#Vacuum Impregnation Plant manufacturer

[harshdakadam]

High-Vacuum Transformer Oil Filtration and Dehydration Plants by AR Engineering

Welcome to AR Engineering, your trusted partner in high-vacuum transformer oil filtration and dehydration plants. As a leading manufacturer in India, we pride ourselves on delivering high-quality solutions that ensure the optimal performance and longevity of your transformers. Our products are designed to meet the diverse needs of industries worldwide, offering efficiency, reliability, and superior performance.

High-Vacuum Transformer Oil Filtration Manufacturer in India

At AR Engineering, we specialize in the manufacture of high-vacuum transformer oil filtration systems. Our state-of-the-art systems are designed to remove impurities, moisture, and gases from transformer oil, ensuring its purity and enhancing the performance of your transformers. As a top high-vacuum transformer oil filtration manufacturer in India, we are committed to providing solutions that meet the highest industry standards.

High Vacuum Oil Filter Machines

Our high vacuum oil filter machines are engineered to handle a wide range of oil purification tasks, ensuring the purity and efficiency of the oil used in your equipment. We are proud to be a leading high vacuum oil filter machines manufacturer in Pune, offering products that are built to last and perform under the most demanding conditions. Our machines are also available from top suppliers in Pune, ensuring easy access to our cutting-edge technology.

Vacuum Pressure Impregnation Plant Manufacturers

AR Engineering is renowned for its expertise in vacuum pressure impregnation plant manufacturing. Our plants are designed to seal porous materials, preventing the ingress of contaminants and enhancing the durability of components. As leading vacuum pressure impregnation plant manufacturers, we provide solutions that cater to the needs of various industries, including automotive, electrical, and aerospace.

Vacuum Impregnation Plant Manufacturer

We are a premier vacuum impregnation plant manufacturer, offering high-quality solutions that ensure the reliability and longevity of your components. Our vacuum impregnation plants are designed to meet the specific needs of our clients, providing efficient and effective impregnation processes.

Wholesale Pressure Impregnation Plant Suppliers

As wholesale pressure impregnation plant suppliers, we offer a range of high-quality products at competitive prices. Our pressure impregnation plants are designed to deliver consistent performance, ensuring the optimal impregnation of materials and the prevention of contamination.

Batch Type Trickle Impregnating Machine

Our batch type trickle impregnating machines are designed for efficient and precise impregnation processes. These machines are ideal for applications that require consistent and controlled impregnation, ensuring the reliability and durability of the components.

Index Type Trickle Impregnating Machine

The index type trickle impregnating machine from AR Engineering offers advanced features and superior performance. This machine is designed for high-precision impregnation processes, ensuring the uniform application of impregnants and enhancing the quality of the finished products.

Vacuum / Pressure Impregnation Plants Manufacturer Exporter, Supplier, Satara, Maharashtra, India

As a leading vacuum/pressure impregnation plants manufacturer, exporter, and supplier based in Satara, Maharashtra, India, AR Engineering is committed to delivering top-notch solutions to clients worldwide. Our plants are designed to meet the highest industry standards, ensuring efficient and effective impregnation processes.

Vacuum Impregnation Plants Manufacturer in Pune

We are a prominent vacuum impregnation plants manufacturer in Pune, offering a range of high-quality products that cater to the specific needs of our clients. Our plants are designed for efficiency, reliability, and superior performance, ensuring the optimal impregnation of materials.

Vacuum Impregnation Plants Manufacturer in India

As a leading vacuum impregnation plants manufacturer in India, AR Engineering is dedicated to providing solutions that meet the diverse needs of industries across the country. Our plants are built to deliver consistent and reliable performance, ensuring the optimal impregnation of components.

Vacuum Pressure Impregnation Plant Supplier in Pune

We are a trusted vacuum pressure impregnation plant supplier in Pune, offering high-quality products that are designed to meet the specific needs of our clients. Our plants are built to deliver efficient and effective impregnation processes, ensuring the reliability and durability of your components.

Vacuum Pressure Impregnation Plant Supplier in India

As a leading vacuum pressure impregnation plant supplier in India, AR Engineering offers a range of high-quality products that cater to the diverse needs of industries across the country. Our plants are designed for efficiency, reliability, and superior performance, ensuring the optimal impregnation of materials.

Vacuum Pressure Impregnation Plant Exporter in India

As an established vacuum pressure impregnation plant exporter in India, we deliver high-quality products to clients worldwide. Our plants are designed to meet international standards, ensuring they perform effectively in various industrial environments.

Vacuum Pressure Impregnation Plant Exporter in Pune

We are a reputable vacuum pressure impregnation plant exporter in Pune, offering top-notch solutions to clients around the world. Our plants are built to deliver reliable and consistent results, ensuring the optimal impregnation of materials and the prevention of contamination.

[digitalkaustubh20]

Vacuum Pressure Impregnation Plant Manufacturer in Maharashtra | AR Engineering

Are you seeking a reliable solution to enhance the durability and performance of your electrical components? Vacuum Pressure Impregnation (VPI) might be just what you need. This advanced method significantly improves insulation properties by effectively penetrating even the smallest voids within your equipment.

At our vacuum pressure impregnation plant, we offer state-of-the-art technology to ensure the highest quality results. Here's why you should consider VPI for your next project:

Enhanced Insulation: VPI thoroughly impregnates winding and components, ensuring no air pockets or voids are left, which can compromise insulation.

Extended Equipment Life: With better insulation, your equipment is protected from moisture, chemicals, and other environmental factors that can lead to deterioration.

Improved Mechanical Strength: The impregnation process strengthens your components, allowing them to withstand high voltages and mechanical stress with ease.

Energy Efficiency: Well-impregnated components often exhibit reduced losses, which can contribute to lower energy consumption and cost savings.

If you want your electrical components to be more durable, efficient, and resilient, our vacuum pressure impregnation plant offers the solution. Let us help you extend the life and performance of your equipment with cutting-edge VPI technology.

[keroneeng]

Impregnation Plants

Kerone Impregnation Plants are commercial systems for enhancing the characteristics of porous materials like wood by impregnating them with a liquid or chemical. The impregnating agent, which might be a preservative, adhesive, dye, resin, or other sorts of chemicals, penetrates and saturates the material during the impregnating process.

[castresindry]

Require the Best Three Phase Auto Transformers – Buy from Us!

Three Phase Auto Transformers are special types of transformers used to transfer electrical power from one three-phase source to another three-phase source. They are typically used to match the voltage of one source to the voltage of the other source. 

It is the Electrical Transformer that manufactures top-class Three Phase Auto Transformers for the betterment of various industries, institutes, enterprises, and public interests. 

Why Choose Our Three Phase Auto Transformers?

Three Phase Auto Transformers are a great choice for applications. In short, the following points will explain why should a customer prefer the products from the Three Phase Auto Transformers: 

Cost-effective and efficient

Reliable power source 

Possess a wide variety of applications, including industrial, commercial, and residential settings. 

Reducing the space of the installation

Cheaper to install 

Choose OurBest Dry Type Transformers

At Electrical-Transformer, a client will get these types of Dry Type Transformers at the beneficial pricing: 

Open Wound Transformers.

These types of transformers require pre-heat. Once heated, dipping is possible at an elevated temperature within the varnish. The curing of varnish is possible with the baking of these coils. That’s why these transformers have a common method, i.e., the dip-and-bake method.

Vacuum Pressure Impregnated (VPI) Transformers.

It carries the specialty of function with high-temperature insulation. These transformers are coming with high-temperature materials with a layer of polyester sealants. These types of sealants are friendly with moisture and higher temperature. 

Vacuum Pressure Encapsulated (VPE) Transformers.

These types of transformers are much identical to the manufacturing designs of VPI. We have followed the best ideas to construct these types of transformers without any consequences. Each VPE transformer comes under the resin coating and goes through deep processes, and resin coating. 

Cast Coil Resin Transformers.

The use of conductor coils and solidly cast is the characteristic of the resin transformers. These products are useful in mining industries, cranes, ships, and nuclear plants.

[raychemrpgblogs]

Experience The World Of Transformers At Raychem RPG

In its quest to brighten and transform the face of Indian subcontinent is the burgeoning Transformer SBU of Raychem RPG. This strategic business unit has earned an unmatched reputation for its product quality and service. Transformer SBU has two state-of-the-art manufacturing plants at Chakan, near Pune in Maharashtra and Nalagarh near Chandigarh in Himachal Pradesh.

Transformer Sbu Has Grown From Strength To Strength With

A. Proven expertise in DESIGN and customized solutions  B. Strong Vendor base with strong supply chain management system  C. Effective ERP network D. Accredited with ISO: 9001 – 2008, ISO: 14001 – 2004 and OHSAS: 18001-2007 certification

Transformer Sbu Has Three Product Segments 1. Transformers Industrial & Distribution

A. Cast Resin Transformers(CRT) upto 10MVA 33kV Class B. Vacuum Pressure Impregnated (VPI)Transformers upto 5MVA 11kV Class C. Oil Filled Transformers upto 25MVA 132kV Class with special applications D. Deltaformer – Energy Efficient Distribution Transformers

2. Flat and Triangular insulated Busbars used in switchgears and transformers 3. Epoxy Cast Current and Potential Transformers upto 33kV

Read more at https://www.raychemrpg.com/blog/products/experience-the-world-of-transformers-at-raychem-rpg

[sa179tubes]

Graphite block heat exchanger

Graphite block heat exchangers are suitable for the heating, cooling, evaporation, condensation, and absorption of highly corrosive liquid chemicals. It is one of the most versatile types of impervious graphite heat exchangers. The process and service channels are formed by drilling rows of holes horizontally and vertically through graphite blocks. Heat is transferred by conduction through the impervious graphite left between the rows of holes that separate the media. Graphite block heat exchangers consist of a stack of blocks enclosed in a steel shell.

Why Use Graphite in Heat Exchangers?

Due to its thermal and physical properties, graphite is an excellent heat transfer medium. These are some of its advantages:

Exceptional thermal conductivity

Easily machined

Capable of withstanding system stresses

Superior corrosion resistance

Low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)

High operational safety

Long service life

Benefits Of Graphite Block Heat Exchanger

High corrosion resistance of Graphilor® 3

Compactness

Robustness

Modular design

Easy maintenance

Long lifetime

Service and maintenance in the US with two strategically located facilities

Manufacturing plant in the US

Materials

Impervious graphite: GAB GPX1, GPX1T or GPX2

Shell, Pressure plates and flanges: carbon steel or stainless steel

Tie rods, nuts, bolts, washers, springs: stainless steel

PTFE gaskets between the blocks

Design

Totally modular design: number of blocks, size of blocks and number of passes can be adjusted

Different drilling diameters on process and service sides

Maximum block diameter: 900 mm

Graphite nozzles on product side

Thermal expansion compensation ensured by tie rods and helical springs

Key Features

Design pressure: -1 barg (full vacuum) to +10 barg (145 psig)

Design temperature: -60 to +200°C (-76 to 392°F)

Heat transfer area: up to 163 m2 (1755 ft2)

Design:  according to European PED, ASME code, Chinese Pressure Vessel code and other national pressure vessel codes on request

Key Benefits

Outstanding corrosion resistance on one side or on both sides

Good heat transfer performance thanks to adjustable cross sections on both sides

Large transfer areas and comparatively low pressure drop on the product side

Easy disassembly and ability to mechanically clean each block

Impregnation before machining ensures resin free surfaces

Single or double-row drillings on product side

High operational safety

Sturdy and modular design

Short lead time

Long lifetime

Optional features

Removable headers for easy mechanical cleaning

Rubber lined, glass lined or PTFE lined shell for corrosive fluids on shell side

Protection against abrasion

Sight glass

Main applications

Cooling, condensation, heating, evaporation and absorption of ultra-corrosive chemicals

Heat transfer between two ultra-corrosive chemicals

Best suited for single purpose units

Types of Graphite Heat Exchangers for Corrosive Environments

Graphite heat exchangers are available in many designs and configurations to suit different heat transfer processes. These include:

Shell and Tube Graphite Heat Exchangers

Imperative shell and tube heat exchangers are engineered for superior reliability and longevity. When compared to other graphite heat exchangers, they offer exceptional performance and a low initial cost, resulting in an excellent lifetime return on investment. The large cross-sectional area makes them ideal for low pressure and fouling applications.

Multi-Blox Graphite Heat Exchangers

Our Multi-BloxTM heat exchanger features some of the longest graphite composite blocks in the industry. The design reduces the need for gaskets, eliminates leak paths, and minimises point loading. With a maximum operating pressure of 150 PSIG, they are designed for non-stop service.

Cubic Block Graphite Heat Exchangers

The most efficient cubic block heat exchangers on the market with the highest heat transfer capabilities in the smallest area are available from us. They are easy to clean and maintain, and they are exceptionally durable. They are therefore ideal for interchange service and high-fouling applications.

To find out more about this article, please click here : https://sa179tubes.com/graphite-block-heat-exchanger/ 

#sa179 #satubes #steelpipe #steeltubes #SA179Tubes #SA179TUBES

[360smesolution]

Vacuum Pressure Impregnation Plant In India - AR ENGINEERING

http://hydraulicoilfiltrationmachine.com/vacuum-pressure-impregnation-plant.html

[kunalshekhar89]

[market-researchm]

Global Prepreg Market Analysis, Share, Overview And Forecast To 2024

The global Prepreg Market is projected to reach USD 12.48 billion by 2024 owing to the rise in the demand for high-performing and lightweight Prepreg in the industries like defense, aerospace, wind energy, and sporting goods. Prepreg is also known as reinforcing fabric that has been pre-impregnated by a resin system. The resin system by default contains the proper curing agent which helps the Prepreg to get molded with no further resin addition. To cure the laminate, it is important to use a combination of heat and pressure. The regulatory standards stressing the use of fuel-efficient and lightweight materials are expected to rise the Prepreg Market with a CAGR of 10.0% in the forecast period.

Besides the traditional hand layup, Prepreg comprises several benefits like it holding maximum strength properties. It is difficult to obtain half amount of resin in a hand layup. This means that the laminate weight consists of resin and fabric equally. The customary hand laminates with vacuum bags result in a sizeable amount of extra resin. Extra resin reduces overall properties and increases brittleness. Conversely, the Prepregs include approximately 35% resin, which is perfect for curing properties.

Constant thickness is observed in the hand laminates and every releasing part is probably similar. This might encourage more errors in the handling, vacuum bagging methods, etc. The Prepreg avoids these deformities significantly by creating less waste and clutter. Additionally, the Prepregs are managed at warm temperatures for the easy and efficient use of resins. They also offer less curing time to be used in improved ways. The Prepreg also removes air bubbles to make the surface glossier and more smooth.

Get Free PDF Sample Copy of the Report (Including Full TOC, List of Tables & Figures) @ https://www.millioninsights.com/industry-reports/prepreg-market/request-sample

The Prepregs are specifically used by professional fabricators who wish to minimize the weight of any given product. Prepregs are mostly used in aerospace, sports goods, commercial vehicles, pressure vessels, and racing. They are used by fabricators who work with vacuum bagging and hand layups. To avoid the drawbacks of the hand layup, the Prepreg is generally not much used, even though it can be easily used, even by a beginner.

The wind capacity installations have been growing considerably across the globe due to which the Prepreg demand for the manufacturing of turbine blades is rising. The lightweight and less consuming energy feature has increased the manufacturing of turbine blades. Additionally, the cotton fiber Prepreg allows extended wind in turbines with efficient designs blade design and improves the stiffness-to-weight ratio in longer blades. The Prepreg industry is driven by these benefits that contribute to the growth of wind energy applications.

The Prepreg Market is estimated to grow significantly in the coming years with great opportunities. The speedy increase in demand for the end-use applications, competitive manufacturing costs, and noteworthy economic growth is driving the market in the Asia Pacific. These factors are also expected to encourage businesses for expanding and adopting research and development strategies in this area.

The prominent players of the Prepreg industry are stressing these regions for gaining a larger share market. The manufacturers of Prepreg are motivated to adopt expansion and acquisition strategies to offer exceptional solutions to market demand. Several market players are shifting their plants to developing economies like India and China because of the growing demand and reduced raw material and labor costs in these regions.

The Prepreg industry is categorized based on end-user industry, material, manufacturing technology, types of Prepreg, market by reinforcement, resin, and Geography. Based on the end-user industry, the market is divided into Commercial Aerospace, Military/Defense, General Aviation, Space/Satellite, Sporting Goods, Marine, Wind Energy, Automotive, Civil Engineering, etc.

Based on material, the Prepreg Market is divided into UD Prepreg and Fabric Prepreg. Based on manufacturing technology, the market is divided into Hot Melt and Solvent Dip. In terms of the type of Prepreg, the Market is divided into Thermoset Prepreg and Thermoplastic Prepreg. On the grounds of the market by reinforcement, the market is divided into Carbon Fiber, Glass Fiber, and Aramid Fiber. Based on Resin, the industry is divided into Epoxy, BMI, Phenolic, Cyanate Ester, and Thermoplastics.

Geographically, the Prepreg industry is segmented as North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, and the rest world. Owing to the growing demand from the aerospace and other end-user industry, North America is predicted to dominate the market share. The market players profiled here are Cytec Solvay Group, Celanese, Mitsubishi Rayon (MRC), Toray, Hexcel, and Teijin.

Access Full Research Report @ https://www.millioninsights.com/industry-reports/prepreg-market

[harshdakadam]

Advanced Trickle Impregnation Technique by AR Engineering

Welcome to AR Engineering, the forefront innovator in Trickle Impregnation Techniques. Our cutting-edge technology and exceptional service have made us a leading manufacturer, supplier, and exporter of Trickle Impregnation Techniques in Pune and across India. Our solutions cater to various industries, ensuring the durability and reliability of components through efficient impregnation processes.

What is the Trickle Impregnation Technique?

The Trickle Impregnation Technique is a sophisticated process used to enhance the durability and performance of electrical components by impregnating them with varnish or resin. This method ensures uniform coating, improved insulation, and enhanced resistance to environmental factors, making it ideal for applications in the automotive, electrical, and aerospace industries.

Trickle Impregnation Technique in Pune

As pioneers of the Trickle Impregnation Technique in Pune, AR Engineering offers advanced solutions that meet the specific needs of our clients. Our state-of-the-art facilities and expert team ensure the delivery of top-quality impregnation services, guaranteeing optimal performance and longevity of components.

Trickle Impregnation Technique in India

AR Engineering is proud to be a leading provider of the Trickle Impregnation Technique in India. Our comprehensive solutions are designed to cater to the diverse needs of industries across the country. We utilize the latest technology and adhere to the highest quality standards to deliver exceptional results.

Varnishing Machines

Our range of varnishing machines is designed to provide efficient and precise varnish application. These machines ensure uniform coating, enhancing the insulation properties and overall performance of electrical components. Our varnishing machines are built to deliver consistent and reliable results, making them an essential part of the impregnation process.

Batch Type Trickle Impregnating Machine

The Batch Type Trickle Impregnating Machine from AR Engineering is engineered for high-efficiency impregnation processes. This machine is ideal for applications requiring consistent and controlled impregnation, ensuring the reliability and durability of the components.

Index Type Trickle Impregnating Machine

Our Index Type Trickle Impregnating Machine offers advanced features and superior performance for high-precision impregnation processes. This machine ensures the uniform application of impregnants, enhancing the quality and longevity of the finished products.

Vacuum / Pressure Impregnation Plants Manufacturer Exporter, Supplier, Satara, Maharashtra, India

As a leading manufacturer, exporter, and supplier of vacuum/pressure impregnation plants based in Satara, Maharashtra, India, AR Engineering is dedicated to delivering top-notch solutions to clients worldwide. Our plants are designed to meet the highest industry standards, ensuring efficient and effective impregnation processes.

Manufacturer of Trickle Impregnation Technique

AR Engineering is a renowned manufacturer of the Trickle Impregnation Technique. Our expertise and state-of-the-art facilities enable us to produce high-quality impregnation systems that meet the specific needs of our clients. We are committed to delivering solutions that enhance the performance and reliability of electrical components.

Supplier of Trickle Impregnation Technique

As a leading supplier of the Trickle Impregnation Technique, AR Engineering offers a range of products and services that cater to the diverse needs of our clients. Our solutions are designed to provide efficient and reliable impregnation processes, ensuring the optimal performance of components.

Exporter of Trickle Impregnation Technique

AR Engineering is an established exporter of the Trickle Impregnation Technique, delivering high-quality solutions to clients around the world. Our impregnation systems are built to international standards, ensuring they perform effectively in various industrial environments.

For more information about our products and services, visit our website at http://conserveyouroil.com/trickle-impregnation-technique.html

[technicallydeliciouspainter]

How to Choose a Transformer: Dry Type vs. Oil Cooled

Transformers are common and useful devices which take high voltage electricity directly from a power station and convert it to a lower voltage. This allows the energy to be safely and efficiently used by machinery and appliances that can only handle low voltage in spaces such as offices, transportation hubs, schools and factories.

Through this process transformers generate a lot of heat that must be dissipated to keep them running safely. There are two types of transformers being used in the industry currently: Dry-type transformers and oil-cooled transformers. Dry-type uses air as a cooling medium, and liquid cooled uses oil. Although both types have the same end result there are a number of differences between them worth noting, that will affect which type you choose.

Maintenance: Oil cooled transformers required more maintenance procedures, which must be performed more often than dry-type. The oil needs to be sampled to test for contamination, whereas dry type transformer is very resistant to chemical contaminants.

Costs (Initial and Operating): Compared to oil cooled, dry type has a significantly higher operating loss. Oil filled transformers have a higher standard energy efficiency, and as a result have a higher lifespan than dry type.

Noise: Oil cooled transformers have a lower operating sound level, thus less noise pollution than dry-type.

Recyclability: The end of life recycling for dry type is limited, while oil units boast an easier core/coil reclamation. Oil cooled have superior operating life and maintainability, producing less waste and requiring less replacements and labor.

Efficiency: Dry type transformers are larger units, limited in voltage and size, making them more prone to overheating if they experience overload. As a result, they have higher electrical losses, and it is more expensive to maintain dry type power supply over time. Oil cooled units are smaller and more efficient. They require less demand and create a smaller environmental footprint.

Voltage Capabilities: Dry type transformers are designed to handle small to medium MVA and voltage ratings, making them ideal for smaller applications. Oil cooled transformers can handle heavier loads, so applications that require higher voltages will require oil units.

Location: Location of the transformer will be the biggest determinant for which type you will need. Dry type is specified for use in buildings and near buildings, simply because they are environmentally safer. Dry type transformers are less flammable and pose less of a fire risk, making them ideal for shopping malls, hospitals, residential complexes and other commercial areas. Oil cooled transformers are used in outdoor installations due to the possibility of oil leakage and spills which pose a fire risk, but these units are more environmentally friendly.

Taking these variables into account, oil units appear to be the better option overall with higher energy efficiency, recyclability, low noise pollution, lower operational costs and a small environmental foot print. However, oil units simply cannot be used in any situation. Dry type is the best and many times, required option for commercial and indoor operations, because they are safer units to operate around people and areas where fire hazards may exist.

Types of transformer

Oil Immersed Transformer

As the name suggests the coils in this type of transformers are immersed in oil (mostly mineral oil) which helps in keeping the temperature of the transformer under control. This oil type transformer dissipates the through the radiators which are attached on the tank of the transformer and are referred to as ONAN type transformer. To further improve the cooling of the transformer the radiators are installed with fans which helps in bringing down the temperature and referred to as ONAF type transformer. This type of transformer can reach high voltage capacity, in some cases 1000kV.

Dry Type Transformer

In this type of transformer, air is used as the cooling medium. They are made using vacuum pressure impregnation in polyester or silicone varnish. Some of them are also made using VPI epoxy and cast resin for tougher environmental conditions. Since they are limited with regards to cooling aspect the maximum voltage is limited up to 35kV.

Switchgear

Switchgear is electrical distribution equipment: it accepts power from a source, routes it to a number of outputs and provides overcurrent protection and control functions. Of the types of distribution equipment described in the NFPA 70: National Electrical Code Article 408: Switchboards, Switchgear and Panelboards, switchgear is generally the most robustly constructed, the largest and the most expensive. It’s typically applied in high-reliability facilities, like hospitals or data centers, where continuity of power is critical to effective operation.

Switchgear is available in a wide range of voltage ratings, from below 1,000 volts to more than 200 kilovolts. Medium-voltage switchgear, rated above 1,000 volts, is manufactured by producers in a variety of configurations. Assemblies are available for exterior padmount installation, vault installation or installed in dedicated freestanding metal buildings, with air, gas, vacuum or oil as insulating media. This discussion will focus on interior low-voltage switchgear.

The alternative to switchgear is switchboard construction. Switchboards generally require less space and are less expensive. Both are typically constructed of a number of vertical sections. Each section is enclosed in sheet metal, with openings in front for overcurrent protection devices, monitoring equipment and control devices. A section may contain a main overcurrent protection device, metering devices, automatic control and monitoring systems, overcurrent protection devices for distribution feeders or a combination of these or other equipment specific to the installation. Overcurrent protection is typically accomplished with circuit breakers, with fused switches are less frequently.

Electric power substation

An assembly of equipment in an electric power system through which electrical energy is passed for transmission, distribution, interconnection, transformation, conversion, or switching. See Electric power systems

Specifically, substations are used for some or all of the following purposes: connection of generators, transmission or distribution lines, and loads to each other; transformation of power from one voltage level to another; interconnection of alternate sources of power; switching for alternate connections and isolation of failed or overloaded lines and equipment; controlling system voltage and power flow; reactive power compensation; suppression of overvoltage; and detection of faults, monitoring, recording of information, power measurements, and remote communications. Minor distribution or transmission equipment installation is not referred to as a substation.

Substations are referred to by the main duty they perform. Broadly speaking, they are classified as: transmission substations, which are associated with high voltage levels; and distribution substations, associated with low voltage levels. See Electric distribution systems

Substations are also referred to in a variety of other ways:

1. Transformer substations are substations whose equipment includes transformers.

2. Switching substations are substations whose equipment is mainly for various connections and interconnections, and does not include transformers.

3. Customer substations are usually distribution substations on the premises of a larger customer, such as a shopping center, large office or commercial building, or industrial plant.

4. Converter stations are complex substations required for high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission or interconnection of two ac systems which, for a variety of reasons, cannot be connected by an ac connection. The main function of converter stations is the conversion of power from ac to dc and vice versa. The main equipment includes converter valves usually located inside a large hall, transformers, filters, reactors, and capacitors.

5. Most substation is installed as air-insulated substations, implying that the bus-bars and equipment terminations are generally open to the air, and utilize insulation properties of ambient air for insulation to ground. Modern substations in urban areas are esthetically designed with low profiles and often within walls, or even indoors.

6. Metal-clad substations are also air-insulated, but for low voltage levels; they are housed in metal cabinets and may be indoors or outdoors.

7. Acquiring a substation site in an urban area is very difficult because land is either unavailable or very expensive. Therefore, there has been a trend toward increasing use of gas-insulated substations, which occupy only 5–20% of the space occupied by the air-insulated substations. In gas-insulated substations, all live equipment and bus-bars are housed in grounded metal enclosures, which are sealed and filled with sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) gas, which has excellent insulation properties.

8. For emergency replacement or maintenance of substation transformers, mobile substations are used by some utilities.

An appropriate switching arrangement for “connections” of generators, transformers, lines, and other major equipment is basic to any substation design. There are seven switching arrangements commonly used: single bus; double bus, single breaker; double bus, double breaker; main and transfer bus; ring bus; breaker-and-a-half; and breaker-and-a-third. Each breaker is usually accompanied by two disconnect switches, one on each side, for maintenance purposes. Selecting the switching arrangement involves considerations of cost, reliability, maintenance, and flexibility for expansion.

A substation includes a variety of equipment. The principal items are transformers, circuit breakers, disconnect switches, bus-bars, shunt reactors, shunt capacitors, current and potential transformers, and control and protection equipment. See Circuit breaker, Electric protective devices, Electric switch, Relay, Transformer

Good substation grounding is very important for effective relaying and insulation of equipment; but the safety of the personnel is the governing criterion in the design of substation grounding. It usually consists of a bare wire grid, laid in the ground; all equipment grounding points, tanks, support structures, fences, shielding wires and poles, and so forth, are securely connected to it. The grounding resistance is reduced enough that a fault from high voltage to ground does not create such high potential gradients on the ground, and from the structures to ground, to present a safety hazard. Good overhead shielding is also essential for outdoor substations, so as to virtually eliminate the possibility of lightning directly striking the equipment. Shielding is provided by overhead ground wires stretched across the substation or tall grounded poles. See Grounding, Lightning and surge protection

[biomedgrid]

Biomed Grid | Histological Study of Effect of Ethanol Stem Extracts of Homalium Letestui in Paracetamol Induced Injury in Albino Rat, Using Various Staining Techniques

Abstract

Introduction/Aim: The use of medicinal plants has attained a commanding role in health system all over the world. This involves the use of medicinal plants not only for the treatment of diseases but also as potential material for maintaining good health and conditions. Many countries in the world, that is, two-third of the world’s population depends on herbal medicine for primary health care. Homalium letestui is an evergreen tree. The plant has been of immense benefit to traditional users. A bark-decoction, combined with other medicinal plants, is taken by draught for orchitis, and bark-scrapings enter a prescription given to a newly delivered woman. In this study the histological effect of the ethanol stem extract of Homalium lestetui on rat paracetamol induce liver injury was carried out using H&E and Gordon and Sweet silver impregnation Technique.

Method: Thirty-six rats where used for this work. Group one served as the positive control receiving normal saline, group two served as organotoxic group received paracetamol 2000 mg/kg body weight, group 3 received silymarin 100 mg/mg, while group 4, 5 and 6 received 250, 500 and 750 mg/kg of the extract respectively. General staining procedure Hematoxylin and Eosin and the specific staining technique, Gordon and Sweet silver impregnation Technique were carried out on the liver. Haematological and chempathological investigation were also done.

Result: In the groups pretreated with the extract there were slight areas of vacuolation, cellular degeneration, hepatocytic hyperplasia, cellular proliferation and Pyknotic nucleus compared to organotoxic group which revealed severe cellular degeneration, vascular congestion, hepatocytic hyperplasia and pyknotic nucleus in H&E stain. In Gordon and Sweet silver impregnation Technique, there were well structured reticular fibers with no obvious abnormality seen in the H. letestui administered group, while there were distortion and degeneration of the reticular fibres in the group that received paracetamol only.

Conclusion: Histological work suggests that the plant may prevent or protect the liver architecture.

Keywords: Homalium letestui; Liver; Paracetamol

Introduction

The liver is a reddish brown organ with four lobes of unequal size and shape [1]. Human liver normally weighs 1.44–1.66 kg, and is a soft, pinkish-brown, triangular organ. It is both the largest internal organ (the skin being the largest organ overall) and the largest gland in the human body. It is located in the right upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity, resting just below the diaphragm. The liver lies to the right of the stomach and overlies the gallbladder. It is connected to two large blood vessels, one called the hepatic artery and one called the portal vein. The hepatic artery carries blood from the aorta, whereas the portal vein carries blood containing digested nutrients from the entire gastrointestinal tract and also from the spleen and pancreas. These blood vessels subdivide into capillaries, which then lead to a lobule [2]. Each lobule is made up of millions of hepatic cells which are the basic metabolic cells. Lobules are the functional units of the liver [3].

The liver is a roughly triangular organ that extends across the entire abdominal cavity just inferior to the diaphragm. Most of the liver’s mass is located on the right side of the body where it descends inferiorly toward the right kidney. The peritoneum connects the liver in 4 locations: the coronary ligament, the left and right triangular ligaments, and the falciform ligament. These connections are not true ligaments in the anatomical sense; rather, they are condensed regions of peritoneal membrane that support the liver1. The wide coronary ligament connects the central superior portion of the liver to the diaphragm. Located on the lateral borders of the left and right lobes, respectively, the left and right triangular ligaments connect the superior ends of the liver to the diaphragm [1]. Homalium letestui Pellegr (Flacourtiaceae) is a tree with a long straight slender bole attaining about 27 m height, occasionally up to 33 m, and to 1 m girth, of dense rain-forest, transition, semi-deciduous, galleried and secondary forests of lowlands and foothills in Senegal to Nigeria and Fernando Po, and also into central Africa to the Congo basin.

It prefers proximity to running water. Bark sap is applied as enema and bark pulp rubbed in to treat edema. Bark decoctions are taken in mixtures to treat orchitis and as tonic for women after childbirth. Root extracts are administered to treat malaria. The tree is decorative with its showy flowers, fruits and reddish young leaves, and is sometimes planted as ornamental [4]. The Yoruba of Nigeria call on the plant in an incantation against small-pox, while the bark, finely ground to a powder, is blown by Liberian witchdoctors into a dragon’s lair to stupefy it before slaying it [5]. The aim of this work is to study the hepatoprotective potential of Homalium letestui using H&E and Gordon and sweet silver impregnation techniques.

Materials and MethodsPlants collection

Homalium letestui (stem) was collected in a forest in Uruan area, AkwaIbom State, Nigeria. It was identified and authenticated by Dr. Margaret Bassey of Department of Botany and Ecological Studies, University of Uyo, Uyo, Nigeria. Hebarium specimen (FPUU 382) was deposited at Department of Pharmacognosy and Natural Medicine Herbarium.

Extraction

The stem was washed and dried under shed for two weeks. The dried plant material was then cut into smaller pieces and grounded to powder. The powdered material was macerated in 70% ethanol. The liquid filtrate was evaporated to dryness in vacuum 40°C using rotary evaporator. The ethanol extract was stored at -4OC until used.

Animals

Adult male albino rats were obtained from the University of Uyo animal house. They were maintained on standard animal pellets and water ad libitum. Permission and approval for animal studies were obtained from the College of Health Sciences Animal Ethics committee, University of Uyo.

Animal treatment

36 rats were weighed and divided into six groups with 6 animals per group. Treatment was as follows: Group 1 consisted of normal animals that were administered with normal saline (10 ml/ kg) for eight days, Group 2, the organotoxic group, received normal saline 10 ml/kg for eight days. Group 3 served as the standard group and rats in this group were administered 100 mg/kg body weight of silymarin orally for 8 days, while groups 4, 5 and 6 were administered p.o with 250, 500 and 750 mg/kg of H. letestuistem extract respectively daily for 8 days. On the 8th day the animals in group 2-6 were administered paracetamol 2000mg/kg body weight orally. Twenty hours later all animals were weighed again and sacrificed under light diethyl ether vapour.

Hematological study

Blood samples were collected from each rat by cardiac puncture immediately after the animals were sacrificed under diethyl ether anesthesia, using 21-gauge (21 G) needles mounted on a 5 ml syringe into ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid (EDTA) - coated sample bottles for analyzed. Hematological parameters such as full blood count (FBC), hemoglobin, (Hb), packed cell volume (PCV), platelet concentration (PLC) and Total and differential white blood cell count (WBC). These parameters were analyzed using automatic hematological system.

Liver function test

Serum was separated from the blood of each animal sacrificed and the sera were stored at -20oC in a freezer until used for biochemical determinations such as total protein, albumin, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), total cholesterol, total and direct bilirubin. The determinations were done spectrophotometrically using Randox analytical kits according to standard procedures of manufacturer’s protocols [6].

Histopathological examinations

The livers were processed and stained with haematotoxylin and eosin (H&E) and by Gordon and Sweet [7] silver impregnation technique. Prepared slides of the organs were mounted on high-defination microscope. The result was interpreted by a Pathologist in the Department of Chemical Pathology, University of Uyo, Uyo. Morphological changes in the excised organs of the sacrificed animals were observed and recorded. Histologic micrographs were taken.

Statistical Analysis and Data Evaluation

Data obtained from these studies were analyzed statistically using Students’ t-test and ANOVA (One - way) followed by a post test (Tukey-Kramer multiple comparison test). Differences between means were considered significant at 5%, 1% and 0.1% level of significance i.e. P ≤ 0.05, 0.01 and 0.001.

ResultEffect of treatment with ethanol stem extract of Homalium letestui on the hematological parameters of rats with paracetamol-induced liver injury

The administration of paracetamol (2 g/kgbw) to rats did not significantly affect (p<0.05) RBC and WBC counts as well as Hemoglobin concentration, PCV and neutrophils percentages of rats (Table 1). However, there were significant (p<0.001) reductions in the percentages of lymphocytes, monocytes and eosinophils of paracetamol-treated rats, while pretreatment with H. letestui stem extract caused significant (p<0.05 -0.001) increases against reductions induced by paracetamol though in non-dose dependent fashion.

Table 1:Effect of treatment with ethanol stem extract of Homalium letestui on the hematological parameters of rats with paracetamol –induced hepato-nephrotoxicity.

Effect of stem extract on liver weight of rats with PCM- induced hepatotoxicity

The weights of rat livers treated with paracetamol were significantly (p<0.001) increased when compared to that of the control group. However, animals in groups pre-treated with the stem extract and silymarin had their weight significantly (p<0.01 – 0.001) reduced when compared to paracetamol group (Table 2).

Table 2:Effect of Homalium letestui liver function of PCM –induced liver injury in rats.

Effect of Homalium letestui stem on liver function test of paracetamol-induced liver injury in rats

Paracetamol (2 g/kg) caused a significant (p<0.001) elevation in the level of AST, ALT , ALP, total cholesterol, total and direct bilirubin and decreases in total protein and albumin levels of rats when compared to control. Pre-treatment with the stem extract of H. letestui (500 – 750 mg/kg bw) caused observable significant (p<0.01 - 0.001) decreases in enzyme levels and that of total cholesterol, total and direct bilirubin in the extract treated groups when compared with the paracetamol group. However, the decreases were dose-dependent. Total protein and albumin levels were significantly (p<0.05 - 0.001) elevated dose-dependently in the groups pre-treated with the stem extract when compared to the paracetamol group. The effects of the highest dose of the extract on all the parameters evaluated were comparable to that of silymarin (Table 3).

Table 3:Effect of Homalium letestui liver weight of PCM –induced liver injury in rats.

Histopathological studies of rat liver in paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity

Histologic section of the liver treated with normal saline (10 ml/kg) at magnification A (x100) and B(x400) stained with H&E method reveled areas of cellular profile of central vein, sinusoidal lining and numerous hepatocyte all within normal cellular architecture. The organotoxic group revealed severe cellular degeneration, vascular congestion, hepatocytic hyperplasia and pyknotic nucleus. The silymarin group was observed to show similar effect as the control group. In the groups pretreated with the extract (Groups 4 –6) there were slight areas of vacuolation, cellular degeneration, hepatocytic hyperplasia, cellular proliferation and Pyknotic nucle us (Figure 1 & 2). Gordon and Sweet silver impregnation technique revealed well structure reticular fibre, no damages or abnormality in normal control and Silymarin treated group while there were distortion and degeneration of the reticular fibres in the group that received paracetamol only while there were well structured reticular fibers with no obvious abnormality seen in the H. letestui administered group (250- 750 mg/kg bw) (Figure 3 & 4).

Figure 1:Histological sections of Livers of rats treated with Normal saline 10 ml/kg (1), Paracetamol 2000 mg/kg bw (2) and Silymarin 100 mg/ kg bw and paracetamol 2000 mg/kg bw (3) at magnification A (x100) and B(x400) stained with H&E method. Keys: CV: Central Vein; CD: Cellular Degeneration; V: Vacuolation; I: Inflammation; H: Hepatocyte; Pn: Pyknotic Nucleus; CV: Central Vein; SL: Sinusoidal Lining; HV: Hepatic Vein; Vd: Vascular Degeneration.

Figure 2:Histological sections of Livers of rats treated with Group Homalium letestui 250 mg/kg bw and Paracetamol (4), Homalium letestui500 mg/kg bw and Paracetamol 2000 mg/kg bw (5) and Homalium letestui 750 mg/kg bw and paracetamol 2000 mg/kg bw (6) at magnification A (x100) and B(x400) stained with H&E method. Keys: CV: Central Vein; V: Vacuolation; Vd: Vascular Degeneration; SL: Sinusoidal Lining; I: Inflammation, H: Hepatocyte; Pn: Pyknotic Nucleus.

Figure 3: Histological sections of Livers of rats treated with Normal saline 10 ml/kg bw (1), Paracetamol 2000 mg/kg bw (2) and Silymarin 100 mg/kg bw and paracetamol 2000 mg/kg bw (3) at magnification A (x100) and B(x400) stained with Gordon and Sweet silver impregnation technique. Keys: BD: Bile Duct; PT: Portal Triad; HA: Hepatic Artery; HV: Hepatic Vein; H: Hepatocytes; PT: Portal Triad; PTD: Portal Triad Degeneration, RF: Reticular Fiber; RFD: Reticular Fiber Degeration; RBC: Red Blood Cell.

Figure 4: Histological sections of Livers of rats treated with Homalium Letestui 250 mg/kg bw and Paracetamol (4), Homalium letestui 500 mg/ kg bw and Paracetamol 2000 mg/kg bw (5) and Homalium letestui 750 mg/kg bw and paracetamol 2000 mg/kg bw (6) at magnification A (x100) and B(x400) Gordon and Sweet silver impregnation technique. Keys: BD: Bile Duct; HA: Hepatic Artery; HV: Hepatic Vein; H: Hepatocytes; RF: Reticular Fiber; PT: Portal Triad; RBC: Red Blood Cell.

Discussion

Histology is the study of tissues, including their role in the body, their anatomy, their interaction with body systems and the ways they are affected by disease [8]. Tissues are made from large groups of cells that cluster together to complete a shared function. From tissues arise organs, and organs keep the body operating. Histology can help gain a better understanding of cell behavior and reproduction, making cellular biology more understandable [9]. Likewise, because tissues are the building blocks of virtually everything in the body, understanding histology enables students to predict and understand organ behavior and function [10]. Staining is used to highlight important features of the tissue as well as to enhance the tissue contrast. Hematoxylin is a basic dye that is commonly used in this process and stains the nuclei giving it a bluish color while eosin (another stain dye used in histology) stains the cell’s nucleus giving it a pinkish stain. However, there are other several staining techniques used for particular cells and components [11].

Result of the study showed that paracetamol did not significantly affect the haematological parameters of rats treated with it when compared to the control except reductions in the percentages of lymphocytes, monocytes and eosinophils of paracetamol-treated rats. This is an indication that there was no destruction of red blood cells and no change in the rate of production of RBC (erythropoiesis). The result also showed that paracetamol does not have the potential to induce erythropoietin release from the kidneys, which is the humoral regulator of RBC production [12]. The non-significant effect of treatment of rats with paracetamol also indicates that there was no change in the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and the amount of oxygen delivered to the tissues since RBC and haemoglobin (Hb) are very important in transferring respiratory gases [13]. It has been reported that values of RBC and associated parameters lower than normal ranges are indicative of anaemic conditions while higher values are suggestive of polycythemia. Thus, the treatment of rats with paracetamol does not have the potential to induce anaemia or polycythemia.

Also, treatment of rats with paracetamol may not have adverse effects on the bone marrow, kidney and haemoglobin metabolism, since it has been reported that only substances which significantly affect the values of red blood cells and associated parameters would have effects on the bone marrow, kidney and haemoglobin metabolism [14]. Result from the study inferred that ethanol extract of Homalium letestui at normal doses may have no toxic effect on the haematological parameters which include red blood cell count, haemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume and WBC but may stimulate the body immune system against disease or infection due to increased percentages of neutrophils, basophils, lymphocytes and monocyte as were observed in this study. Immunomodulatory activity of the stem extract of H. letestui has previously been reported [15]. There was significant improvement in the percentages of basophils and lymphocytes in groups pre-treated with extract which were significantly low in the organotoxic group. The increase maybe an immunological response by the body defence system to heal or repair injury done on the rat organ by paracetamol administration [16].

Decrease in the platelet level correlated with the study done by Shorr, Kao, Pizzo, Rauckman and Rosen [17] that normal platelet function is dependent on the production of proaggregatory thromboxane A2(TxA2) through COX-1, and acetaminophen has been shown to inhibit platelet function both in vitro and in high intravenous doses in vivo, which suggests that the plant may be able to reverse and protect against the thinning effect of paracetamol and may also decrease the risk of surgical bleeding. The effect of the extract on the platelet level of the hepatotoxic rats appeared to be biphasic, that is, the effect was optimal at median dose used in this work, beyond which the effect was reversed. This may be due to the chemical constituents of the plant and the plant maybe acting as a partial agonist. The reversal of increased serum enzyme levels in paracetamol-induced liver damage by the extract may be due to the prevention of the leakage of intracellular enzymes by its membrane stabilizing activity

Increase in serum level of ALP in the paracetamol group is due to increased synthesis, in the presence of increasing biliary pressure [18] and reflects the pathological alteration in biliary flow [19]. Therefore, an improvement in level of ALP in the pretreated rats provides a valuable indication that the plant may be useful in management and prevention of conditions such as of gallstone and cholescytitis. Paracetamol-induced toxicity in rats may have altered membrane structure and function as well as lipids metabolism in the liver as suggested by the increased cholesterol levels of rats. Alteration of bio-membrane lipid profile disturbs its fluidity, permeability, activity of associated enzymes and transport system [20] and this could affect lipid transport in the liver. This effect was reduced by the protective activity of the stem extract which reversed the level of total cholesterol, although it could not reduce it to the range of the control or that of the standard drug used in the experiment. This suggests that the extract help in preventing lipid peroxidation.

Histologically, H&E staining technique is used for general tissue structure observation. It’s mainly used for observing nucleus, cytoplasm and any other abnormality base on general tissue property. Gordon and Sweet’s silver staining method is a histological index for liver study with major focus on the reticular fiber. It is useful for demonstrating liver architecture; hepatocyte necrosis and hepatocyte regeneration through assessing the degree of fibrosis or damage to the reticular fibers [7]. In H and E staining, paracetamol caused severe cellular degeneration, vascular congestion, hepatocytic hyperplasia and pyknoptic nucleus which were much reduced in the Homalium letestui pretreated group. Gordon and Sweet silver impregnation technique revealed distortion and degeneration of the reticular fibres in paracetamol group while all extract - administered group showed well-structured reticular fibers with no obvious abnormality seen. Histology result agrees with other parameters and further confirms that the extract may exert a dose – dependent hepatoprotective effect on paracetamol - induced liver toxicity.

Okokon et al. [15] and Oyepata et al. [21] reported the presence of polyphenolic compounds such as vanillin, 2-Coumaranone, 3, 4, 5-trimethoxy phenol and 4-phenyl isocoumarin, and 4-(3-hydroxy- 1-propenyl)-2-methoxy phenol and α-Terpineol as revealed by GC - MS analysis of the dichloromethane fraction. These compounds have been reported to exhibit antioxidant activity [22-25] highlighted the importance of vanillin in combating parasite infections by acting as an antioxidant. Also, Geoffrey, Eliud, Alex, Laura and Mungiria [26] reported that α-Terpineol and furan present in Occimum americanum is responsible for antioxidant and antibacterial activities. The chemical constituent of the plant may reduce free radicals and ROS reaction with biomolecules, thus preventing the initiation of a chain reaction of free radical formation that consequently leads to tissue damage. The plant may be useful in the treatment and management of conditions like hepatitis, hepatotoxicity, liver fibrosis, cirrhosis or liver cell cancinoma.

Conclusion

Result from the study suggests that Homalium letestui possesses hepatoprotective activity on vital organs and cells in the body. The plant may be useful in the treatment and management of conditions like hepatitis, hepatotoxicity, liver fibrosis, cirrhosis or liver cell cancinoma.

Acknowledgement

The authors wish to thank everyone that contributed to the success of this work

Read More About this Article: https://biomedgrid.com/fulltext/volume4/histological-study-of-effect-of-ethanol-stem-extracts-of-homalium-letestui.000768.php

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