#Waste-to-wealth practices: Shaping a more prosperous society

[robertreich]

Trickle-Down Economics Doesn’t Work but Build-Up Does  -- Is Biden Listening?

How should the huge financial costs of the pandemic be paid for, as well as the other deferred needs of society after this annus horribilis?

Politicians rarely want to raise taxes on the rich. Joe Biden promised to do so but a closely divided Congress is already balking.

That’s because they’ve bought into one of the most dangerous of all economic ideas: that economic growth requires the rich to become even richer. Rubbish.

Economist John Kenneth Galbraith once dubbed it the “horse and sparrow” theory: “If you feed the horse enough oats, some will pass through to the road for the sparrows.”

We know it as trickle-down economics.

In a new study, David Hope of the London School of Economics and Julian Limberg of King’s College London lay waste to the theory. They reviewed data over the last half-century in advanced economies and found that tax cuts for the rich widened inequality without having any significant effect on jobs or growth. Nothing trickled down.

Meanwhile, the rich have become far richer. Since the start of the pandemic, just 651 American billionaires have gained $1 trillion of wealth. With this windfall they could send a $3,000 check to every person in America and still be as rich as they were before the pandemic. Don’t hold your breath.

Stock markets have been hitting record highs. More initial public stock offerings have been launched this year than in over two decades. A wave of hi-tech IPOs has delivered gushers of money to Silicon Valley investors, founders and employees.

Oh, and tax rates are historically low.

Yet at the same time, more than 20 million Americans are jobless, 8 million have fallen into poverty, 19 million are at risk of eviction and 26 million are going hungry. Mainstream economists are already talking about a “K-shaped” recovery – the better-off reaping most gains while the bottom half continue to slide.

You don’t need a doctorate in ethical philosophy to think that now might be a good time to tax and redistribute some of the top’s riches to the hard-hit below. The UK is already considering an emergency tax on wealth.

Biden has rejected a wealth tax, but maybe he should be even more ambitious and seek to change economic thinking altogether.

The practical alternative to trickle-down economics might be called build-up economics. Not only should the rich pay for today’s devastating crisis but they should also invest in the public’s long-term well-being. The rich themselves would benefit from doing so, as would everyone else.

At one time, America’s major political parties were on the way to embodying these two theories. Speaking to the Democratic National Convention in 1896, populist William Jennings Bryan noted: “There are two ideas of government. There are those who believe that, if you will only legislate to make the well-to-do prosperous, their prosperity will leak through on those below. The Democratic idea, however, has been that if you legislate to make the masses prosperous, their prosperity will find its way up through every class which rests upon them.”

Build-up economics reached its zenith in the decades after the second world war, when the richest Americans paid a marginal income tax rate of between 70% and 90%. That revenue helped fund massive investment in infrastructure, education, health and basic research – creating the largest and most productive middle class the world had ever seen.

But starting in the 1980s, America retreated from public investment. The result is crumbling infrastructure, inadequate schools, wildly dysfunctional healthcare and public health systems and a shrinking core of basic research. Productivity has plummeted.

Yet we know public investment pays off. Studies show an average return on infrastructure investment of $1.92 for every public dollar invested, and a return on early childhood education of between 10% and 16% – with 80% of the benefits going to the general public.

The COVID vaccine reveals the importance of investments in public health, and the pandemic shows how everyone’s health affects everyone else’s. Yet 37 million Americans still have no health insurance. A study in the Lancet estimates Medicare for All would prevent 68,000 unnecessary deaths each year, while saving money.

If we don’t launch something as bold as a Green New Deal, we’ll spend trillions coping with ever more damaging hurricanes, wildfires, floods and rising sea levels.

The returns from these and other public investments are huge. The costs of not making them are astronomical.

Trickle-down economics is a cruel hoax. The benefits of build-up economics are real. At this juncture, between a global pandemic and the promise of a post-pandemic world, and between the administrations of Trump and Biden, we would be well-served by changing the economic paradigm from trickle down to build up.

[thecoroutfitters]

Written by Guest Contributor on The Prepper Journal.

Editors Note: Another guest contribution from John D to The Prepper Journal.  As always, if you have information for Preppers that you would like to share and possibly receive a $25 cash award as well as be entered into the Prepper Writing Contest with a chance to win one of three Amazon Gift Cards  with the top prize being a $300 card to purchase your own prepping supplies, enter today.

They say that if you don’t study history, you are doomed to repeat it.  Well then, what can we learn from the past that can help us better prepare for the hard times we know are coming?

In an effort to understand hard-times, the Great Depression may offer the best opportunity for learning.  Families lost their homes and businesses due to foreclosure, and shantytowns sprang up across the country as a refuge for the homeless.  Unemployed men traveled the railways to different locations, desperately searching for work.  Bread lines and soup kitchens were the only form of sustenance for many, during the Great Depression.  Surely, we as preppers can do better than that.  Can’t we?

While the Great Depression was a nightmare for a large number of people, many never felt real hardship, and some became wealthy.  There are lessons to be learned from the successes and failures that apply to prepping.  Let’s look at a few of them:

Floyd Bostwick Odlum anticipated a stock market crash, cashed in many of the stocks he thought would fail, and was left with a lot of cash when the market crash happened.  He used that cash to buy failing companies at drastically reduced prices, and then used those assets to make more cash.  His strategy was so successful, that he became one of the ten wealthiest men in the country.

Joseph P. Kennedy (JFK’s father), amassed an enormous amount of wealth, primarily through real estate, during the Great Depression.

On the other end of the spectrum were investors who didn’t anticipate the crash. They believed that the good times would never end.  Some, in fact, borrowed money for the purpose of buying stock.  Some lived like the grasshopper (in the grasshopper and the ant fairy tale), never setting aside anything for a rainy day.  Needless to say, when the crash happened, they were devastated.

Chain letters, offering get-rich-quick schemes, seem to have first appeared during the Great Depression.  That, no doubt, was an effort to take advantage of people’s desperation.  E-mail scams and social engineering are today’s version of that.

In the mountain communities of Appalachia, whole families were reduced to dandelions and blackberries for their basic diet.

What can we learn from those examples?

The things you consider assets now, may not be assets after the SHTF.  Own things that will be of great value to you, and to others, post-SHTF.  Put yourself in a positon to thrive, not just survive, in an economic downturn.  Be ready to take advantage of opportunities as they present themselves.  Being able to adapt to jobs in different fields is essential.

Don’t be fooled by get-rich-quick schemes.  Expect an uptick in scams as shysters try to take advantage of people’s desperation.

   Learn to grow, and preserve, your own food.  You may have read some articles about growing your own food, but don’t overestimate your ability.  Learn by doing.  That’s the only way you’ll know for sure.  What you don’t know might surprise you.  It’s better to find out what can go wrong before you’re actually depending upon those crops for survival.  Know how to minimize the effects of a drought on your plants, because water may be a precious commodity.  Save seeds from your own successful plants, but not from hybrid plants.  Anticipate your needs, and act accordingly.  You may be proud of yourself for canning 50 jars of tomatoes, and you should be, but how long will they last?  If you consume just 1 jar a day, you’ll run out early in the winter.  And needless to say, you can’t help others if you don’t even have enough to meet your own needs. During the Great Depression, communities supported each other and kept everyone fed.

  Learn about container gardening, and growing indoors.  Those too, might be skills you’ll need in the future. Teach family members those skills, because you may have to travel to a distant location, in search of work.

Use the assets you have, and don’t waste anything.  If you have an apple tree, make canned applesauce, and lots of it.  Someone will be happy to accept applesauce in trade for something you need.

Understand what’s happening, as it happens.  Mr. Odlum wasn’t just lucky.  He didn’t like what he saw in the markets, and he took the appropriate actions.  While few were as successful as Mr. Odlum, many businesses changed their tactics, in order to survive the Great Depression.  Giveaways, diversification, more and better advertising, better service, and providing more for less, were just a few of the ways many businesses were able to stay afloat.  Depending upon the nature of your business, one or more of those strategies might just help you weather the storm that you know is coming.  Plan now, before it’s too late.

What else should you be aware of?

Crime surged during the Great Depression, primarily because desperate people will do desperate things.  This should tell you that money you spend on security, weapons, and ammo, is money well spent.  Cultivate good relationships with family and friends.  You’ll need them, and they’ll need you, to stay safe and protected.

Watch the Signs:

Early on, the United States focused on domestic issues, and did not directly intervene in conflicts overseas.  But with the bombing of Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the United States could no longer continue its isolationism policy.  If conflicts overseas are ignored, sooner or later they’ll arrive on our doorstep.

The government initiated several programs during the Great Depression, including giving away blankets.  These came to be known as “Hover Blankets”, named after the president at the time, Herbert Hoover.  Sound familiar?  Recently, President Obama gave free phones to the needy.  They became known as “Obama Phones”.  Some believe that the United States dodged a bullet when Donald J. Trump was elected.  Time will tell.

        When the Great Depression hit, Mexican-Americans were accused of taking jobs away from “real” Americans and of unfairly burdening local relief efforts.  Some were “encouraged” to return to Mexico.  Sound familiar?  Not just that, but Californians tried to stop migrants from moving into their state.  It’s hard to believe these things actually happened in a state with so many “Sanctuary Cities” today.  Don’t be surprised if you see a quick change in attitudes towards people who are not native to your area, once the SHTF.  Just like in the past, minorities will be hardest-hit in the event of another economic downturn.

President Roosevelt succeeded President Hoover, and his “New Deal” radically changed the role of the Federal Government.  Many were helped, but unfortunately some came to believe that the government was the solution to every problem.  Sadly, many people still believe that, and don’t feel that they need to contribute to society.  Programs initiated during the Roosevelt administration, such as Social Security, FDIC Insurance, and Unemployment Insurance benefitted many Americans then, and still do today.  But, for everything to work like a well-oiled machine, labor participation needs to go up, as welfare participation goes down.  To have a healthy economy, all mentally and physically able people need to pull their own weight.  If history repeats itself, we’ll see new social programs, and new abuses of those programs.

Unless we have leaders who effectively deal with waste, fraud, and abuse, taxes will rise dramatically.

If you run out of money as you’re adjusting to a major financial crisis, it’s a problem.  If you have money, it’s just another day.  The Great Depression created hard times for about 40% of the population, but that means that 60% did alright.  And, a small segment of the population did exceptionally well.  Which group will you be in?

Prepare to prosper, not just survive.  To do that, you’ll first need to stay healthy.  Your odds of staying healthy improve if you have plenty of nutritious food, clean water, comfortable living conditions, and security.  If you’re currently out of shape, you should do something about that.  Life will be strenuous after the SHTF, and you need to be ready for that.  Consider creating a strategy based on your present training and skills.  If you’re a builder, can you practice your trade without electricity, and with limited availability of supplies?  If you’re in the medical field, having a good knowledge of medicinal plants and herbs will be helpful.  Having the ability to repair shoes and clothing will be another in-demand skill, because many will not be able to buy new things.  Bicycles will become a popular way of transportation when people can no longer afford cars, or when gasoline is either not available, or too expensive.  Knowing how to maintain them will be a valuable skill.

It’s interesting to note that the suffering during the Great Depression was not only due to the collapse of banks and the failure of retail businesses.  Those who made their living by farming or raising cattle suffered through an extreme drought in the early depression years.  This, perhaps, is another learning opportunity.  Water is life.  Know what to do in the event that your current supply dries up.  Rain water can be captured from your roof, and stored, if you have the appropriate catchment devices and containers.  55 gallon food-grade containers are available from local sources, such as farm supply outlets.  Know how to purify water to make it safe for drinking.  Have portable equipment, in the event you need to bug out.

You may choose a strategy based on the nature of the disaster you anticipate.  To prepare for a powerful EMP, store sensitive electrical devices and components in a Faraday Cage.  Learn about solar power systems, and stock up on component parts for that.  After all, electrical devices are of no value if you have no way to power them.  Imagine the value of a sustainable alternative source of electricity, in the event of a widespread power outage.  Imagine yourself as one of the few who can pick up emergency broadcasts (if they still exist), and have 2-way radio communications with others.  Having the ability to boil water, and cook food, without a tell-tale fire in your back yard helps to hide those activities from unwelcome guests.  Things like lights, walkie-talkies, and security equipment will contribute to your safety and comfort.  You could be one of the few in your community with a working TV.  Broadcasts may no longer exist, but DVD’s will last virtually forever.  Escape from your troubles once in a while, as many did in the depression years.  At the very least, a working TV provides a way to entertain the young, keeping their minds off of the serious nature of the situation.  The ability to play movies, shows, and recorded music will be a great moral booster.

An EMP will damage most modern automobiles, and the rest would last only as long as gasoline is available.  However, automotive batteries will probably survive an EMP attack, and can be re-purposed as emergency power sources.  Sadly though, after a widespread grid power outage, only a few people will have the ability to recharge them.  Will they bring their batteries to you, for recharging?  Probably, if you have one or more solar panels.  Consider stocking up on rechargeable flashlight batteries, and purchasing a good quality charger.  Recharging flashlight and equipment batteries is another service you could provide, in exchange for things you need.

The cost of solar panels has dropped dramatically over the past few years, to the point where almost everyone can afford a solar electric system.  The cost of energy-efficient LED lights has also dropped dramatically.  Where it once required 60 watts to power a light bulb, you can now get the same amount of light from a bulb requiring only 9 watts.  So you see, even a small system is of great value.  Don’t be misled by those who’ll tell you solar electric is not practical.  I’m sure they mean well, but perhaps are not aware of recent advances.  And, as I previously mentioned, automotive batteries may be available at little or no cost, greatly cutting the cost of a complete system.  Use marine (deep discharge) batteries if possible, since those are better suited to off-grid solar electric systems, but automotive batteries are fine as an emergency power source.

Begin by determining how much power you need, and then put together a system large enough to meet that need.  I’ve posted a TPJ article in January of 2017 that tells how to do that.  Your EMP-protected electronics stockpile should include a good quality multi-meter, preferably an analog type, since a digital one would be more susceptible to an EMP.  Understand that an EMP attack may be followed by another EMP attack at a later time.  Keep devices you’re not using in a Faraday Cage.  Keep a good supply of spare parts, such as blocking diodes for the solar panels.  If you can afford it, keep duplicates of all critical equipment.  LED bulbs might also be damaged by an EMP, so keep some protected spares of those.

There are a great many disasters, other than an EMP attack, that can cause long-term and widespread power outages.  For that reason, I consider alternative power a high priority.

If you anticipate a financial collapse, and your goal is to become wealthy, you might choose to store large amounts of gold or silver, since paper money may be worthless.  If you simply want to survive a zombie apocalypse, then perhaps weapons, ammo, and fortifications are more in tune with your prepper philosophy.  There is no one-size-fits-all plan.  It’s important to learn as much as you can, because you may not always be able to “Google” things.

Does your survival strategy take into consideration where you live?  If you live in a cold climate, you’ll have to stay warm.  If you live in a warm climate, you’ll have to stay cool.  If you live in a big city, you’ll need a bug out plan.  If you live in the desert, you’ll have to be concerned about water.  Well, you get the idea.  Stockpiling is a short-term solution to a disaster.  To survive in the long run, you have to have a sustainable strategy.  Prepare for a scenario where every service you depend upon suddenly no longer exists.  Start with your most basic needs (water, food, and shelter), and work outward from there.

When disaster strikes, you may find strength through optimism, as many did during the Great Depression.  Many looked at their disadvantages as personal challenges that could be overcome with ingenuity and hard work.  There was virtually no sense of entitlement.  People understood that they would only survive if they worked hard.  Many came to realize that they’d been given a great gift; an opportunity to experience the love of family and friends in a way that is almost unimaginable today.  Those who lived through the Great Depression learned to appreciate the simple life, and to have compassion for those in need.  If history does repeat itself, I hope I can at least match that level of compassion and generosity.  I hope you can too.

  The post Hard Times – Lessons from the Past appeared first on The Prepper Journal.

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[quakerjoe]

Early Environmentalism in America

By Debra A. Schwartz

Attitudes are born in history. The environmental history developed in the United States before 1960 reveals hundreds of years of laws and policy decisions created for economic prosperity and that discounted the value of wilderness. Instead, economic return was the central factor in all decisions. From the colonists’ first landing in the country, the goal was natural resource exploitation. As the country developed, attitudes and values toward a broader understanding of the environment evolved. As the country’s basic material needs were addressed, broader spiritual, recreational, and ecological values were slowly adopted within society and by the U.S, federal government as well as state and local governments.

Eventually the consequences of pollution and resource scarcity as well as growing scientific knowledge led public officials to address urban water systems, create national forests and parks, restrict industrial pollution, and regulate hunting and fishing, to name just a few policy areas. Typically, changes prior to 1960 limited industrial contamination of natural resources instead of preventing or removing toxic pollution. This essay addresses the philosophical, economic, and political underpinnings of the evolving relationship between the U.S. government and the environment up to the mid-twentieth century.

As is discussed in this essay, the Romantic movement (1820–1900) and the American Transcendental movement (1836–1850) through the Progressive Era (1880–1920) brought a philosophical context to a new understanding of the natural environment. In the 1950s and 1960s, a new way of thinking about the economy, society, culture, and philosophy in the United States acted on words of caution delivered hundreds of years earlier by Native Americans. A table of inherent differences between technological peoples and native peoples in Jerry Mander’s In the Absence of the Sacred: The Failure of Technology and the Survival of the Indian Nations (Mander, 1992, 214–221) offers some insight into this shift in environmental policy. Mander writes that natives see ‘‘the way’’ as striving for death. Contemporary resistance to the direction in which technology took the nation produced the ecology movement in the 1960s. That movement began to draw a line against the country’s entire mode of economic organization and the system of logic and set of assumptions that led to the problems of dams, pesticides, nukes, and population growth, for example, associated with environmental degradation. New laws including the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, and the Wilderness Act resulted.

The economic model of the sixteenth through eighteenth centuries is mercantilism. Motivated and directed by the English Crown and Parliament, colonists in the New World were encouraged to export raw materials to England, preferably gold, silver, tobacco, rice, indigo, and timber (Petulla, 1977). They turned the largest profit for the homeland. Wealth for all who provided them was assured.

Conquest of native land and culture was the way of the colonists, a way differing at the root from historic Native American cultural values. The native way frames the earth as family members: father Sky, mother Earth, grandfather Moon, brother River, the Four Winds are uncles, the Stars are cousins, and so forth. Chief Seattle, who led the Suquamish tribe of the Puget Sound area, described native spirituality to government officials in 1854 this way: ‘‘Whatever befalls the Earth befalls the sons and daughters of the Earth. We did not weave the web of life; we are merely a strand in it. Whatever we do to the web, we do to ourselves’’ (Suquamish Tribe, 2010). In this respect, he foreshadowed health concerns resulting from the industrial waste contamination that was to come.

The settlers’ way disconnected humans from all other life largely based on Genesis 1:28 of the Old Testament, which provides, ‘‘Be fruitful and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it; and have dominion over . . . every living thing that creepeth upon the earth.’’

With a moral imperative and need for economic growth, colonials consequently sought to clear forests, mine mountains, and plant indigofera, a member of the pea family valued for the deep blue dye that could be extracted from the vegetation. Since the color drawn out is not soluble in water, one technique for breaking down the resistance required soaking the extraction in urine. Offensive in nature, a harsh chemical treatment for turning it into dye provided an alternative. It led to health problems at textile manufacturing facilities and occasionally attracted attention from government policymakers. The waste chemicals landed in streams and soil and were allowed to evaporate into the air because the science of dilution suggested doing so would render them harmless.

The first zoning policies in the United States can be traced to these concerns for public health. Sanitation and pure drinking water were its cornerstones. In 1739, Benjamin Franklin laid the groundwork for land use law when he and some of his neighbors petitioned the Pennsylvania assembly to stop chemical waste dumping and remove tanneries from Philadelphia’s commercial district because of their foul smell, disease-promoting qualities, and interferences with firefighting, all of which lowered property values. Industry complained to the assembly that any restriction would violate their rights. Franklin argued for ‘‘public rights’’ (Kovarik, 2010). The issue of public versus private rights has been a continuing thread through environmental policy in the United States ever since.

Franklin and his pack won a symbolic victory that created awareness. However, assorted industries, including the weapons, steel, and chemical industries, continued dumping with minimal restriction for almost 200 more years. Throughout the prairie and the Rust Belt, rivers and streams ran red from cadmium and chromium. Franklin’s dedication to his beloved Philadelphia and confidence that the New World promised many great contributions to the world led him to include a 1789 codicil in his will. In in, he left money earmarked to build a freshwater pipeline to the city to stave off yellow fever and other epidemics linked to water quality (Kovarik 2010).

Extraction of natural resources remained a God-given sanction in the 1800s as logging, mining, and farming flourished. Like the early settlers, citizens of the new United States of America hungered for the land, viewing forest wilderness as the most formidable barrier standing between them and their financial success from farming. The only good tree was a dead one in a fence, cabin wall, or fireplace (Nash, 1963, 2). This utilitarian-based economic system of conquest over wilderness gave meaning and purpose to the pioneer existence.

The pioneers and Native Americans differed not only in spiritual beliefs, but also in their ideas about community and society. Early settlers brought from Europe an economic system based on individual rather than collective property ownership, opposite to native practices. To the native nations, it was not possible to own something belonging to the Great Spirit. When U.S. President Zachary Taylor offered to buy the Suquamish’s land, Chief Seattle likened the settlers to parasites in his 1854 reply that today is regarded by some as the most beautiful and profound statement on environmental policy ever made. Explaining his position, Chief Seattle said:

"How can you buy or sell the sky, the warmth of the land? This idea is strange to us. If we do not own the freshness of the air and the sparkle of the water, how can you buy them? . . . We know that the white man does not understand our ways. One portion of land is the same to him as the next, for he is a stranger who comes in the night and takes from the land whatever he needs. The Earth is not his brother, but his enemy, and when he has conquered it, he moves on. He leaves his father’s graves behind, and he does not care. He kidnaps the Earth from his children, . . . And he does not care. . . . He treats . . . the Earth . . . as [something] to be bought, plundered, sold like sheep or bright beads. His appetite will devour the Earth and leave behind only a desert. . . . Our ways are different from your ways. The sight of your cities pains the eyes for the red man. But perhaps it is because the red man is a savage and does not understand. There is no quiet place in the white man’s cities. No place to hear the unfurling of leaves of spring, or the rustle of an insect’s wings. But perhaps it is because I am a savage and do not understand. The clatter only seems to insult my ears . . ." (Suquamish Tribe, 2010)

It would be many years before Central Park in New York City was created to provide a quiet place in that roaring metropolis. Considering Chief Seattle’s statement, it can be said that the Romantics, Transcendentalists, and naturalists who advocated for wilderness protection as early as 1773 walked in the footsteps of the native nations and, having done so, sought to reconcile mercantilist ways with the way of beauty. Among them was a New England clergyman who in 1803 crossed the Allegheny Mountains, floated down the Ohio River, and then reported that while the farming scenes he saw were nice, the uncultivated wilderness made him feel closer to god (Nash, 1963, 4).

But the Industrial Revolution and mercantilism overshadowed that consciousness. Pollution intensified. Poet, philosopher, and essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson and Chief Seattle spoke about the same things. The conservation stories shaping environmental policy during this time inspired admiration.

Environmental policy in the United States after independence began to include a moral imperative along with its commodity-driven capitalist economic system. An increasingly better-educated public had placed new emphasis on the quality of life. The country’s leaders and citizens wanted to break with old ways instituted by the Crown and make a place for the country among great nations. An awareness that the American wilderness was an attraction not only for those searching for a better life, but also for tourists, became an economic concern when public leaders noticed the woods were disappearing into ‘‘progress.’’ The rough country that had been a source of national pride and identity had stood in stark contrast to the Old World’s cramped and artificial conditions. During the Romantic movement, the country’s attitude shifted to include aesthetic value. The United States was outgrowing the idea that wild, natural mountains and forests were horrible and something to be conquered and tamed.

The change brought with it an enthusiasm for the primitive. Early sociologist and political scientist Alexis de Tocqueville returned from a trip through the Michigan wilderness in 1831 declaring the journey left him with a vague distaste for civilized life, that the backwoods stimulated a sort of primitive instinct in him that ‘‘makes one think with sadness that soon this delightful solitude will have changed its looks’’ (Nash, 1963, 6). His words epitomize the Romantic attitude. Sadly, de Tocqueville’s observation was a premonition of things to come.

Like the Romantics, for the Transcendentalists nature was the symbol of the spiritual world. It contained the moral truths permeating the universe, they contended. ‘‘In the woods we return to reason and faith,’’ Emerson wrote, epitomizing the movement’s non-utilitarian attitude toward wilderness (Nash, 1963, 4). His statement seems to suggest when morality began injecting itself into U.S. environmental policy.

Hatian-born French-American ornithologist John James Audubon was among the scientists who in the early 1800s along with Nuttall regarded the wilderness as a discovery zone (Nash, 1963, 4). Perhaps inspired by a young Thomas Jefferson’s Notes on the State of Virginia written in 1785, which defended the New World’s animals and plants against European superstition labeling them as degenerate, Audubon published Birds of America in 1826. That ongoing collection of color engravings that depicted, cataloged, and described the birds. It also influenced environmental law and policy in a new ethical direction. When journalist George Bird Grinnell in 1886 wrote an article in Forest and Stream magazine encouraging readers to help him create ‘‘The Audubon Society,’’ it was with the goal of protecting birds against the demands of fashion (Serrin and Serrin, 2002, 227–229). Enormous numbers of birds were captured for their plumes in the late 1800s.

Appealing to industrial as well as less technologically invested special interests, Grinnell explained how the slaughter of birds injured farmers, who needed them to eat the insects and rodents that destroyed crops. He encouraged American women to follow the lead of their counterparts in England, who created widespread interest in protecting birds. In the three months following Grinnell’s publication, more than 38,000 people, including many notables, wrote to him in support of his suggestion. Overwhelmed, he abandoned the group in 1898. Within 10 years, women in Massachusetts formed a state Audubon Society, and in 1905, a national organization was established. The society’s first accomplishment was to pass a plumage law in New York State in 1910 that banned the sale of all plumes of birds native to the state. Its next achievement was a successful lobbying effort for what became the Federal Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918. The law made it illegal to pursue, hunt, take, capture, kill, or sell migrating birds, whether dead or alive, including any part of the bird. Grinnell diligently continued his work favoring wilderness and wildlife preservation. In 1910, it led to legislation forming Glacier National Park.

Meanwhile, George Catlin in 1832 made the first known plea for forest and wilderness preservation (Nash, 1963, 7). His firsthand observations from living with and documenting Native American life in art and words illustrated the extermination of the native nations and the buffalo. This was a great loss of heritage, he argued, and proposed the government preserve millions of acres of land ‘‘in their pristine beauty and wildness’’ that the world could see for ages to come. His plea signified a new relationship developing between the populace, lawmakers, and environmental policy in the United States that served as the root of the national park idea.

George Perkins Marsh, a member of the Whig Party, was among the first in Congress to address environmental problems resulting from human interaction with the natural environment. Industrial progress had disrupted the harmony between humans and their environment, he believed, and he argued that clearing woods indiscriminately was a prelude to floods, soil erosion, and ultimately the collapse of civilization. The Roman Empire was a prime example, and he wanted to spare the United States from a similar fate of denuding the forests and leaving the land barren (Nash, 1963, 7). Over time, studies have linked the rise and fall of civilizations to their environmental health. Rome had overtaxed its natural resources and thus its strength, Marsh contended. Exploiting nature turns an economic asset into an economic liability, he said. Today’s pollution and its cleanup price tag supports Marsh’s thinking. Historically, exploiting the environment by drilling, mining, logging, and polluting forced economic and political systems to change. With that awareness, Marsh inserted wilderness preservation into the congressional economic arguments of 1847 (Nash, 1963).

Two years later, the New York Tribune took up the torch to preserve the verdant Adirondack region of the Appalachian Mountains in New York State. Distinguished by deep, lush, dark green forests under purple sunrises streaking amber, the region was largely untouched. Long-time Tribune reporter Joel T. Headly wrote The Adirondack: or Life in the Woods that year, providing that anyone spending time there would come back ‘‘to civilized life’’ a better person (Serrin and Serrin, 2002, 225–227).

A major impetus for preserving the region was the deforestation that had already occurred. The stripping of trees became so bad that it was a major contributor to flooding, as well as drought, along the Hudson River and the Erie Canal. New Yorkers vocal about protecting the region wanted to make sure water supplies were not damaged even further.

The Adirondacks were a major force in Teddy Roosevelt’s environmental ethic. He spent much time there, and was actually climbing the region’s highest peak (Mount Marcy) when he received news that McKinley had been shot.

Lawmakers resisted responding to the public outcry for 40 years, even though Marsh helped carry the Adirondack’s torch in Congress. A breach in the disagreements came in 1873 when the sportsman’s magazine Forest and Stream said preserving the Adirondacks would protect the state watersheds that rose there. This argument won over some of the opposition. The New York State Chamber of Commerce and other powerful interests joined the preservation chorus, claiming that not preserving the Adirondacks would undermine internal commerce in the state. On May 15, 1885, New York Governor David B. Hill made 715,000 acres in the Adirondacks forever wild. It is an early example of a state leading federal environmental policy. In 1892, the state legislature added another three million acres in the area and designated it Adirondack State Park. In 1894, as the Audubon Society was laying roots, New York State voters gave permanent protection to the park and said it must stay forever wild (Serrin and Serrin, 2002, 226–227).

At the same time, John Muir arrived in California at the age of 30 in 1868, where he began describing wilderness and expounding on its values. A part-time logger, he became a leading force shaping American thought on the subject of wilderness. He defended it as a source of religion, recreation, and beauty, and pleaded with the American people to turn to the wild places in their country for rejuvenation and solace. Muir wrote, ‘‘Thousands of tired, nerve-shaken, overcivilized people are beginning to find out that going to the mountains is going home; that wilderness is a necessity; and that mountain parks and reservations are useful not only as fountains of timber and irrigating rivers, but as fountains of life’’ (Nash, 1963, 8).

Muir fell out of public life in the 1880s after marrying and devoting his attention to his wife’s family ranch. When Robert Underwood Johnson of Century magazine came to California scouting new talent, he sought out Muir. Together they went on a pack trip to Yosemite, where Muir spoke with sadness about the grazing, lumbering, farms, and factories defaming the valley. Johnson said, write for me, and we’ll make this a national park (Serrin and Serrin, 2002, 229). Muir did, and the rest is history.

The story of Yosemite National Park is a study in clout, politics, and greasing the wheels of Congress. While Muir wrote, Johnson, a master lobbyist, created a park coalition that appealed to the logic of the Southern Pacific Railroad and the potent Hearst family (Serrin and Serrin 2002, 232). Century carried Muir’s articles in August and September of 1890. A bill establishing Yosemite National Park, following boundaries Muir suggested in Century, passed in September 1890 shortly after the second article and was signed by President Benjamin Harrison the next day.

Muir was surprised by how his arguments won favor. Encouraged by his wife to continue writing about parks and wildlife, in an 1897 article in Atlantic he urged federal protection of the forests. Only Uncle Sam, Muir wrote, can save the trees from fools (Serrin and Serrin 2002, 232). Though Yosemite had been declared protected wilderness, pressure continued to use part of the park for industry. Alert to the undercurrent, Muir, Johnson, and a San Francisco-based lawyer, Warren Olney, formed a sort of ‘‘Yosemite defense league.’’ That group became the Sierra Club.

Preserving wilderness for its own sake and using it exclusively for recreation and educational purposes was Muir’s stance in all cases. However, a countervailing conservationist philosophy sunk roots deep into the economic considerations of the day when in 1898, Gifford Pinchot, a Yale University graduate trained in forestry in France, became the country’s first professional forester. Pinchot, who could be considered the father of the wise-use movement that began in the late 1980s, believed forests could be managed sustainably for economic development purposes. His approach became the dominant force in natural resource policy throughout the 1900s in part due to his close association with the nation’s twenty-sixth president, Theodore Roosevelt.

In 1892, Pinchot was managing the Biltmore Estate in North Carolina. When William Seward Webb visited and observed some of Pinchot’s ideas there, he invited him to try some of his forest-management methods at Nehasane Park, Webb’s Adirondack estate. Pinchot tried a light, selective cut there with attention to the recreational purposes behind the estate’s creation. Webb liked the result, and other large landowners in the area began to hire Pinchot to manage their wilderness. In this way, the rationale for professional forestry of the day—that manipulated land was superior to nature’s random processes and thus more valuable—was adopted on some private lands within the Adirondack region (Thompson, 1963, 17).

The seeds of the New York State laws that kept the Adirondacks forever wild were in fundamental opposition to the professional premise of forestry: that there was value in unmanipulated nature, a value transcending any that might be produced by human intervention (Thompson, 1963, 18). Most notable of Pinchot’s heritage is the controversy over Hetch Hetchy Valley, located in Yosemite National Park.

This event is regarded as a sort of Alamo by wilderness lovers. In contrast, the laws creating Adirondack State Park and later Catskill Forest Preserves in New York State are shining examples of what preservationists consider enlightened environmental policy. The story is long, heartbreaking, and complex, and destroyed a friendship based on admiration. It epitomizes the bandwidth of environmental policy in the early 1900s.

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Assignment代写：Renaissance Italian hedonism

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的assignment代写范文- Renaissance Italian hedonism，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了文艺复兴时期意大利的享乐之风。在中世纪早期的欧洲，禁欲主义压倒一切，世俗享乐被压制在一定范围。后来在宗教改革运动和人文主义思想的不断冲击下，意大利开始进入一个承前启后的繁荣期。思想的转变、经济的发展使得民众的生活水平和生活态度与以往相比有了很大的转变，而享受生活、追求快乐的风气在社会的每个角落蔓延，人们将自己视为单独的个体，把享乐、欲望看成是人的本性和自然加以推崇。

In early medieval Europe, asceticism prevailed, and worldly pleasures were suppressed to a certain extent. Under the constant impact of the religious reform movement and humanism, the Italian society has entered a period of prosperity. The change of thinking and the development of economy have greatly changed people's living standard and attitude compared with the past. The atmosphere of enjoying life and pursuing happiness has spread in every corner of the society.

"Hedonism" mainly refers to the concept of life that people show in social life with excessive pursuit of physical and mental enjoyment, satisfying secular desires and giving full play to people's natural attributes as the value goal. Early medieval Christian belief and asceticism, as a way of life, were greatly impacted by humanism. People began to think of themselves as individuals and to praise pleasure and desire as human nature and nature. Italians ushered in an era of luxury and sensual desire.

Hedonism, as a value concept, existed in ancient Greece. In ancient Greece, the development of human civilization gave birth to the idea of enjoying life and a happy life. The enjoyment and worship of the happy life of the ancient greeks led to the emergence of hedonism. The ancient Greek theory of happiness was that only spiritual happiness was permanent, stable and profound. Epicurus, the earliest hedonist thinker, once said that happiness is the beginning and end of a happy life. All choices should be based on happiness. He thinks that the purpose of life is to pursue happiness. The hedonism advocated by Epicurus emphasizes the happiness of the body or the senses, which is the origin and basis of all happiness. Even wisdom and culture must satisfy this joy. Hedonists are active in the pursuit of happiness and do everything possible to harvest the fruits of it.

The medieval asceticism was opposite to the ancient Greek hedonism. The religious doctrine of original sin classified human desire and emotion as the representation of original sin, and advocated absolute rationality, rejecting desire and emotion. Ascetic people believe that only by abandoning physical enjoyment and worldly happiness, believing in god, can they be saved by the soul. This ascetic view of life requires people to abandon all worldly pleasures, especially sensual ones. With the economic recovery and the spread of humanism, this ascetic outlook on life has been gradually replaced and broken. Humanism advocates the secular culture with people and nature as objects, advocates the humanitarian spirit, the people-centered secular movement without god as the center, and breaks the asceticism completely. Known as one of the "three heroes of literature," Dante was the first Renaissance man to affirm that "man is a free man." In the theory of free will, vallaye argues that everyone has his own freedom of thought. Only independent human freedom can create miracles on earth and bring benefits to people. However, those ascetic and mysterious illusions can only lead to the death of human beings.

In the early medieval period, even in the feudal society, the material wealth of society was not enough, and the material conditions for the prevailing wind of pleasure were not enough. The humanist movement brought drastic changes to European society, and the urban lifestyle was pushed to the forefront. In terms of the overall structure of society, after the 13th century, cities dominated by industry and commerce came into being or came back to life one after another, which eroded the agricultural natural economy of the great unification of the past. The aristocracy dominated by inherited manor farming also began to operate the commodity economy, and people began to have urban life similar to that of Greece and Rome. Such an unprecedented new class of citizens has stepped onto the historical stage with a new look, and the modern city has emerged in various major cities of Italy. The rapid development of economy and the increase of wealth provide material security for people's enjoyment.

Periodic plague outbreaks in the 14th and 15th centuries increased the cult of hedonism. The black death caused a great touch to people. The love of Christ and the occurrence of plague caused the survivors to reorient their way of life and re-examine the value of life. In the death fear, they aroused people's appreciation of the right to life in a variety of ways. Five generations of experience brought by the black death fear and anxiety, the florentines decided to strive for in the real pleasure in time, whether it's polite aristocratic or civilians surrounded by one of the most fanatical carnalism, luxury, drinking, voluptuousness, like in the carnival and thank the meat section festival but also pushed the hedonism to acme.

The accumulation of wealth has made people's life very different from the frugality and abstinence in the middle ages. Luxury and enjoyment have become new life goals. In such a social environment, many people are more deeply and directly pursuing happiness and enjoying secular life than ever before. The Italian people's clothes, food and housing have all changed dramatically with the aim of enjoying life and pursuing happiness.

Asceticism is under attack, and the belief in openness and freedom is being strengthened. Enjoying life and satisfying one's own needs are the things that everyone has to think about. Clothing, which can reflect the personal aesthetic and wealth status of the carrier, in the transition period by people to play the most incisive. As boccaccio said, showing off, dressing up and realizing every desire of an individual seems to be the most correct goal in life. Aldanzio has described the following details of Italian dressing: "the milanese are always dressed beautifully", "the neapolitans are extremely luxurious in their clothes", and "ferrara and mantua pay great attention to the golden cap". In the 15th and 16th centuries, the great wealth brought by Florence's developed economy led its nobles to increasingly advocate luxurious and exquisite lifestyle. Young men spend their time and money gambling and women doing nothing all day. They are no less fastidious about clothes than women's make-up, with close-fitting long-sleeved clothes, colorful stockings, flat-topped hats of strange shapes and colors, velvet leotards, and silky hemlines and necklines, and accessories such as gloves and shoes often laced with lace. Lorenzo's brother, giuliano, spent 8,000 ducats on his clothes at a tournament. Women's clothing is extremely luxurious. They are made of velvet or silks and furs, often decorated with expensive herbs and jewelry, with delicate pleats, lace skirts and collars. Many rich people also like to decorate the collar of their clothes with different shapes such as leaf shape and star shape and ornaments of different materials such as gold plating, silver plating and porcelain glaze. We can see such luxury accessories in many portraits at that time. As a model for the murals in the monastery of Santa maria novella, she wore a gorgeous pink silk coat inlaid with Venus and a white silk smock embroidered with pomegranates and flowers. The generosity and generosity of Italians in the aspect of clothing consumption fully reflects the affirmation and pursuit of self-consciousness and self-value of people after the break of the shackles of traditional Christian thought, and their preference for luxurious clothes satisfies their desire for secular enjoyment.

Since the 13th century, the diet structure of the Italian people has changed significantly, the food variety has changed from single to rich, the quality has changed from coarse to fine, the cooking technology is more exquisite, the tableware is more exquisite and practical, the dining method is more elegant, the banquet guests pay more attention to the rehearsal. Before the humanist movement, the food in Italy was relatively simple, but after that, people's diet gradually developed to exquisite, extravagant and wasteful, and the diet of residents added many spices and sugar from Arabia, almonds, pistachios, rice, dates and other ingredients. By this time, Italians had begun to understand how to drink mineral water to make their diet more meaty and greasy, and began to drink wine to quench thirst caused by the spices in delicious food. Once considered a luxury food, sugar became a popular food in the 15th century. "No banquet has ever used sugar in any way in large quantities," says pencheroos. Rhubarb, dried fruit, pines and other spices, as well as sugar, make the world a happy place. People drink sugar water instead of pure water, salt is not used as frequently as sugar, and meat, fish and eggs are added with sugar. In other countries and regions of Western Europe at the same time, sugar was still a luxury that only a few aristocrats or wealthy merchants had access to. The trend of people's enjoyment and luxury in food consumption is more prominent in Venice, Florence and other large cities with rapid development. The nobles of Venice had a high demand for food and drink. Due to their geographical advantage, they could easily enjoy the luxuries and spices of the east. When the noble families held the banquet, they only accepted the most exquisite delicacies. In 1460 Venice also banned the consumption of more than half the dugats per person. The variety and luxury of people's food reflect the improvement of people's living standards and the profound influence of social enjoyment on Italian thoughts and lifestyle.

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