#at the very least he was more italian than he was french. 'Buonaparte' as a family name isn't exactly french you know?

[anglerflsh]

Considering he was born just fourteen years after corsica got indipendence from Genoa in 1755 (and barely 15 months after France bought it in 1769 - the dates of acquisition from one republic to the state are a bit different) I'd say he himself was of italian descent at this point lol. It's also pretty obvious by looking at his surname but both his parents were born in italian-ruled Corsica

[joachimnapoleon]

Meet the Bonapartes: Pauline (1/3)

New project! I got it into my head recently to do some research/mini-bios on all of Napoleon’s siblings. I find all their stories pretty interesting, but predictably (and understandably) they’ve always ended up relegated to the background of Napoleon’s much more famous story. I’m planning on each write-up being multiple parts. And, if the way this first one has gone so far is any indication, probably more parts than I originally intended them to be.

The conventional thing to do would be to write them in order from oldest sibling to youngest. 

...

Anyway we’re starting with Pauline, the third youngest, because she’s one of my favorites. :)

*****

Pauline Bonaparte was born in Ajaccio, Corsica, on 20 October 1780; she was the sixth of what would be eight surviving children born to Carlo Buonaparte and Letizia Ramolino. Baptized the following day at the local cathedral, she was christened Maria-Paola; her family would refer to her throughout her childhood as "Paoletta."

Almost nothing is known of her childhood in Ajaccio other than that her education was woefully neglected (as would be that of her younger siblings, Jerome and Caroline), and that she delighted in mischief at a young age. Her father died when she was only five years old, and her mother did little to instill discipline into the younger children; they were given a room in the house in which they were pretty much left to their own devices. Napoleon, eleven years her elder and appearing only sporadically during her early years as he continued his education in France, nevertheless developed a strong affection for her which he would retain for the remainder of his life, and which Pauline would reciprocate for the rest of hers.

In June of 1793, the inflammatory political sentiments of her third eldest brother, Lucien, set the ire of the supporters of the Corsican patriot Paoli against the Buonapartes, and the family was soon forced to flee Corsica for the French mainland. They eventually settled in Marseilles, and it was at this time that the names of the family were "Frenchified"; the surname Buonaparte was refashioned to Bonaparte, Maria-Paola into Pauline, and her affectionate nickname of Paoletta now became Paulette.

In Marseilles, she continued with the mischief of her childhood, stealing figs from a neighbor, who once caught her in the act and chased her off with a vine whip, sputtering curses. In her less mischievous moments, Pauline made herself dresses; by her mid-teens she was already becoming known for her beauty, and had developed a taste for finery, although the family was still far from wealthy at this point.

In later years, once Napoleon had come to power and royalist (and British) propagandists began taking aim at the Bonaparte family, numerous sordid stories were published about the behavior of Pauline and her sisters, with the earliest accounts of their alleged promiscuity occurring during their time in Marseilles. The royalist Peltier was one of the first to spread these rumors, depicting Pauline as having taken her first lover at the age of fourteen, and claiming that all three siblings had worked as prostitutes in while living Marseilles (Caroline was only eleven years old). There is nothing credible in any of these stories, but they were the start of a near-constant stream of rumors and tabloid gossip that would continue to accumulate about the Bonaparte sisters for the rest of their lives, and which have unfairly tarnished their reputations to this day.

However, Pauline did fall in love for the first time during this period, at the tender age of fifteen, with a much older man: a forty-one-year-old politician named Stanislas Fréron. Fréron had been tasked with establishing the authority of the revolutionary Convention to Toulon, where he first encountered Napoleon Bonaparte. How he first met Pauline is less clear, but she soon fell head-over-heels in love with him. With the assistance of older sister Elisa (and possible Lucien), she wrote love letters to Fréron, featuring excerpts such as the following:

Ti amo, sempre, et passionnatissimamente, per sempre ti amo, ti amo, amo, amo, amo, amo, si amatissime amante.

Fréron seems to have genuinely reciprocated the feelings. It was through him that Pauline became acquainted with the writings of Petrarch, which would always remain dear to her. Fréron intended to marry the girl, and Napoleon was not initially opposed to the match. Letizia Bonaparte, on the other hand, did oppose it; whether because of the age difference or because of the stories of Fréron's less-than-savory private life (he had at least two illegitimate children from an Italian actress) is unclear. Pauline scorned her mother's opposition, gushing to Fréron:

My heart is not for sharing. It's given to you whole. Who could oppose the union of two souls who seek only happiness and who find it in loving each other? No, my love, not Maman, not anyone can refuse you my hand.

It wasn't until Fréron began to fall out of political favor that Napoleon finally vetoed the impending marriage himself. Pauline was devastated, but submitted to her brother's will, writing him the following (again with the help of Elisa):

As for me I would rather be unhappy all my life than marry without your consent and bring your curses down on me. If, my dear Napoleon, you, for whom I have always had the most tender affection, could see the tears that your letter has caused me to shed, I believe that even you would be touched.

By way of consolation, Napoleon invited her to visit him. At some point after the Fréron affair, one of Napoleon's young aides-de-camp, Jean Andoche Junot, fell passionately in love with Pauline, and hoped to marry her. But Napoleon bluntly shot him down, saying "You have nothing. She has nothing. What does that total? Nothing. Your children will be born to wretchedness. Best to wait."

Pauline accompanied the rest of the family to stay with Napoleon in Mombello, Italy, in 1797. This was the first time the Bonaparte and Beauharnais family were in regular close contact with each other; it did not go well. Letizia despised Josephine, and in short order all of her children (minus, of course, Napoleon) followed suit. Pauline, envious of Josephine's grace, polish, and fine wardrobe, made it a point of sticking her tongue out at Napoleon's wife whenever her back was turned. She ran wild enough at Mombello--allegedly taking numerous young officers as lovers--that Napoleon became determined to marry her off as quickly as possible. He finally settled on a promising subordinate, twenty-five-year-old Charles-Victor-Emmanuel Leclerc. The match was convenient, as Leclerc, like numerous others before him, had also fallen in love with Pauline. She would refer to him affectionately as her "little Leclerc." The pair were married on 14 June 1797.

The French academician Arnault leaves the following impression of the newly-married couple, after a visit to their home on the rue de la Ville-l'Evêque:

I found Leclerc at home and intoxicated with happiness; amorous and ambitious, and both with reason. His wife seemed to me very happy too, not only because she was married to him, but also just because she was married. Her new position had not increased her seriousness, as was the case with her husband; he seemed more serious than usual. But as for her, she was just as much of a madcap as ever.

She became pregnant soon after the wedding, and Leclerc doted over her anxiously during what proved to be a difficult pregnancy. Their only child, a boy named Dermide Louis Napoleon Leclerc, was born on 20 April 1798. Pauline was plagued with recurring poor health from this pregnancy on. Her biographer Margery Weiner writes:

A difficult confinement left her debilitated and probably with some minor disorder easily rectified nowadays but, without proper treatment, a constant source of malaise and lassitude. It is likely that she suffered from post-natal inflammation for which contemporary medicine could prescribe only a round of therapeutic waters and baths, recommending in desperate cases baths of beef tea, surely more efficacious to swallow than to wallow in.

Leclerc eventually resigned his post in Paris and was reassigned to Brittany. Pauline did not accompany him to this post, staying in Paris with baby Dermide (Napoleon was campaigning in Egypt at this time). She was befriended by Madame Permon and her daughter Laure (future wife of Junot), who helped her make her way into Parisian society. In short order, Pauline was dazzling the salons of Paris with her natural charm and beauty (as well as her increasingly expensive wardrobe). "Nothing can give an idea of this ravishing figure," says Laure Junot in her memoirs. "She truly lit up the salon when she entered."

Perhaps entranced by her own talents for seduction and manipulation by this point, Pauline embarked on a brief triple love affair with three generals who were also close friends: Moreau, Macdonald, and Beurnonville. She seemed to take as much delight in being able to play the men against each other as she did in experiencing their affections; but it wasn't long before the three friends compared notes and decided to walk away from her in unison in order to preserve their friendship. The greatest effect of this affair was undoubtedly the stain it left on Pauline's reputation, not only in France but eventually abroad, as it quickly made its way into the British tabloids.

In late 1801, Napoleon--now First Consul--ordered Leclerc to Saint Domingue, to take charge of the 23,000 French troops there and suppress the rebellion of Toussaint L'Ouverture. To Pauline's dismay, her brother commanded her to accompany her husband on the expedition. Historian Michael Broers describes her resistance to this measure:

She... tried every trick she knew to get out of it. She claimed to be pregnant: Napoleon had her examined by his own doctor with the predictable result; she said she could not cope with the coach drive from Paris to Brest: he sent her in a sedan chair. She retaliated by going on a ruinous spending spree in Paris, which she landed on Napoleon, before her departure.

***

Sources:

Broers, Michael. Napoleon: Soldier of Destiny. 2014.

Cronin, Vincent. Napoleon Bonaparte: An Intimate Biography. 1972.

Fleischmann, Hector. Pauline Bonaparte and Her Lovers, 1914.

Fraser, Flora. Venus of Empire: The Life of Pauline Bonaparte, 2009.

Roberts, Andrews. Napoleon: A Life. 2014.

Weiner, Margery. The Parvenue Princesses: Elisa, Pauline, and Caroline Bonaparte. 1964.

Zamoyski, Adam. Napoleon: A Life. 2018.

[goldenhornist]

The Turkish fortresses of Nikschit

But the spirit of conquest, which had seized the revolutionised nation, displayed itself also in the East. The great general of the French .Republic, Napoleon Buonaparte, conceived the idea of founding an Eastern Empire: he took possession of Egypt, Tnfy ij<ft any] jmvaded Syria. The natural consequence jpf jthese events was, that the Porte took part against France, and joined the second coalition. A squa dron of the allied Turks and Russians appeared off the Italian coast; and the Caliph of Roumelia, as the Sultan styled himself, made every exertion to reinstate the Pope at Rome.

It would not be difficult to trace the relations into which the European powers were thus brought with the internal affairs of Turkey.

AYe have already seen, that Russia had entered into a continually closer union with the Servians ; so that at length she „sent  a. division of troops into the Kraina to their, ajsd Afflice.  Tkere is~jx letter from the seat of war in that country,…in . which Kara George relates, with exultation, “that 1500 Turks haXbeen killedonihej?piLt that eight redoubts, with all their cannon and bombs, had been taken   that a chest full of ducats had fallen into their hands, together with Arabian horses, and costly trappings in abundance   that such of the Turks as had escaped, had saved nothing but their lives, and that the Pacha had effected his escape on a Wallaehian mare.” He knew not how sufficiently tomxtffiAhn Yaloiir.of’tha.Russians. If this action produced no other results, it at least established a good, fellowship in arms between the Russians and Servians.

In like manner, in the Spring of  tho year 1807, the Russians assisted the pecnle of Montenegro jn an attack upon the Turkish fortresses of Nikschit  schi and Klobug. The Montenegrins were devoted in their attachment to The. Emperor of Tiussia, even beyond what might have been expected under such circumstances. In one of their petitions they designated themselves his subjects.

The Greek Armatoles, also, who from year to year had become more aware of their own importance, with Enthymios Rlachavas, who already cherished the idea of a general deliverance of Greece f, were on good terms with the Russians; to whom Parga once more stood indebted for its deliverance from Pacha.

On the other hand, Napoleon was in constant intercourse with Ali Pacha, who had friendly relations  with tlic party at this time prevailing at Constantin ople. The Pacha boasted that Napoleon had placed cannon at his disposal * ; and it seems probable that a combined attack on the Seven Islands had been in contemplation. The Montenegrins affirm that on their attackingJylobug, .the French troops from Bagusajiad come .to the assistance of the Turks. French officers are said also to have directed the resistance which the Bosnians, in 1807, made against the Servians : a statement originating from the circumstance that the Bosnian artillery was far better served, and proved far more effective than on former occasions.f The fact cannot be affirmed with certainty, but the events of the period afford sufficient grounds for its belief.

Napoleon   who, since his Egyptian campaign, had entertained a high opinion of the qualifications of Turkish soldiers now called upon the Sultan to leave his Seraglio, to place himself at the head of his troops, and to renew the glorious days of the Ottoman empire.

This he considered to be practicable in the very way that Selim had adopted,  through the medium of military reforms; in which lie encouraged him to the utmost of his power. It is certain that at one period of his youth, when circumstances in France appeared to promise little in his favour, Buonaparte had himself intended to assist in the military regeneration of the Turkish Empire. There is a note   extant,. 3vritten aE ihc time referred to,,in. which he^assumes.that it..was a political necessity for France to improve the military force of Turkey, and cause her again to be the dread of neighbouring states. That was the opinion which he now expressed. The assistance of French engineers and artillery officers made the defence of Constantinople against the English possible at this time, and showed what the Turks might accomplish under skilful guidance.

[istanbullandmarks]

The Turkish fortresses of Nikschit

But the spirit of conquest, which had seized the revolutionised nation, displayed itself also in the East. The great general of the French .Republic, Napoleon Buonaparte, conceived the idea of founding an Eastern Empire: he took possession of Egypt, Tnfy ij<ft any] jmvaded Syria. The natural consequence jpf jthese events was, that the Porte took part against France, and joined the second coalition. A squa dron of the allied Turks and Russians appeared off the Italian coast; and the Caliph of Roumelia, as the Sultan styled himself, made every exertion to reinstate the Pope at Rome.

It would not be difficult to trace the relations into which the European powers were thus brought with the internal affairs of Turkey.

AYe have already seen, that Russia had entered into a continually closer union with the Servians ; so that at length she „sent  a. division of troops into the Kraina to their, ajsd Afflice.  Tkere is~jx letter from the seat of war in that country,…in . which Kara George relates, with exultation, “that 1500 Turks haXbeen killedonihej?piLt that eight redoubts, with all their cannon and bombs, had been taken   that a chest full of ducats had fallen into their hands, together with Arabian horses, and costly trappings in abundance   that such of the Turks as had escaped, had saved nothing but their lives, and that the Pacha had effected his escape on a Wallaehian mare.” He knew not how sufficiently tomxtffiAhn Yaloiir.of’tha.Russians. If this action produced no other results, it at least established a good, fellowship in arms between the Russians and Servians.

In like manner, in the Spring of  tho year 1807, the Russians assisted the pecnle of Montenegro jn an attack upon the Turkish fortresses of Nikschit  schi and Klobug. The Montenegrins were devoted in their attachment to The. Emperor of Tiussia, even beyond what might have been expected under such circumstances. In one of their petitions they designated themselves his subjects.

The Greek Armatoles, also, who from year to year had become more aware of their own importance, with Enthymios Rlachavas, who already cherished the idea of a general deliverance of Greece f, were on good terms with the Russians; to whom Parga once more stood indebted for its deliverance from Pacha.

On the other hand, Napoleon was in constant intercourse with Ali Pacha, who had friendly relations  with tlic party at this time prevailing at Constantin ople. The Pacha boasted that Napoleon had placed cannon at his disposal * ; and it seems probable that a combined attack on the Seven Islands had been in contemplation. The Montenegrins affirm that on their attackingJylobug, .the French troops from Bagusajiad come .to the assistance of the Turks. French officers are said also to have directed the resistance which the Bosnians, in 1807, made against the Servians : a statement originating from the circumstance that the Bosnian artillery was far better served, and proved far more effective than on former occasions.f The fact cannot be affirmed with certainty, but the events of the period afford sufficient grounds for its belief.

Napoleon   who, since his Egyptian campaign, had entertained a high opinion of the qualifications of Turkish soldiers now called upon the Sultan to leave his Seraglio, to place himself at the head of his troops, and to renew the glorious days of the Ottoman empire.

This he considered to be practicable in the very way that Selim had adopted,  through the medium of military reforms; in which lie encouraged him to the utmost of his power. It is certain that at one period of his youth, when circumstances in France appeared to promise little in his favour, Buonaparte had himself intended to assist in the military regeneration of the Turkish Empire. There is a note   extant,. 3vritten aE ihc time referred to,,in. which he^assumes.that it..was a political necessity for France to improve the military force of Turkey, and cause her again to be the dread of neighbouring states. That was the opinion which he now expressed. The assistance of French engineers and artillery officers made the defence of Constantinople against the English possible at this time, and showed what the Turks might accomplish under skilful guidance.

[usefullistanbul]

The Turkish fortresses of Nikschit

But the spirit of conquest, which had seized the revolutionised nation, displayed itself also in the East. The great general of the French .Republic, Napoleon Buonaparte, conceived the idea of founding an Eastern Empire: he took possession of Egypt, Tnfy ij<ft any] jmvaded Syria. The natural consequence jpf jthese events was, that the Porte took part against France, and joined the second coalition. A squa dron of the allied Turks and Russians appeared off the Italian coast; and the Caliph of Roumelia, as the Sultan styled himself, made every exertion to reinstate the Pope at Rome.

It would not be difficult to trace the relations into which the European powers were thus brought with the internal affairs of Turkey.

AYe have already seen, that Russia had entered into a continually closer union with the Servians ; so that at length she „sent  a. division of troops into the Kraina to their, ajsd Afflice.  Tkere is~jx letter from the seat of war in that country,…in . which Kara George relates, with exultation, “that 1500 Turks haXbeen killedonihej?piLt that eight redoubts, with all their cannon and bombs, had been taken   that a chest full of ducats had fallen into their hands, together with Arabian horses, and costly trappings in abundance   that such of the Turks as had escaped, had saved nothing but their lives, and that the Pacha had effected his escape on a Wallaehian mare.” He knew not how sufficiently tomxtffiAhn Yaloiir.of’tha.Russians. If this action produced no other results, it at least established a good, fellowship in arms between the Russians and Servians.

In like manner, in the Spring of  tho year 1807, the Russians assisted the pecnle of Montenegro jn an attack upon the Turkish fortresses of Nikschit  schi and Klobug. The Montenegrins were devoted in their attachment to The. Emperor of Tiussia, even beyond what might have been expected under such circumstances. In one of their petitions they designated themselves his subjects.

The Greek Armatoles, also, who from year to year had become more aware of their own importance, with Enthymios Rlachavas, who already cherished the idea of a general deliverance of Greece f, were on good terms with the Russians; to whom Parga once more stood indebted for its deliverance from Pacha.

On the other hand, Napoleon was in constant intercourse with Ali Pacha, who had friendly relations  with tlic party at this time prevailing at Constantin ople. The Pacha boasted that Napoleon had placed cannon at his disposal * ; and it seems probable that a combined attack on the Seven Islands had been in contemplation. The Montenegrins affirm that on their attackingJylobug, .the French troops from Bagusajiad come .to the assistance of the Turks. French officers are said also to have directed the resistance which the Bosnians, in 1807, made against the Servians : a statement originating from the circumstance that the Bosnian artillery was far better served, and proved far more effective than on former occasions.f The fact cannot be affirmed with certainty, but the events of the period afford sufficient grounds for its belief.

Napoleon   who, since his Egyptian campaign, had entertained a high opinion of the qualifications of Turkish soldiers now called upon the Sultan to leave his Seraglio, to place himself at the head of his troops, and to renew the glorious days of the Ottoman empire.

This he considered to be practicable in the very way that Selim had adopted,  through the medium of military reforms; in which lie encouraged him to the utmost of his power. It is certain that at one period of his youth, when circumstances in France appeared to promise little in his favour, Buonaparte had himself intended to assist in the military regeneration of the Turkish Empire. There is a note   extant,. 3vritten aE ihc time referred to,,in. which he^assumes.that it..was a political necessity for France to improve the military force of Turkey, and cause her again to be the dread of neighbouring states. That was the opinion which he now expressed. The assistance of French engineers and artillery officers made the defence of Constantinople against the English possible at this time, and showed what the Turks might accomplish under skilful guidance.

[istanbultulips]

The Turkish fortresses of Nikschit

But the spirit of conquest, which had seized the revolutionised nation, displayed itself also in the East. The great general of the French .Republic, Napoleon Buonaparte, conceived the idea of founding an Eastern Empire: he took possession of Egypt, Tnfy ij<ft any] jmvaded Syria. The natural consequence jpf jthese events was, that the Porte took part against France, and joined the second coalition. A squa dron of the allied Turks and Russians appeared off the Italian coast; and the Caliph of Roumelia, as the Sultan styled himself, made every exertion to reinstate the Pope at Rome.

It would not be difficult to trace the relations into which the European powers were thus brought with the internal affairs of Turkey.

AYe have already seen, that Russia had entered into a continually closer union with the Servians ; so that at length she „sent  a. division of troops into the Kraina to their, ajsd Afflice.  Tkere is~jx letter from the seat of war in that country,…in . which Kara George relates, with exultation, “that 1500 Turks haXbeen killedonihej?piLt that eight redoubts, with all their cannon and bombs, had been taken   that a chest full of ducats had fallen into their hands, together with Arabian horses, and costly trappings in abundance   that such of the Turks as had escaped, had saved nothing but their lives, and that the Pacha had effected his escape on a Wallaehian mare.” He knew not how sufficiently tomxtffiAhn Yaloiir.of’tha.Russians. If this action produced no other results, it at least established a good, fellowship in arms between the Russians and Servians.

In like manner, in the Spring of  tho year 1807, the Russians assisted the pecnle of Montenegro jn an attack upon the Turkish fortresses of Nikschit  schi and Klobug. The Montenegrins were devoted in their attachment to The. Emperor of Tiussia, even beyond what might have been expected under such circumstances. In one of their petitions they designated themselves his subjects.

The Greek Armatoles, also, who from year to year had become more aware of their own importance, with Enthymios Rlachavas, who already cherished the idea of a general deliverance of Greece f, were on good terms with the Russians; to whom Parga once more stood indebted for its deliverance from Pacha.

On the other hand, Napoleon was in constant intercourse with Ali Pacha, who had friendly relations  with tlic party at this time prevailing at Constantin ople. The Pacha boasted that Napoleon had placed cannon at his disposal * ; and it seems probable that a combined attack on the Seven Islands had been in contemplation. The Montenegrins affirm that on their attackingJylobug, .the French troops from Bagusajiad come .to the assistance of the Turks. French officers are said also to have directed the resistance which the Bosnians, in 1807, made against the Servians : a statement originating from the circumstance that the Bosnian artillery was far better served, and proved far more effective than on former occasions.f The fact cannot be affirmed with certainty, but the events of the period afford sufficient grounds for its belief.

Napoleon   who, since his Egyptian campaign, had entertained a high opinion of the qualifications of Turkish soldiers now called upon the Sultan to leave his Seraglio, to place himself at the head of his troops, and to renew the glorious days of the Ottoman empire.

This he considered to be practicable in the very way that Selim had adopted,  through the medium of military reforms; in which lie encouraged him to the utmost of his power. It is certain that at one period of his youth, when circumstances in France appeared to promise little in his favour, Buonaparte had himself intended to assist in the military regeneration of the Turkish Empire. There is a note   extant,. 3vritten aE ihc time referred to,,in. which he^assumes.that it..was a political necessity for France to improve the military force of Turkey, and cause her again to be the dread of neighbouring states. That was the opinion which he now expressed. The assistance of French engineers and artillery officers made the defence of Constantinople against the English possible at this time, and showed what the Turks might accomplish under skilful guidance.

[istanbulobelisk]

The Turkish fortresses of Nikschit

But the spirit of conquest, which had seized the revolutionised nation, displayed itself also in the East. The great general of the French .Republic, Napoleon Buonaparte, conceived the idea of founding an Eastern Empire: he took possession of Egypt, Tnfy ij<ft any] jmvaded Syria. The natural consequence jpf jthese events was, that the Porte took part against France, and joined the second coalition. A squa dron of the allied Turks and Russians appeared off the Italian coast; and the Caliph of Roumelia, as the Sultan styled himself, made every exertion to reinstate the Pope at Rome.

It would not be difficult to trace the relations into which the European powers were thus brought with the internal affairs of Turkey.

AYe have already seen, that Russia had entered into a continually closer union with the Servians ; so that at length she „sent  a. division of troops into the Kraina to their, ajsd Afflice.  Tkere is~jx letter from the seat of war in that country,…in . which Kara George relates, with exultation, “that 1500 Turks haXbeen killedonihej?piLt that eight redoubts, with all their cannon and bombs, had been taken   that a chest full of ducats had fallen into their hands, together with Arabian horses, and costly trappings in abundance   that such of the Turks as had escaped, had saved nothing but their lives, and that the Pacha had effected his escape on a Wallaehian mare.” He knew not how sufficiently tomxtffiAhn Yaloiir.of’tha.Russians. If this action produced no other results, it at least established a good, fellowship in arms between the Russians and Servians.

In like manner, in the Spring of  tho year 1807, the Russians assisted the pecnle of Montenegro jn an attack upon the Turkish fortresses of Nikschit  schi and Klobug. The Montenegrins were devoted in their attachment to The. Emperor of Tiussia, even beyond what might have been expected under such circumstances. In one of their petitions they designated themselves his subjects.

The Greek Armatoles, also, who from year to year had become more aware of their own importance, with Enthymios Rlachavas, who already cherished the idea of a general deliverance of Greece f, were on good terms with the Russians; to whom Parga once more stood indebted for its deliverance from Pacha.

On the other hand, Napoleon was in constant intercourse with Ali Pacha, who had friendly relations  with tlic party at this time prevailing at Constantin ople. The Pacha boasted that Napoleon had placed cannon at his disposal * ; and it seems probable that a combined attack on the Seven Islands had been in contemplation. The Montenegrins affirm that on their attackingJylobug, .the French troops from Bagusajiad come .to the assistance of the Turks. French officers are said also to have directed the resistance which the Bosnians, in 1807, made against the Servians : a statement originating from the circumstance that the Bosnian artillery was far better served, and proved far more effective than on former occasions.f The fact cannot be affirmed with certainty, but the events of the period afford sufficient grounds for its belief.

Napoleon   who, since his Egyptian campaign, had entertained a high opinion of the qualifications of Turkish soldiers now called upon the Sultan to leave his Seraglio, to place himself at the head of his troops, and to renew the glorious days of the Ottoman empire.

This he considered to be practicable in the very way that Selim had adopted,  through the medium of military reforms; in which lie encouraged him to the utmost of his power. It is certain that at one period of his youth, when circumstances in France appeared to promise little in his favour, Buonaparte had himself intended to assist in the military regeneration of the Turkish Empire. There is a note   extant,. 3vritten aE ihc time referred to,,in. which he^assumes.that it..was a political necessity for France to improve the military force of Turkey, and cause her again to be the dread of neighbouring states. That was the opinion which he now expressed. The assistance of French engineers and artillery officers made the defence of Constantinople against the English possible at this time, and showed what the Turks might accomplish under skilful guidance.

[istanbulhistorical]

The Turkish fortresses of Nikschit

But the spirit of conquest, which had seized the revolutionised nation, displayed itself also in the East. The great general of the French .Republic, Napoleon Buonaparte, conceived the idea of founding an Eastern Empire: he took possession of Egypt, Tnfy ij<ft any] jmvaded Syria. The natural consequence jpf jthese events was, that the Porte took part against France, and joined the second coalition. A squa dron of the allied Turks and Russians appeared off the Italian coast; and the Caliph of Roumelia, as the Sultan styled himself, made every exertion to reinstate the Pope at Rome.

It would not be difficult to trace the relations into which the European powers were thus brought with the internal affairs of Turkey.

AYe have already seen, that Russia had entered into a continually closer union with the Servians ; so that at length she „sent  a. division of troops into the Kraina to their, ajsd Afflice.  Tkere is~jx letter from the seat of war in that country,…in . which Kara George relates, with exultation, “that 1500 Turks haXbeen killedonihej?piLt that eight redoubts, with all their cannon and bombs, had been taken   that a chest full of ducats had fallen into their hands, together with Arabian horses, and costly trappings in abundance   that such of the Turks as had escaped, had saved nothing but their lives, and that the Pacha had effected his escape on a Wallaehian mare.” He knew not how sufficiently tomxtffiAhn Yaloiir.of’tha.Russians. If this action produced no other results, it at least established a good, fellowship in arms between the Russians and Servians.

In like manner, in the Spring of  tho year 1807, the Russians assisted the pecnle of Montenegro jn an attack upon the Turkish fortresses of Nikschit  schi and Klobug. The Montenegrins were devoted in their attachment to The. Emperor of Tiussia, even beyond what might have been expected under such circumstances. In one of their petitions they designated themselves his subjects.

The Greek Armatoles, also, who from year to year had become more aware of their own importance, with Enthymios Rlachavas, who already cherished the idea of a general deliverance of Greece f, were on good terms with the Russians; to whom Parga once more stood indebted for its deliverance from Pacha.

On the other hand, Napoleon was in constant intercourse with Ali Pacha, who had friendly relations  with tlic party at this time prevailing at Constantin ople. The Pacha boasted that Napoleon had placed cannon at his disposal * ; and it seems probable that a combined attack on the Seven Islands had been in contemplation. The Montenegrins affirm that on their attackingJylobug, .the French troops from Bagusajiad come .to the assistance of the Turks. French officers are said also to have directed the resistance which the Bosnians, in 1807, made against the Servians : a statement originating from the circumstance that the Bosnian artillery was far better served, and proved far more effective than on former occasions.f The fact cannot be affirmed with certainty, but the events of the period afford sufficient grounds for its belief.

Napoleon   who, since his Egyptian campaign, had entertained a high opinion of the qualifications of Turkish soldiers now called upon the Sultan to leave his Seraglio, to place himself at the head of his troops, and to renew the glorious days of the Ottoman empire.

This he considered to be practicable in the very way that Selim had adopted,  through the medium of military reforms; in which lie encouraged him to the utmost of his power. It is certain that at one period of his youth, when circumstances in France appeared to promise little in his favour, Buonaparte had himself intended to assist in the military regeneration of the Turkish Empire. There is a note   extant,. 3vritten aE ihc time referred to,,in. which he^assumes.that it..was a political necessity for France to improve the military force of Turkey, and cause her again to be the dread of neighbouring states. That was the opinion which he now expressed. The assistance of French engineers and artillery officers made the defence of Constantinople against the English possible at this time, and showed what the Turks might accomplish under skilful guidance.

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The Turkish fortresses of Nikschit

But the spirit of conquest, which had seized the revolutionised nation, displayed itself also in the East. The great general of the French .Republic, Napoleon Buonaparte, conceived the idea of founding an Eastern Empire: he took possession of Egypt, Tnfy ij<ft any] jmvaded Syria. The natural consequence jpf jthese events was, that the Porte took part against France, and joined the second coalition. A squa dron of the allied Turks and Russians appeared off the Italian coast; and the Caliph of Roumelia, as the Sultan styled himself, made every exertion to reinstate the Pope at Rome.

It would not be difficult to trace the relations into which the European powers were thus brought with the internal affairs of Turkey.

AYe have already seen, that Russia had entered into a continually closer union with the Servians ; so that at length she „sent  a. division of troops into the Kraina to their, ajsd Afflice.  Tkere is~jx letter from the seat of war in that country,…in . which Kara George relates, with exultation, “that 1500 Turks haXbeen killedonihej?piLt that eight redoubts, with all their cannon and bombs, had been taken   that a chest full of ducats had fallen into their hands, together with Arabian horses, and costly trappings in abundance   that such of the Turks as had escaped, had saved nothing but their lives, and that the Pacha had effected his escape on a Wallaehian mare.” He knew not how sufficiently tomxtffiAhn Yaloiir.of’tha.Russians. If this action produced no other results, it at least established a good, fellowship in arms between the Russians and Servians.

In like manner, in the Spring of  tho year 1807, the Russians assisted the pecnle of Montenegro jn an attack upon the Turkish fortresses of Nikschit  schi and Klobug. The Montenegrins were devoted in their attachment to The. Emperor of Tiussia, even beyond what might have been expected under such circumstances. In one of their petitions they designated themselves his subjects.

The Greek Armatoles, also, who from year to year had become more aware of their own importance, with Enthymios Rlachavas, who already cherished the idea of a general deliverance of Greece f, were on good terms with the Russians; to whom Parga once more stood indebted for its deliverance from Pacha.

On the other hand, Napoleon was in constant intercourse with Ali Pacha, who had friendly relations  with tlic party at this time prevailing at Constantin ople. The Pacha boasted that Napoleon had placed cannon at his disposal * ; and it seems probable that a combined attack on the Seven Islands had been in contemplation. The Montenegrins affirm that on their attackingJylobug, .the French troops from Bagusajiad come .to the assistance of the Turks. French officers are said also to have directed the resistance which the Bosnians, in 1807, made against the Servians : a statement originating from the circumstance that the Bosnian artillery was far better served, and proved far more effective than on former occasions.f The fact cannot be affirmed with certainty, but the events of the period afford sufficient grounds for its belief.

Napoleon   who, since his Egyptian campaign, had entertained a high opinion of the qualifications of Turkish soldiers now called upon the Sultan to leave his Seraglio, to place himself at the head of his troops, and to renew the glorious days of the Ottoman empire.

This he considered to be practicable in the very way that Selim had adopted,  through the medium of military reforms; in which lie encouraged him to the utmost of his power. It is certain that at one period of his youth, when circumstances in France appeared to promise little in his favour, Buonaparte had himself intended to assist in the military regeneration of the Turkish Empire. There is a note   extant,. 3vritten aE ihc time referred to,,in. which he^assumes.that it..was a political necessity for France to improve the military force of Turkey, and cause her again to be the dread of neighbouring states. That was the opinion which he now expressed. The assistance of French engineers and artillery officers made the defence of Constantinople against the English possible at this time, and showed what the Turks might accomplish under skilful guidance.

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The Turkish fortresses of Nikschit

But the spirit of conquest, which had seized the revolutionised nation, displayed itself also in the East. The great general of the French .Republic, Napoleon Buonaparte, conceived the idea of founding an Eastern Empire: he took possession of Egypt, Tnfy ij<ft any] jmvaded Syria. The natural consequence jpf jthese events was, that the Porte took part against France, and joined the second coalition. A squa dron of the allied Turks and Russians appeared off the Italian coast; and the Caliph of Roumelia, as the Sultan styled himself, made every exertion to reinstate the Pope at Rome.

It would not be difficult to trace the relations into which the European powers were thus brought with the internal affairs of Turkey.

AYe have already seen, that Russia had entered into a continually closer union with the Servians ; so that at length she „sent  a. division of troops into the Kraina to their, ajsd Afflice.  Tkere is~jx letter from the seat of war in that country,…in . which Kara George relates, with exultation, “that 1500 Turks haXbeen killedonihej?piLt that eight redoubts, with all their cannon and bombs, had been taken   that a chest full of ducats had fallen into their hands, together with Arabian horses, and costly trappings in abundance   that such of the Turks as had escaped, had saved nothing but their lives, and that the Pacha had effected his escape on a Wallaehian mare.” He knew not how sufficiently tomxtffiAhn Yaloiir.of’tha.Russians. If this action produced no other results, it at least established a good, fellowship in arms between the Russians and Servians.

In like manner, in the Spring of  tho year 1807, the Russians assisted the pecnle of Montenegro jn an attack upon the Turkish fortresses of Nikschit  schi and Klobug. The Montenegrins were devoted in their attachment to The. Emperor of Tiussia, even beyond what might have been expected under such circumstances. In one of their petitions they designated themselves his subjects.

The Greek Armatoles, also, who from year to year had become more aware of their own importance, with Enthymios Rlachavas, who already cherished the idea of a general deliverance of Greece f, were on good terms with the Russians; to whom Parga once more stood indebted for its deliverance from Pacha.

On the other hand, Napoleon was in constant intercourse with Ali Pacha, who had friendly relations  with tlic party at this time prevailing at Constantin ople. The Pacha boasted that Napoleon had placed cannon at his disposal * ; and it seems probable that a combined attack on the Seven Islands had been in contemplation. The Montenegrins affirm that on their attackingJylobug, .the French troops from Bagusajiad come .to the assistance of the Turks. French officers are said also to have directed the resistance which the Bosnians, in 1807, made against the Servians : a statement originating from the circumstance that the Bosnian artillery was far better served, and proved far more effective than on former occasions.f The fact cannot be affirmed with certainty, but the events of the period afford sufficient grounds for its belief.

Napoleon   who, since his Egyptian campaign, had entertained a high opinion of the qualifications of Turkish soldiers now called upon the Sultan to leave his Seraglio, to place himself at the head of his troops, and to renew the glorious days of the Ottoman empire.

This he considered to be practicable in the very way that Selim had adopted,  through the medium of military reforms; in which lie encouraged him to the utmost of his power. It is certain that at one period of his youth, when circumstances in France appeared to promise little in his favour, Buonaparte had himself intended to assist in the military regeneration of the Turkish Empire. There is a note   extant,. 3vritten aE ihc time referred to,,in. which he^assumes.that it..was a political necessity for France to improve the military force of Turkey, and cause her again to be the dread of neighbouring states. That was the opinion which he now expressed. The assistance of French engineers and artillery officers made the defence of Constantinople against the English possible at this time, and showed what the Turks might accomplish under skilful guidance.

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The Turkish fortresses of Nikschit

But the spirit of conquest, which had seized the revolutionised nation, displayed itself also in the East. The great general of the French .Republic, Napoleon Buonaparte, conceived the idea of founding an Eastern Empire: he took possession of Egypt, Tnfy ij<ft any] jmvaded Syria. The natural consequence jpf jthese events was, that the Porte took part against France, and joined the second coalition. A squa dron of the allied Turks and Russians appeared off the Italian coast; and the Caliph of Roumelia, as the Sultan styled himself, made every exertion to reinstate the Pope at Rome.

It would not be difficult to trace the relations into which the European powers were thus brought with the internal affairs of Turkey.

AYe have already seen, that Russia had entered into a continually closer union with the Servians ; so that at length she „sent  a. division of troops into the Kraina to their, ajsd Afflice.  Tkere is~jx letter from the seat of war in that country,…in . which Kara George relates, with exultation, “that 1500 Turks haXbeen killedonihej?piLt that eight redoubts, with all their cannon and bombs, had been taken   that a chest full of ducats had fallen into their hands, together with Arabian horses, and costly trappings in abundance   that such of the Turks as had escaped, had saved nothing but their lives, and that the Pacha had effected his escape on a Wallaehian mare.” He knew not how sufficiently tomxtffiAhn Yaloiir.of’tha.Russians. If this action produced no other results, it at least established a good, fellowship in arms between the Russians and Servians.

In like manner, in the Spring of  tho year 1807, the Russians assisted the pecnle of Montenegro jn an attack upon the Turkish fortresses of Nikschit  schi and Klobug. The Montenegrins were devoted in their attachment to The. Emperor of Tiussia, even beyond what might have been expected under such circumstances. In one of their petitions they designated themselves his subjects.

The Greek Armatoles, also, who from year to year had become more aware of their own importance, with Enthymios Rlachavas, who already cherished the idea of a general deliverance of Greece f, were on good terms with the Russians; to whom Parga once more stood indebted for its deliverance from Pacha.

On the other hand, Napoleon was in constant intercourse with Ali Pacha, who had friendly relations  with tlic party at this time prevailing at Constantin ople. The Pacha boasted that Napoleon had placed cannon at his disposal * ; and it seems probable that a combined attack on the Seven Islands had been in contemplation. The Montenegrins affirm that on their attackingJylobug, .the French troops from Bagusajiad come .to the assistance of the Turks. French officers are said also to have directed the resistance which the Bosnians, in 1807, made against the Servians : a statement originating from the circumstance that the Bosnian artillery was far better served, and proved far more effective than on former occasions.f The fact cannot be affirmed with certainty, but the events of the period afford sufficient grounds for its belief.

Napoleon   who, since his Egyptian campaign, had entertained a high opinion of the qualifications of Turkish soldiers now called upon the Sultan to leave his Seraglio, to place himself at the head of his troops, and to renew the glorious days of the Ottoman empire.

This he considered to be practicable in the very way that Selim had adopted,  through the medium of military reforms; in which lie encouraged him to the utmost of his power. It is certain that at one period of his youth, when circumstances in France appeared to promise little in his favour, Buonaparte had himself intended to assist in the military regeneration of the Turkish Empire. There is a note   extant,. 3vritten aE ihc time referred to,,in. which he^assumes.that it..was a political necessity for France to improve the military force of Turkey, and cause her again to be the dread of neighbouring states. That was the opinion which he now expressed. The assistance of French engineers and artillery officers made the defence of Constantinople against the English possible at this time, and showed what the Turks might accomplish under skilful guidance.