change (2005) reported spatial and temporal variations of water quality in the river and its tributaries in Seoul, South Korea, 1993–2002 [16]. The development of chemical index as a measure of instream water quality in response to land-use and land-cover changes [17]. That application of CCME Water Quality Index to monitor water quality: a case of the Mackenzie River Basin Canada [18]. Long-term water quality monitoring of the Sejnane reservoir in northeast Tunisia [19]. Assessed that application of two water quality indices as monitoring and management tools of rivers Case study: the Imera Meridiopnale river Italy [20]. Contributed application of physicochemical data for waterquality assessment of watercourses in the Gdansk municipality (South Baltic coast) [21]. Analysis of Ground Water Quality Parameters: A Review due to human and industrial activities, the ground water is contaminated [22]. This is the serious a problem at present. Thus the analysis of the water quality is very important to preserve and protect the natural eco system. The study of Physico-chemical and biological characteristics of this ground water sample suggests that the evaluation of water quality parameters as well as water quality management practices should be carried out periodically to protect the water resources.

Conclusion

The appraisal of lakes water in Udaipur’s lakes with respect to bacteriological and physicochemical pollution is of immense significance for improving the living standard and quality of life in this region. Therefore, monitoring of microbial contamination and pathogenic bacteria genera on a periodic basis is important and useful to arrive at measures that can act as indicators of water quality and pollution.

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totalenvirotechsolutions · 4 years

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We’re Importer & Supplier for Biofloc Fish Farming Technology & Equipments in Bangladesh. We supply Biofloc Technology & Efficient Biofloc Design in Bangladesh. We have scope of supply Nano Bubble Air Diffuser, Fine Bubble Air Diffuser, Air Stone, Nylon Tee, Nano Tube, Air Flow Control Valve, 2 Way Air Control Valve, Silicon Air Pipe, CaCo3, Resun Air Pump, Diaphragm Air Pump, Vortex Air Pump, Vortex Air Blower, Air Blower, Dissolved Oxygen DO Meter, pH Meter, TDS Meter, Electro Conductivity Meter, Salinity Meter, pH Test Strip, Temperature Meter, Digital Balance, Imhoff Cone, Everfresh Probiotic, pH Buffer Solution Powder, Buffer Solution Bottle, Master Test Kit, Ammonia Test Kit, Alkalinity Test Kit, Electrolizer, Chlorine Test Kit, Nitrile Test Kit, Nitrate Test Kit, Dissolved Oxygen DO Test Kit, Measuring Cylinder Etc. Biofloc Fish Farming is latest & profitable business now in Bangladesh. Our young & energetic staffs always ready to support you when required in front of you.

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midseo · 9 months

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Gold Purity Tester, Manufacturer, Supplier, Exporter, Mumbai, India

We are the Manufacturer and Exporter of Gold Purity Tester, Gold Purity Checking Instruments, Moisture Balances, Industrial Precision Balances, Flameproof Balances, Mumbai, India.

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my-research-analysis-blog · 4 years

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Water Analysis Instruments Market – Global Industry Analysis, Size, Share, Growth, Trends and Forecast 2017 – 2025

Water analysis instruments are used to analyze water to detect the presence of hazardous chemicals and biological agents. Rising population and significant increase in rate of industrialization has increased water pollution notably which is affecting aquatic ecosystems at a global level. Ever increasing demand for safe, clean, and quality water has forced government organizations to undertake major steps against growing issues of water pollution. Water analysis instruments are used to determine the physical, chemical, and biological properties and contaminants in water. Drinking water analysis is a mandatory process as many disease causing micro-organisms and contaminants can pose significant health risks. Chemical disinfectants and their by-products act as a potential source of health risk; therefore, regulatory bodies have enacted stringent regulations related to water quality requirements on the discharge of treated water from industries.

The water analysis instruments market is driven by rising demand for safe and high quality water, increasing investment in refining and petrochemical sectors, and stringent water quality control regulations across the globe. Government initiatives and awareness campaigns due to rising environment concerns, growing population creating huge demand for safe drinking water, and establishment of quality control and safety regulations from government sectors is likely to boost the growth of the water analysis instruments market. Technological advancement in instruments development (from laboratory based to portable and digital based models), and technological shift towards design of multi-parameter instruments is likely to provide growth opportunity to key players. Economic instability, and lack of skilled technicians are the major restraining factors for the growth of the global water analysis instruments market.

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Chromatography instruments segment is further classified into gas chromatography and ion chromatography. Based on method of analysis, the global water analysis instruments market is segmented into colorimetric method, titration method, turbidimetric method, electrochemical methods, and respirometric method. Based on application, the market is segmented into drinking water, industrial process water, wastewater management, and others. In terms of end-user, the water analysis instruments market has been segmented into pharmaceutical and oil industries, laboratories, academic and research institutes and others. The pharmaceutical industries segment is likely to dominate the market during the forecast period.

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hydromo · 4 years

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Simple ways to test Water Quality

With the help of modern chemistry we can detect thousands of chemicals in water even at extremely low concentrations. The ever-growing list of tests that are available can feel overwhelming and the vast majority of methods require state-of-the art lab facilities. Fortunately, we don’t need to test for everything! A much smaller and more practical set of tests can provide a good sense of Chemical Water Quality for monitoring purposes. The good news is that there are low-tech versions of these tests for situations when budgets are limited.

Test formats

Typical low-tech, portable, field test methods for chemical water quality monitoring fall into three categories:

Test strips – These are small, single-use strips that change colour to indicate the concentration of a specific chemical. Depending on the particular test, the user “activates” the paper or plastic strip by dipping it into the water sample and swishing it around, or by holding the strip in a stream of water. After waiting for a short time, the user compares the test strip colour with a color chart to read the concentration of the chemical. These Water Sample Test Kits are extremely simple, but they are less accurate than other methods, especially if users don’t follow the instructions.

Colour disk kits – Colour Disk Test Kits are available for a wide range of chemical tests. In a typical set-up, the user adds a powder packet or a few drops of a liquid reagent to a water sample in a reusable plastic tube. The user then places the sample tube in a small plastic viewing box. This viewing box contains a plastic disk with a colour gradient printed on it. The user rotates the colour disk to find the part that best matches the colour of the sample, and then reads the concentration of the chemical from the disk. Colour disk kits typically have multiple steps and often include prescribed wait times, so they’re a little more complicated and costly, but generally more accurate.

Hand-held digital instruments – Lightweight and portable Digital Meters, Colorimeters and Photometers are available for water testing. They provide the most accurate results of these three testing methods, but they are also more expensive and delicate than the previous options. These instruments require batteries and calibration. While Digital Instruments are helpful to field technicians and are an essential part of any continuous or remote monitoring network, they are unlikely to be suitable for “citizen science” or crowd sourced water quality testing.

Chemical Water Quality Parameters:

Having identified various test formats, the next question is: What do we test for? UNICEF recommends prioritizing fluoride, arsenic and nitrate for chemical monitoring. In areas where the earth is naturally rich in minerals that contain fluorine and arsenic levels in well water can be high enough that chronic exposure is dangerous to human health.

How can we test for these elements?

Fluoride: At least one colour disk test kit is available for fluoride. However, Portable Digital Colorimeters are often preferred because of concerns over accuracy.

Arsenic: Portable field testing options for arsenic are limited; this contaminant is best measured in a laboratory. Commercially available test kits do exist, but they are relatively complex and require several steps. Although the arsenic concentrations “measured” with these test kits may be inaccurate, the kits do detect arsenic in nearly all samples greater than 100 micrograms per litre (μg/L), as well as in most samples in the 50-99 μg /L range. UNICEF has therefore recommended reporting arsenic monitoring results from these portable tests as “present” or “absent” using a reference concentration of 50 μg /L—the drinking water standard in many countries that are affected by natural arsenic contamination.

Nitrate: Both test strips and colour disk test kits are available for Nitrate Testing. Nitrate can also be measured with a digital meter. High levels of nutrients are associated with agricultural pollution from fertilizers (nitrogen and phosphorous) and animal waste (nitrogen). Latrines, sewage, landfills and industrial pollution can also contribute nitrogen. Monitoring for nitrate is a simple way to assess the impacts of agricultural and human waste on water quality.

Resources permitting, UNICEF suggests adding three more chemical parameters to monitoring programs: the naturally-occurring metals iron and manganese, and the overall total dissolved solids (TDS). All three can cause taste and odour problems that might motivate consumers to seek out more appealing – and potentially unsafe – water sources.

Iron and Manganese: Both test strips and colour disk tests are available for these two metals which may also be measured using portable, digital instruments. Field testing with digital equipment is considered reliable for iron and manganese.

TDS: TDS includes a mixture of inorganic salts, mostly sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, and magnesium. Rather than testing the particular components, TDS is monitored by measuring the conductivity of the water with a digital meter known as TDS Meter. There is no test strip or colour disk kit that can be used here, although at least one conductivity meter interfaces with a smartphone.

In chlorinated distribution systems, it is important to monitor two more chemical parameters: pH and chlorine residual.

pH: pH test strips and colour disk tests are widely available. More expensive, higher-tech options include electrode-based pH meters. pH is a measure of hydrogen ion activity, which means that it tells us how acidic or basic the water is. pH is not a pollutant, but it is a chemical master variable. It affects the behaviour of other chemical constituents, including the effectiveness of residual chlorine against microbial contamination. Sudden changes in pH can also reveal treatment plant failures or pollution events in natural water bodies (for example, illegal industrial discharge).

Chlorine: There are many easy ways to test residual chlorine including test strips, colour disks and even kits designed for testing swimming pools. Portable digital meters also exist that can provide reliable & quantitative measurements.

Depending on local conditions and on the focus of a water quality monitoring project, more chemical tests can be added. One might test for alkalinity or hardness (including calcium, magnesium, etc.; field kits are available), chloride (an indicator of road salt or seawater intrusion; test kits exist), dissolved oxygen,[2] organic carbon levels (BOD, COD, TOC), agrochemicals (specific pesticides or fertilizers), or mining/industrial contaminants (e.g., polychlorinated biphenyls, cyanide). Finally, heavy metals like lead, mercury, copper, chromium, etc. are often of local interest.

However, the vast majority of these additional tests are best performed in a laboratory given current technologies. Hydromo being one of such expertise in conducting the Water Tests, it also provides the entire Water Solutions for Homes and Businesses.

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pragya1-blog · 6 years

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Water Analysis Instruments Market Emerging Technologies, Regional Trends, Competitive Landscape, Regional Analysis & Forecasts to 2025

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The global water analysis instruments market has been segmented based on instrument type, method of analysis, end-user, and region. In terms of instrument type, the market can be segmented into turbidometer, Floc tester, BOD system, colorimeter, spectrophotometer, electrochemistry instruments, chromatography and others. The turbidometer segment is further classified into portable turbidometer and laboratory turbidometer. Electrochemistry instruments are further segmented on the basis of parameter of analysis into pH meters, ORP meters, conductivity meters, dissolved oxygen meters, and others. Chromatography instruments segment is further classified into gas chromatography and ion chromatography. Based on method of analysis, the global water analysis instruments market is segmented into colorimetric method, titration method, turbidimetric method, electrochemical methods, and respirometric method. Based on application, the market is segmented into drinking water, industrial process water, wastewater management, and others. In terms of end-user, the water analysis instruments market has been segmented into pharmaceutical and oil industries, laboratories, academic and research institutes and others. The pharmaceutical industries segment is likely to dominate the market during the forecast period.

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james1shields-blog · 7 years

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Test Bank General Chemistry 10th Edition Solution

For Order This And Any Other Test

Banks And Solutions Manuals, Course,

Assignments, Discussions, Quizzes, Exams,

chapter 1

Chemistry and Measurement

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SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES

Note on significant figures: If the final answer to a solution needs to be rounded off, it is given first with one nonsignificant figure, and the last significant figure is underlined. The final answer is then rounded to the correct number of significant figures. In multistep problems, intermediate answers are given with at least one nonsignificant figure; however, only the final answer has been rounded off.

1.1. From the law of conservation of mass,

Mass of wood + mass of air = mass of ash + mass of gases

Substituting, you obtain

1.85 grams + 9.45 grams = 0.28 grams + mass of gases

or,

Mass of gases = (1.85 + 9.45 − 0.28) grams = 11.02 grams

Thus, the mass of gases in the vessel at the end of the experiment is 11.02 grams.

1.2. Physical properties: soft, silvery-colored metal; melts at 64°C.

Chemical properties: reacts vigorously with water, with oxygen, and with chlorine.

1.3. a. The factor 9.1 has the fewest significant figures, so the answer should be reported to two significant figures.

= 4.86 = 4.9

b. The number with the least number of decimal places is 8.91. Therefore, round the answer to two decimal places.

8.91 − 6.435 = 2.475 = 2.48

c. The number with the least number of decimal places is 6.81. Therefore, round the answer to two decimal places.

6.81 − 6.730 = 0.080 = 0.08

d. You first do the subtraction within parentheses. In this step, the number with the least number of decimal places is 6.81, so the result of the subtraction has two decimal places. The least significant figure for this step is underlined.

38.91 ´ (6.81 − 6.730) = 38.91 ´ 0.080

Next, perform the multiplication. In this step, the factor 0.080 has the fewest significant figures, so round the answer to one significant figure.

38.91 ´ 0.080 = 3.11 = 3

1.4. a. 1.84 x 10−9 m = 1.84 nm

b. 5.67 x 10−12 s = 5.67 ps

c. 7.85 x 10−3 g = 7.85 mg

d. 9.7 x 103 m = 9.7 km

e. 0.000732 s = 0.732 ms, or 732 µs

f. 0.000000000154 m = 0.154 nm, or 154 pm

1.5. a. Substituting, we find that

tC = ´ (tF − 32°F) = ´ (102.5°F − 32°F) = 39.167°C

= 39.2°C

b. Substituting, we find that

TK = + 273.15 K = + 273.15 K = 195.15 K

= 195 K

1.6. Recall that density equals mass divided by volume. You substitute 159 g for the mass and 20.2 g/cm3 for the volume.

d = = = 7.871 g/cm3 = 7.87 g/cm3

The density of the metal equals that of iron.

1.7. Rearrange the formula defining the density to obtain the volume.

V =

Substitute 30.3 g for the mass and 0.789 g/cm3 for the density.

V = = 38.40 cm3 = 38.4 cm3

1.8. Since one pm = 10−12 m, and the prefix milli- means 10−3, you can write

121 pm ´ ´ = 1.21 ´ 10−7 mm

1.9. 67.6 Å3 ´ ´ = 6.76 ´ 10−26 dm3

1.10. From the definitions, you obtain the following conversion factors:

1 = 1 = 1 =

The conversion factor for yards to meters is as follows:

1.000 yd x x x = 0.9144 m (exact)

Finally,

3.54 yd x = 3.237 m = 3.24 m

■

ANSWERS TO CONCEPT CHECKS

1.1. Box A contains a collection of identical units; therefore, it must represent an element. Box B contains a compound because a compound is the chemical combination of two or more elements (two elements in this case). Box C contains a mixture because it is made up of two different substances.

1.2. a. For a person who weighs less than 100 pounds, two significant figures are typically used, although one significant figure is possible (for example, 60 pounds). For a person who weighs 100 pounds or more, three significant figures are typically used to report the weight (given to the whole pound), although people often round to the nearest unit of 10, which may result in reporting the weight with two significant figures (for example, 170 pounds).

b. Assuming a weight of 165 pounds, rounded to two significant figures this would be reported as 1.7 x 102 pounds.

c. For example, 165 lb weighed on a scale that can measure in 100-lb increments would be 200 lb. Using the conversion factor 1 lb = 0.4536 kg, 165 lb is equivalent to 74.8 kg. Thus, on a scale that can measure in 50-kg increments, 165 lb would be 50 kg.

1.3. a. If your leg is approximately 32 inches long, this would be equivalent to 0.81 m, 8.1 dm, or 81 cm.

b. One story is approximately 10 feet, so three stories is 30 feet. This would be equivalent to approximately 9 m.

c. Normal body temperature is 98.6°F, or 37.0°C. Thus, if your body temperature were 39°C (102°F), you would feel as if you had a moderate fever.

d. Room temperature is approximately 72°F, or 22°C. Thus, if you were sitting in a room at 23°C (73°F), you would be comfortable in a short-sleeve shirt.

1.4. Gold is a very unreactive substance, so comparing physical properties is probably your best option. However, color is a physical property you cannot rely on in this case to get your answer.

One experiment you could perform is to determine the densities of the metal and the chunk of gold. You could measure the mass of the nugget on a balance and the volume of the nugget by water displacement. Using this information, you could calculate the density of the nugget. Repeat the experiment and calculations for the sample of gold. If the nugget is gold, the two densities should be equal and be 19.3 g/cm3.

Also, you could determine the melting points of the metal and the chunk of pure gold. The two melting points should be the same (1338 K) if the metal is gold.

■

ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENT AND REVIEW QUESTIONS

1.1. One area of technology that chemistry has changed is the characteristics of materials. The liquid-crystal displays (LCDs) in devices such as watches, cell phones, computer monitors, and televisions are materials made of molecules designed by chemists. Electronics and communications have been transformed by the development of optical fibers to replace copper wires. In biology, chemistry has changed the way scientists view life. Biochemists have found that all forms of life share many of the same molecules and molecular processes.

1.2. An experiment is an observation of natural phenomena carried out in a controlled manner so that the results can be duplicated and rational conclusions obtained. A theory is a tested explanation of basic natural phenomena. They are related in that a theory is based on the results of many experiments and is fruitful in suggesting other, new experiments. Also, an experiment can disprove a theory but can never prove it absolutely. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation of some regularity of nature.

1.3. Rosenberg conducted controlled experiments and noted a basic relationship that could be stated as a hypothesis—that is, that certain platinum compounds inhibit cell division. This led him to do new experiments on the anticancer activity of these compounds.

1.4. Matter is the general term for the material things around us. It is whatever occupies space and can be perceived by our senses. Mass is the quantity of matter in a material. The difference between mass and weight is that mass remains the same wherever it is measured, but weight is proportional to the mass of the object divided by the square of the distance between the center of mass of the object and that of the earth.

1.5. The law of conservation of mass states that the total mass remains constant during a chemical change (chemical reaction). To demonstrate this law, place a sample of wood in a sealed vessel with air, and weigh it. Heat the vessel to burn the wood, and weigh the vessel after the experiment. The weight before the experiment and that after it should be the same.

1.6. Mercury metal, which is a liquid, reacts with oxygen gas to form solid mercury(II) oxide. The color changes from that of metallic mercury (silvery) to a color that varies from red to yellow depending on the particle size of the oxide.

1.7. Gases are easily compressible and fluid. Liquids are relatively incompressible and fluid. Solids are relatively incompressible and rigid.

1.8. An example of a substance is the element sodium. Among its physical properties: It is a solid, and it melts at 98°C. Among its chemical properties: It reacts vigorously with water, and it burns in chlorine gas to form sodium chloride.

1.9. An example of an element: sodium; of a compound: sodium chloride, or table salt; of a heterogeneous mixture: salt and sugar; of a homogeneous mixture: sodium chloride dissolved in water to form a solution.

1.10. A glass of bubbling carbonated beverage with ice cubes contains three phases: gas, liquid, and solid.

1.11. A compound may be decomposed by chemical reactions into elements. An element cannot be decomposed by any chemical reaction. Thus, a compound cannot also be an element in any case.

1.12. The precision refers to the closeness of the set of values obtained from identical measurements of a quantity. The number of digits reported for the value of a measured or calculated quantity (significant figures) indicates the precision of the value.

1.13. Multiplication and division rule: In performing the calculation 100.0 x 0.0634 ÷ 25.31, the calculator display shows 0.2504938. We would report the answer as 0.250 because the factor 0.0634 has the least number of significant figures (three).

Addition and subtraction rule: In performing the calculation 184.2 + 2.324, the calculator display shows 186.524. Because the quantity 184.2 has the least number of decimal places (one), the answer is reported as 186.5.

1.14. An exact number is a number that arises when you count items or sometimes when you define a unit. For example, a foot is defined to be 12 inches. A measured number is the result of a comparison of a physical quantity with a fixed standard of measurement. For example, a steel rod measures 9.12 centimeters, or 9.12 times the standard centimeter unit of measurement.

1.15. For a given unit, the SI system uses prefixes to obtain units of different sizes. Units for all other possible quantities are obtained by deriving them from any of the seven base units. You do this by using the base units in equations that define other physical quantities.

1.16. An absolute temperature scale is a scale in which the lowest temperature that can be attained theoretically is zero. Degrees Celsius and kelvins have units of equal size and are related by the formula

tC = (TK − 273.15 K) ´

1.17. The density of an object is its mass per unit volume. Because the density is characteristic of a substance, it can be helpful in identifying it. Density can also be useful in determining whether a substance is pure. It also provides a useful relationship between mass and volume.

1.18. Units should be carried along because (1) the units for the answers will come out in the calculations, and (2), if you make an error in arranging factors in the calculation, this will become apparent because the final units will be nonsense.

1.19. The answer is c, three significant figures.

1.20. The answer is a, 4.43 x 102 mm.

1.21. The answer is e, 75 mL.

1.22. The answer is c, 0.23 mg.

■

ANSWERS TO CONCEPT EXPLORATIONS

1.23. a. First, check the physical appearance of each sample. Check the particles that make up each sample for consistency and hardness. Also, note any odor. Then perform on each sample some experiments to measure physical properties such as melting point, density, and solubility in water. Compare all of these results and see if they match.

b. It is easier to prove that the compounds were different by finding one physical property that is different, say different melting points. To prove the two compounds were the same would require showing that every physical property was the same.

c. Of the properties listed in part a, the melting point would be most convincing. It is not difficult to measure, and it is relatively accurate. The density of a powder is not as easy to determine as the melting point, and solubility is not reliable enough on its own.

d. No. Since neither solution reached a saturation point, there is not enough information to tell if there was a difference in behavior. Many white powders dissolve in water. Their chemical compositions are not the same.

1.24. Part 1

a. 3 g + 1.4 g + 3.3 g = 7.7 g = 8 g

b. First, 3 g + 1.4 g = 4.4 g = 4 g. Then, 4 g + 3.3 g = 7.3 g = 7 g.

c. Yes, the answer in part a is more accurate. When you round off intermediate steps, you accumulate small errors and your answer is not as accurate.

d. The answer 29 g is correct.

e. This answer is incorrect. It should be 3 x 101 with only one significant figure in the answer. The student probably applied the rule for addition (instead of for multiplication) after the first step.

f. The answer 28.5 g is correct.

g. Don’t round off intermediate answers. Indicate the round-off position after each step by underlining the least significant digit.

Part 2

a. The calculated answer is incorrect. It should be 11 cm3. The answer given has too many significant figures. There is also a small round off error due to using a rounded-off value for the density.

b. This is a better answer. It is reported with the correct number of significant figures (three). It can be improved by using all of the digits given for the density.

c. V = ´ ´ = 3.90889 = 3.909 cm3

d. There was no rounding off of intermediate steps; all the factors are as accurate as possible.

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ANSWERS TO CONCEPTUAL PROBLEMS

1.25. a. Two phases: liquid and solid.

b. Three phases: liquid water, solid quartz, and solid seashells.

1.26. If the material is a pure compound, all samples should have the same melting point, the same color, and the same elemental composition. If it is a mixture, these properties should differ depending on the composition.

1.27. a. You need to establish two points on the thermometer with known (defined) temperatures—for example, the freezing point (0°C) and boiling point (100°C) of water. You could first immerse the thermometer in an ice-water bath and mark the level at this point as 0°C. Then, immerse the thermometer in boiling water, and mark the level at this point as 100°C. As long as the two points are far enough apart to obtain readings of the desired accuracy, the thermometer can be used in experiments.

b. You could make 19 evenly spaced marks on the thermometer between the two original points, each representing a difference of 5°C. You may divide the space between the two original points into fewer spaces as long as you can read the thermometer to obtain the desired accuracy.

1.28. a. b. c.

1.29. a. To answer this question, you need to develop an equation that converts between °F and °YS. To do so, you need to recognize that one degree on the Your Scale does not correspond to one degree on the Fahrenheit scale and that −100°F corresponds to 0° on Your Scale (different “zero” points). As stated in the problem, in the desired range of 100 Your Scale degrees, there are 120 Fahrenheit degrees. Therefore, the relationship can be expressed as 120°F = 100°YS, since it covers the same temperature range. Now you need to “scale” the two systems so that they correctly convert from one scale to the other. You could set up an equation with the known data points and then employ the information from the relationship above.

For example, to construct the conversion between °YS and °F, you could perform the following steps:

Step 1: °F = °YS

Not a true statement, but one you would like to make true.

Step 2: °F = °YS ´

This equation takes into account the difference in the size between the temperature unit on the two scales but will not give you the correct answer because it doesn’t take into account the different zero points.

Step 3: By subtracting 100°F from your equation from Step 2, you now have the complete equation that converts between °F and °YS.

°F = (°YS ´ ) − 100°F

b. Using the relationship from part a, 66°YS is equivalent to

(66°YS ´ ) − 100°F = −20.8°F = −21°F

1.30. Some physical properties you could measure are density, hardness, color, and conductivity. Chemical properties of sodium would include reaction with air, reaction with water, reaction with chlorine, reaction with acids, bases, etc.

1.31. The empty boxes are identical, so they do not contribute to any mass or density difference. Since the edge of the cube and the diameter of the sphere are identical, they will occupy the same volume in each of the boxes; therefore, each box will contain the same number of cubes or spheres. If you view the spheres as cubes that have been rounded by removing wood, you can conclude that the box containing the cubes must have a greater mass of wood; hence, it must have a greater density.

1.32. a. Since the bead is less dense than any of the liquids in the container, the bead will float on top of all the liquids.

b. First, determine the density of the plastic bead. Since density is mass divided by volume, you get

d = = = 0.911 g/mL = 0.91 g/mL

Thus, the glass bead will pass through the top three layers and float on the ethylene glycol layer, which is more dense.

c. Since the bead sinks all the way to the bottom, it must be more dense than 1.114 g/mL.

1.33. a. A paper clip has a mass of about 1 g.

b. Answers will vary depending on your particular sample. Keeping in mind that the SI unit for mass is kg, the approximate weights for the items presented in the problem are as follows: a grain of sand, 1 ´ 10−5 kg; a paper clip, 1 x 10−3 kg; a nickel, 5 ´ 10−3 kg; a 5.0-gallon bucket of water, 2.0 ´ 101 kg; a brick, 3 kg; a car, 1 ´ 103 kg.

1.34. When taking measurements, never throw away meaningful information even if there is some uncertainty in the final digit. In this case, you are certain that the nail is between 5 and 6 cm. The uncertain, yet still important, digit is between the 5 and 6 cm measurements. You can estimate with reasonable precision that it is about 0.7 cm from the 5 cm mark, so an acceptable answer would be 5.7 cm. Another person might argue that the length of the nail is closer to 5.8 cm, which is also acceptable given the precision of the ruler. In any case, an answer of 5.7 or 5.8 should provide useful information about the length of the nail. If you were to report the length of the nail as 6 cm, you would be discarding potentially useful length information provided by the measuring instrument. If a higher degree of measurement precision were needed (more significant figures), you would need to switch to a more precise ruler—for example, one that had mm markings.

1.35. a. The number of significant figures in this answer follows the rules for multiplication and division. Here, the measurement with the fewest significant figures is the reported volume 0.310 m3, which has three. Therefore, the answer will have three significant figures. Since Volume = L x W x H, you can rearrange and solve for one of the measurements, say the length.

L = = = 0.83496 m = 0.835 m

b. The number of significant figures in this answer follows the rules for addition and subtraction. The measurement with the least number of decimal places is the result 1.509 m, which has three. Therefore, the answer will have three decimal places. Since the result is the sum of the three measurements, the third length is obtained by subtracting the other two measurements from the total.

Length = 1.509 m − 0.7120 m − 0.52145 m = 0.27555 m = 0.276 m

1.36. The mass of something (how heavy it is) depends on how much of the item, material, substance, or collection of things you have. The density of something is the mass of a specific amount (volume) of an item, material, substance, or collection of things. You could use 1 kg of feathers and 1 kg of water to illustrate that they have the same mass yet have very different volumes; therefore, they have different densities.

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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1.37. By the law of conservation of mass:

Mass of sodium carbonate + mass of acetic acid solution = mass of contents of reaction vessel + mass of carbon dioxide

Plugging in gives

15.9 g + 20.0 g = 29.3 g + mass of carbon dioxide

Mass of carbon dioxide = 15.9 g + 20.0 g − 29.3 g = 6.6 g

1.38. By the law of conservation of mass:

Mass of iron + mass of acid = mass of contents of beaker + mass of hydrogen

Plugging in gives

5.6 g + 15.0 = 20.4 g + mass of hydrogen

Mass of hydrogen = 5.6 g + 15.0 g − 20.4 g = 0.2 g

1.39. By the law of conservation of mass:

Mass of zinc + mass of sulfur = mass of zinc sulfide

Rearranging and plugging in give

Mass of zinc sulfide = 65.4 g + 32.1 g = 97.5 g

For the second part, let x = mass of zinc sulfide that could be produced. By the law of conservation of mass:

20.0 g + mass of sulfur = x

Write a proportion that relates the mass of zinc reacted to the mass of zinc sulfide formed, which should be the same for both cases.

= =

Solving gives x = 29.81 g = 29.8 g

1.40. By the law of conservation of mass:

Mass of aluminum + mass of bromine = mass of aluminum bromide

Plugging in and solving give

27.0 g + Mass of bromine = 266.7 g

Mass of bromine = 266.7 g − 27.0 g = 239.7 g

For the second part, let x = mass of bromine that reacts. By the law of conservation of mass:

18.1 g + x = mass of aluminum bromide

Write a proportion that relates the mass of aluminum reacted to the mass of bromine reacted, which should be the same for both cases.

= =

Solving gives x = 160.7 g = 161 g

1.41. a. Solid b. Liquid c. Gas d. Solid

1.42. a. Solid b. Solid c. Solid d. Liquid

1.43. a. Physical change

b. Physical change

c. Chemical change

d. Physical change

1.44. a. Physical change

b. Chemical change

c. Chemical change

d. Physical change

1.45. Physical change: Liquid mercury is cooled to solid mercury.

Chemical changes: (1) Solid mercury oxide forms liquid mercury metal and gaseous oxygen; (2) glowing wood and oxygen form burning wood (form ash and gaseous products).

1.46. Physical changes: (1) Solid iodine is heated to gaseous iodine; (2) gaseous iodine is cooled to form solid iodine.

Chemical change: Solid iodine and zinc metal are ignited to form a white powder.

1.47. a. Physical property

b. Chemical property

c. Physical property

d. Physical property

e. Chemical property

1.48. a. Physical property

b. Chemical property

c. Physical property

d. Chemical property

e. Physical property

1.49. Physical properties: (1) Iodine is solid; (2) the solid has lustrous blue-black crystals; (3) the crystals vaporize readily to a violet-colored gas.

Chemical properties: (1) Iodine combines with many metals, such as with aluminum to give aluminum iodide.

1.50. Physical properties: (1) is a solid; (2) has an orange-red color; (3) has a density of 11.1 g/cm3; (4) is insoluble in water.

Chemical property: Mercury(II) oxide decomposes when heated to give mercury and oxygen.

1.51. a. Physical process

b. Chemical reaction

c. Physical process

d. Chemical reaction

e. Physical process

1.52. a. Chemical reaction

b. Physical process

c. Physical process

d. Physical process

e. Chemical reaction

1.53. a. Solution

b. Substance

c. Substance

d. Heterogeneous mixture

1.54. a. Homogeneous mixture, if fresh; heterogeneous mixture, if spoiled

b. Substance

c. Solution

d. Substance

1.55. a. A pure substance with two phases present, liquid and gas.

b. A mixture with two phases present, solid and liquid.

c. A pure substance with two phases present, solid and liquid.

d. A mixture with two phases present, solid and solid.

1.56. a. A mixture with two phases present, solid and liquid.

b. A mixture with two phases present, solid and liquid.

c. A mixture with two phases present, solid and solid.

d. A pure substance with two phases present, liquid and gas.

1.57. a. four

b. three

c. four

d. five

e. three

f. four

1.58. a. five

b. four

c. two

d. four

e. three

f. four

1.59. 40,000 km = 4.0 x 104 km

1.60. 150,000,000 km = 1.50 ´ 108 km

1.61. a. = 8.457 = 8.5

b. 0.71 + 89.3 = 90.01 = 90.0

c. 934 ´ 0.00435 + 107 = 4.0629 + 107 = 111.06 = 111

d. (847.89 − 847.73) ´ 14673 = 0.16 ´ 14673 = 2347 = 2.3 ´ 103

1.62. a. = 0.8456 = 0.85

b. 8.937 − 8.930 = 0.007

c. 8.937 + 8.930 = 17.867

d. 0.00015 ´ 54.6 + 1.002 = 0.00819 + 1.002 = 1.0101 = 1.010

1.63. The volume of the first sphere is

V1 = (4/3)pr3 = (4/3)p ´ (5.15 cm)3 = 572.15 cm3

The volume of the second sphere is

V2 = (4/3)pr3 = (4/3)p ´ (5.00 cm)3 = 523.60 cm3

The difference in volume is

V1 − V2 = 572.15 cm3 − 523.60 cm3 = 48.55 cm3 = 49 cm3

1.64. The length of the cylinder between the two marks is

l = 3.50 cm − 3.20 cm = 0.30 cm

The volume of iron contained between the marks is

V = pr2l = p ´ (1.500 cm)2 ´ 0.30 cm = 2.12 cm3 = 2.1 cm3

1.65. a. 5.89 ´ 10−12 s = 5.89 ps

b. 0.2010 m = 2.01 dm

c. 2.560 ´ 10−9 g = 2.560 ng

d. 6.05 ´ 103 m = 6.05 km

1.66. a. 4.851 ´ 10−6 g = 4.851 µg

b. 3.16 ´ 10−2 m = 3.16 cm

c. 2.591 ´ 10−9 s = 2.591 ns

d. 8.93 ´ 10−12 g = 8.93 pg

1.67. a. 6.15 ps = 6.15 ´ 10−12 s

b. 3.781 µm = 3.781 ´ 10−6 m

c. 1.546 Å = 1.546 ´ 10−10 m

d. 9.7 mg = 9.7 ´ 10−3 g

1.68. a. 6.20 km = 6.20 ´ 103 m

b. 1.98 ns = 1.98 ´ 10−9 s

c. 2.54 cm = 2.54 ´ 10−2 m

d. 5.23 µg = 5.23 ´ 10−6 g

1.69. a. tC = ´ (tF − 32°F) = ´ (68°F − 32°F) = 20.0°C = 20.°C

b. tC = ´ (tF − 32°F) = ´ (−23°F − 32°F) = −30.56°C = −31°C

c. tF = (tC ´ ) + 32°F = (26°C ´ ) + 32°F = 78.8°F = 79°F

d. tF = (tC ´ ) + 32°F = (−81°C ´ ) + 32°F = −113.8°F = −114°F

1.70. a. tC = ´ (tF − 32°F) = ´ (51°F − 32°F) = 10.556°C = 11°C

b. tC = ´ (tF − 32°F) = ´ (−11°F − 32°F) = −23.9°C = −24°C

c. tF = (tC ´ ) + 32°F = (−41°C ´ ) + 32°F = −41.8°F = −42°F

d. tF = (tC ´ ) + 32°F = (22°C ´ ) + 32°F = 71.6°F = 72°F

1.71. tF = (tC ´ ) + 32°F = (−20.0°C ´ ) + 32°F = −4.0°F = −4.0°F

1.72. tF = (tC ´ ) + 32°F = (−222.7°C ´ ) + 32°F = −368.86°F = −368.9°F

#Test Bank General Chemistry 10th Edition Solution

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Juniper Publishers- Open Access Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources

Investigations of Physico-Chemical Composition of Groundwater in Otuoke and Environs, Bayelsa State, Nigeria

Authored by Abadom DC

Abstract

The study was designed to investigate the groundwater quality in Federal University of Otuoke and environs, Bayelsa State. A total of fourteen groundwater samples were acquired and analyzed for their physico-chemical and heavy metal parameters. Heavy metals were all analyzed with the Atomic Adsorption Spectrometer. The result revealed that for the heavy metals, iron was most predominant, ranging from 0.004 to 10mg/L with mean and SD of 0.95±2.63mg/L. Manganese ranged from 0.01 to 0.91mg/L, with mean and SD of 0.18±0.21mg/L. Copper was below the machine detectable limit in six samples, but ranged from 0.006 to 0.013mg/L, with a mean of 0.01mg/L. All other heavy metal including lead, arsenic, cobalt, boron and barium were below the detectable limit of the machine (< 0.001mg/L).In order of decreasing magnitude, the average cationic concentrations in the groundwater are in the order; Na (101.71mg/L) >Ca (29.04mg/L) > Mg (10.01mg/L) > K (2.31mg/L); and anionic concentrations; Cl (25.88mg/L) > HCO3 (1.65 mg/L) > PO4 (0.42 mg/L) > NO3 (0.08mg/L) > SO4 (0.05mg/L).Assessment of groundwater in the area for drinking purposes revealed that the water is predominantly acidic (pH=6.37), with iron (0.95mg/L) and manganese (maximum =0.91mg/L) contents exceeding regulatory guidelines (WHO, 2011; NSDWQ, 2007) for potable drinking water in most locations. This shows that the groundwater sources are unsafe for consumption purposes. All other measured chemical parameters were within regulatory requirements. Constant monitoring and quality assessment is necessary to ensure that groundwater in the area is within regulatory requirements.

Keywords: Physico- chemical; Groundwater quality; Heavy metals

Abbreviations: GPS: Geographic Positioning System; AAS: Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer; SD: Standard Deviation; TDS : Total Dissolved Solids; APHA: American Public Health Association

Introduction

Groundwater quality is determined by the solutes, flow paths and soil gases dissolved in the water, as well as the matter suspended in and floating on the water. Hence, groundwater quality is a consequence of the natural physical and chemical state of the water as well as any alteration factors that may have occurred as a consequence of human activity and microbial activities in soils [1]. The quality of groundwater is of vital concern, since it is directly linked with health and human welfare. Ranjana 2010 clearly stated that the quality of public health depends greatly on the quality of groundwater. Groundwater in the preferred source of potable water in the Niger delta, because it is less prone to contamination as a result of its natural filtration [2]. Contamination of groundwater from heavy metals may occur due to factors including irrigation with contaminated water, transportation, industrial emissions, the use of fertilizers and metal based pesticides, etc. [3]. The presence of heavy metal, even at small concentrations in water is an indication of contamination and the persistent consumption of such water could result to adverse health effects.

Although groundwater quality is more preffered when compared to surface water, its quality is the sum of natural and anthropogenic influences [4]. Water quality parameters reflect the level of contamination in water resources and show whether water is suitable for human consumption, irrigation and/or industrial usage. Drinking contaminated water is unacceptable because of its adverse health effects [5]. There are two basic contaminant indicators whose presence or absence helps determines the quality of water in any given area (elemental and microbial). Microbial contaminants in water includes; fungi, pathogenic bacteria and viruses. Elemental contaminants include; physicochemical parameters, metals as well as organic chemical contaminants such as; pesticides and radioactive contaminants Akunobi and Chibuzor 2012. The quantity of water may not be an issue in a terrain such as Niger Delta but its quality is of utmost importance. A substantial part of the study area is motor able and is close to Yenagoa the State capital. This has led to continuous influx of people and increased business activities in the area over the last decade with strong dependence on groundwater. Predominant anthropogenic activities in the area which can pose severe risk to the groundwater resources includes gas flaring from exploitation of oil and gas resources, leakages and corrosion of pipelines, septic tanks and possible effluents from industries, open dumping, etc. Therefore, it becomes obligatory to undertake a groundwater hydro chemical survey in the area to ascertain its quality for drinking, domestic use and other purposes.

Description of the Study Area

The study area Federal University Otuoke and environ is located within the lower section of the upper flood plain deposits of the sub-aerial Niger Delta [6]. Geographically, it lies between latitudes 40 46'N and 50 51'N and longitudes 60 15'E and 60 2 3'E (Figure 1). The area is bounded on the North by Yenagoa, the capital of Bayelsa State and on the south by Brass and Nembe Local Government Areas of Bayelsa State, to the West by southern Ijaw and Ahoada-west local government areas of Bayelsa State and Rivers State respectively. The area can be accessed from the north by the Mbiama-Yenagoa road and on the south by the Nembe and Brass Rivers [7]. Most part of the area is motor-able; hence there is a network of roads that links the different parts of the area.

Brief Geology and Hydrogeology of the Area

The study area lies in the coastal Niger Delta sedimentary basin. The geology of the Niger Delta has been described in details by various authors. The formation of the Delta started during Early Paleocene and resulted mainly from the buildup of fine grained sediments eroded and transported by the River Niger and its tributaries. The Tertiary Niger Delta is a sedimentary structure formed as a complex regressive off-lap sequence of clastic sediments ranging in thickness from 9,000-I2,000m [8]. Starting as separate depocenters, the Niger Delta has coalesced to form a single united system since Miocene. The Niger Delta is a large and ecologically sensitive region, in which various water species including surface and sub-surface water bodies exist in a state of dynamic equilibrium [8]. Stratigraphically, the Niger Delta is sub-divided into Benin, Agbada and Akata Formations in order of increasing age. The Benin Formation is the water bearing zone of the area (Table 1). It is overlain by Quaternary deposits (40-I50m thick) and generally consists of rapidly alternating sequence of sands and silty clays with the latter becoming increasingly more prominent seawards [9]. The clayey intercalations within the Benin formation have given rise to multi-aquifer system in the area [9]. The first aquifer is commonly unconfined while the rest are confined. The study area has been noted to have poor groundwater quality due to objectionable high concentration of certain groundwater parameters and encroachment of saltwater or brackish water into the freshwater aquifers [10-12]. The static water level in the area ranges from 0-2m during the rainy season and I-3m during the dry season [13]. The main source of recharge is through direct precipitation where annual rainfall is as high as 3000mm [14,15]. The water infiltrates through the highly permeable sands of the Benin Formation to recharge the aquifers [16,17]. Groundwater in the area occurs principally under water table conditions [18].

Materials and Methods

Groundwater samples were collected from fourteen boreholes in Federal University of Otuoke and its environs during the rainy season. The boreholes utilized for this study were selected from eight communities at random. Both private and public water sources were sampled in this study. Sterilized water bottles were used to collect representative water samples to prevent contamination. At each borehole location, the sample bottles were washed and rinsed thoroughly with the sample water before being sampled. The samples were collected close to the well head to maintain the water integrity. The boreholes were allowed to flow for about 3 minutes to ensure stable conditions before samples were collected. The bottle was filled to the brim with the sample water, and the lid immediately replaced to minimize oxygen contamination and escape of dissolved gases. Sampling was done using two sets of prelabelled bottles of one litre capacity for ionic and heavy metals analysis respectively Water samples for the determination of cations were stabilized by adding few drops of diluted HCl to them after collection. To maintain the integrity of the water samples, physico-chemical parameters sensitive to environmental changes such as pH, conductivity and temperature were measured and recorded in- situ using portable digital meters. The co-ordinates of all the sampling locations were recorded using a Garmin 78 model Geographic Positioning System (GPS). The samples were later transported to the laboratory in an ice chest for chemical analysis. Table 1 shows the borehole sampling locations along with the geographic cordinates. Heavy metals were determined using an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) as described in APHA 3111B and ASTM D3651 [19-22]. This involved direct aspiration of the sample into an air/acetylene or nitrous oxide/acetylene flame generated by a hollow cathode lamp at a specific wavelength peculiar only to the metal programmed for analysis. For every metal investigated, standards and blanks were prepared and used for calibration before samples were aspirated. Concentrations at specific absorbance displayed on the data system monitor for printing. The equipment limit of detection is <0.001mg/L. Table 2 shows the equipment and analytical methods used for groundwater samples analysis.

Results and Discussion

Groundwater temperature in the study area ranges from 24.60 to 29.5oC with mean of 27.31±1.12oC and variance of 1.25 (Table 3). Groundwater pH which is a measure of acidity or alkalinity, ranges from 4.78 to 7.01 with mean, standard deviation (SD) and variance of 6.27±0.56 and 0.32. The highest pH values were obtained from BH7 (7.01) and BH8 (6.83) whereas the lowest pH was obtained at BH3 (4.98) (Figure 2); (Table 3). This shows that the water in the area is predominantly acidic. The EC ranges from 53.20 - 130.30 |iS/cm with mean of 94.81±22.12|iS/cm and variance of 489.13. The high standard deviation and variance shows that there is wide degree of variability in the EC of the groundwater resources in the area. Groundwater turbidity ranges from 3.71 - 5.14 NTU, with mean, SD and variance of 4.37±.46 NTU and 0.21 respectively (Tables 3 & 4). Total soluble solids ranged from 4.72 to 13.02mg/L while hardness ranged from 32.0 to 61.0mg/L. Water is said to be hard when it contains large amount of dissolved salts, such as calcium and magnesium ions. Total Dissolved Solids ranges from 4.11 to 92.10mg/L with mean, SD and variance of 36.02±23.30 and 542.92 respectively (Table 4). Alkalinity ranged from 10.34 to 12.01mg/L with mean and SD of 11.19±0.35mg/L

The ionic concentrations in were in the order; Na >Ca> Mg> K, and Cl> PO4> HCO3> SO4> NO3 (Table 4). Schoeller diagram which is a graphical presentation of cations and anions shows that cations predominate over anions in the groundwater (Figure 3). For cations, sodium ranged from 93 to 112mg/L with mean and SD of 101.70±5.0mg/L. Calcium which is the second most dominant cation in groundwater in the area ranged from 14.99 to 55.03mg/L, with mean, SD and variance of 29.04±9.77mg/L and 95.36mg/L respectively. The highest calcium concentration was obtained from BH13 and the lowest was from BH12. Magnesium and potassium ranged from 7.82 to 15.05mg/L and 0.76 to 4.65mg/L, with mean and SD of 10.01±2.14 and 2.31±1.19mg/L respectively (Table 4). Chloride was the most dominant cation in the groundwater, ranging from 14.33 to 47.80mg/L, with mean and SD of 25.88±10.46mg/L. The highest chloride concentration was obtained from BH13 while the lowest was obtained from BH3. Although the concentrations of bicarbonate were relatively low, it was the second most dominant anion in the groundwater, ranging from 0.40 to 4.80mg/L with mean and SD of 1.65±1.15mg/L. Phosphate concentration ranges from 0.01 to 5.01mg/L, with mean and SD of 0.42±1.32mg/L while Nitrate ranged from 0.01 to 0.21mg/L with mean and SD of 0.08±0.07 mg/L. Sulphate had the lowest anionic concentration, ranging from 0.01 to 0.09mg/L with mean and SD of 0.05±0.03mg/L. A map showing the distribution of cations and anions in the study is presented in Figure 4. The map shows sodium is the most predominant cation while chloride is the most predominant anion in the groundwater.

For the heavy metals, iron was most predominant, ranging from 0.004 to 10mg/L with mean and SD of 0.95±2.63mg/L. Manganese ranged from 0.01 to 0.91mg/L, with mean and SD of 0.18±0.21mg/L. Copper was below the machine detectable limit in six samples, but ranged from 0.006 to 0.013mg/L, with a mean of 0.01 mg/L. All other heavy metal including lead, arsenic, cobalt, boron and barium were below the detectable limit of the machine (< 0.001mg/L) (Table 4).

Suitability for Drinking Purposes

The suitability of groundwater for drinking purpose was achieved by comparing the acquired groundwater geochemical results with regulatory guidelines for potable water. The average pH of the groundwater shows that the water is acidic (pH=6.37) and deviates from both WHO (2011) and NSDWQ (2007) guidelines of 6.5-8.5 [23,24], and hence is unfit for drinking. Prolonged consumption of acidic water over long periods of time may result in derangement of the balance of acid to base in the human body, which results in metabolic acidosis [25]. Also, the average concentration of iron (0.95mg/L) exceeds both WHO 2011 and NSDWQ 2007 guidelines of 0.30 mg/L,concentration can kill organisms directly, and while continued exposure over long periods of time to lower concentrations can lead to stunted growth, lower reproduction rates, deformities, and even mortality (Lewis and Clark, 1996). Based on Freeze and Cherry [26] classification scheme, the groundwater samples are classified as soft, with hardness values < 100 in most of the boreholes. Based on total dissolved solids (TDS), Davis, Deweist [27] classify groundwater in the study area as 'desirable for drinking' having TDS values all below 500mg/L. Figure 5 is the cross plot of EC against TDS for the groundwater while Figure 6 is the cross plot of pH against temperature for the groundwater. Figure 7 is the cross plot of Na against Cl for the groundwater in the area [28-31].

Summary and Conclusion

In order of decreasing magnitude, the average cationic concentrations in the groundwater are in the order; Na (101.71mg/L) >Ca (29.04mg/L) > Mg (10.01 mg/L) > K (2.31mg/L); and anionic concentrations; Cl (25.88mg/L) > HCO3 (1.65mg/L) > PO4 (0.42mg/L) > NO3 (0.08mg/L) > SO4 (0.05mg/L). For the heavy metals, iron was most predominant, ranging from 0.004 to 10mg/L with mean and SD of 0.95±2.63 mg/L. Manganese ranged from 0.01 to 0.91mg/L, with mean hence the water is unfit for drinking, unless treated for iron. Manganese is relatively higher than WHO (2011) and NSDWQ (2007) of 0.2mg/L in BH8 (0.91mg/L), and must be treated before consumption. Because of the toxic nature of heavy metals, exposure to a high concentration can kill organisms directly, and while continued exposure over long periods of time to lower concentrations can lead to stunted growth, lower reproduction rates, deformities, and even mortality (Lewis and Clark, 1996). Based on Freeze and Cherry [26] classification scheme, the groundwater samples are classified as soft, with hardness values < 100 in most of the boreholes. Based on total dissolved solids (TDS), Davis, Deweist [27] classify groundwater in the study area as 'desirable for drinking' having TDS values all below 500mg/L. Figure 5 is the cross plot of EC against TDS for the groundwater while Figure 6 is the cross plot of pH against temperature for the groundwater. Figure 7 is the cross plot of Na against Cl for the groundwater in the area [28-31]. and SD of 0.18±0.21 mg/L. Copper was below the machine detectable limit in six samples, but ranged from 0.006 to 0. 013.g/L, with a mean of 0.01mg/L. All other heavy metal including lead, arsenic, cobalt, boron and barium were below the detectable limit of the machine (< 0.001mg/L). Assessment of groundwater in the area for drinking purposes revealed that the water is predominantly acidic (pH = 6.37), with iron (0.95mg/L) and manganese (maximum = 0.91mg/L) contents exceeding regulatory guidelines WHO, 2011; NSDWQ, 2007 for potable drinking water in most locations. This shows that the groundwater sources are unsafe for consumption purposes. All other measured chemical parameters were within regulatory requirements. Constant monitoring and quality assessment on the groundwater is necessary to ensure that groundwater in the area is within regulatory requirements.

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