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juniperpublishersmaterialscience · 2 years ago

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Hydrothermal Synthesis of Co3O4 Urchin-Like and their Catalytic Properties in Co Oxidation

Authored by: Gunel Imanova

Abstract

Urchin-like nanocrystalline Co3O4 has been success fully prepared through a hydrothermal synthesis route via a simple and elegant route at low temperature, and was characterized by thermal analysis (TGA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Raman spectroscopy, nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherms and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The light-off temperature (10% conversion) of CO oxidation on Co3O4 ursin-like catalyst was at 60°C and when the temperature reaches 120°C, the CO conversion ratio reaches 100%. The high relative concentration surface-adsorbed oxygen on the Co3O4 ursin-like is highly active in CO oxidation reaction due to its higher mobility than lattice oxygen. The study it has been shown that the high catalytic activity and stability for CO oxidation can be attributed to its higher mobility than lattice oxygen. In addition, the oxide defects can adsorb and activate gaseous O2 to form active oxygen species, which is beneficial to promote the CO oxidation reaction. The as-obtained results make the Co3O4 nanomaterial possible candidate to be used as catalyst for CO oxidation.

Keywords: Hydrothermal Synthesis; Urchin-Like; Nanocrystalline Co3O4; Catalytic Properties; Oxidation

Abbreviations: TGA: Thermal Analysis; XRD: X-ray Diffraction; SEM: Scanning Electron Microscopy; XPS: X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy; CO: Carbone monoxide; TCD: Thermal Conductivity Detector; BET: Brunauer-Emmett-Teller

Introduction

Carbone monoxide (CO), emission from mobile and stationary combustion sources is harmful to the environment, one of the major air pollutants and its presence even in traces may cause serious environmental and health problems. Therefore, the elimination of CO became important, and the oxidation of CO is a promising route to cleaning the air and lowering automotive emissions. Tricobalttetraoxide (Co3O4), a typical spinel-structure transition metal oxide, shows a strong morphology-dependence in the chemical reactions such as CO oxidation [1-6], CH4combustion [7], and selective reduction of NO with NH3 [8]. For example, in 2009, it has been developed Co3O4 nanorods containing substantial amounts of exposed (110) planes exhibited superior catalytic activity for low-temperature CO oxidation to the spherical particles mainly enclosed by the (111) facets [1]. Also, Co3O4 nanotubes [9], nanosheets [3], nanowires [4], and nanocubes [10] similarly showed a distinct shape effect in CO oxidation. These results clearly confirm that controlling the morphology of nanostructured cobalt oxides is beneficial to expose more catalytically active sites.

Development of catalysts with desirable dimensions andmorphology is an interesting and challenging task owing to their improved catalytic activity and increasing applications in various fields [11-13]. Hierarchical 3D urchin-like nanostructures are promising for wastewater treatment through heterogeneous photo-catalysis because of their high surface area which facilitates catalysis by providing a larger solid-liquid interface. As can be seen from the writing information, radiation-heterogeneous forms in contact of to begin with radiation-oxidative treated zirconium and nano-zirconium oxide with water causes a alter within the sum of surface oxide film. The arrangement of an oxide film, in turn, changes the radiation-catalytic movement and physicochemical properties, which influence the dynamic parameters. One of them, the foremost delicate is the electro physical and optical properties of metal surfaces [14-22].

In this study, we report on the hydrothermal synthesis and physicochemical characterization of urchin-like nanostructures of Co3O4 with a surface area of 43m2/g and their application in the CO reaction. The nanomaterial was synthesized using PEG-400 as a template. The Co3O4 morphology proved to be stable and did not collapse after calcination at 300°C for 2h. XRD measurements showed that the Co3O4 average particle size is 44nm. The assynthesized C Co3O4 ursin-like exhibited superior catalytic activity and durability in CO oxidation at room temperature. It has been shown that when the temperature reaches to 120°C, the CO conversion ratio reaches 100%.

Experimental Details

Hydrothermal synthesis

The Co3O4 were synthesized by the typical procedures reported in the literature [23]. 0.77 mmol of CoCl2.6H2O was dissolved in distilled water (27mL), followed by the addition of 0.25 mmol of PEG-400 then 8 mL of H2O2 (30%). The solution was transferred into a Teflon-lined stainless-steel autoclave which was sealed and maintained at 100°C for 12h. The autoclave was then cooled to 25°C, 2.25 mmol of urea was added and the autoclave was heated at 150°C for 16h. The precipitate was filtered, washed several times with deionized water and ethanol until free of chloride ions (AgNO3 test) and dried overnight at 80°C under vacuum. Then, it was calcined in air at 300°C for 2h.

Characterization

TGA was performed using a Setaramsetsys 1750 apparatus at a heating rate of 2°C/min from RT to 700°C. XRD data were collected on a Panalytical X’Pert Pro diffractometer with CuK α radiation (λ = 1.5406 Å) and a graphite monochromator by applying a step scanning method (2θ range from 10 to 70°). Raman spectroscopy was performed using a Jobin-Yvon T64000 spectrometer with a laser wavelength of 785 nm and a laser power of 3m W and taken after 60 seconds of exposure. The morphology of the sample was studied using an FEI Quanta 200 Environmental SEM and H2-TPR profiles were obtained on a Micromeritics Autochem analyzer, in a Pyrex U-tube reactor and an on-line thermal conductivity detector (TCD). The calcined sample (50 mg) was first purged with an argon flow of 20 mL/min at a ramp rate of 10 °C/min to 350°C for 30 min to remove the traces of water, followed by cooling to room temperature. Then the sample was reduced by 4% vol. hydrogen and argon mixture (30 mL/min) at a temperature ramp rate of 5°C/min. The effluent gas was passed through a cooling trap to condense and collect the water produced during the reductions. The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) specific surface area, average pore diameter and pore size distributions were determined by N2- physisorption at 77K using a Micrometrics ASAP-2020 instrument.

Catalytic investigation

CO oxidation was tested in a flow reactor. Before the reactions, Co3O4 was activated at 300°C for 1h at 5%O2/He. After the sample was cooled down to room temperature, a feed gas (1%CO/20%O2/ He) was passed over the catalyst with a flow rate of 30 mL/min. 50 mg of the catalyst was heated to the desired reaction temperature and then kept for 1 hour until the catalyst reaction reached a steady state. The amounts of CO, CO2 and O2 in the inlet and outlet streams were analyzed by an online gas chromatograph. CO conversion was calculated from the measured CO concentration using the formula CO conversion = [(Coin - COout)/COin], where COin and COout were the inlet and outlet CO concentration, respectively.

Result and Discussion

Thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA)

The thermal behavior of the hydrothermally as-prepared sample was examined using TGA in order to determine the appropriate calcination temperature. As depicted in Figure 1, a sharp decrease with a total weight loss of 11.2% around 260°C which indicated that a temperature of 300°C was chosen to completely decompose of cobalt chloride carbonate hydroxide hydrate decomposed completely into Co3O4, CO2, Cl2 and H2O.

X-ray diffraction (XRD)

The diffraction patterns (XRD) are given in Figure 2. All the diffraction peaks displayed in the diffractogram (a) can be perfectly indexed to the cobalt chloride carbonate hydroxide hydrate [JCPDS 00-038-0547, Co (CO3)0.35Cl0.20(OH)1.10.1.74H2O] and those in (b) with cobalt oxide [JCPDS 01-076-1802, Co3O4]. The second XRD pattern shows that the main peaks of the final products could be indexed to a cubic phase cobalt oxide and no peaks of other phases are observed. All the peaks can be indexed to the diffraction from the (111), (220), (311), (222), (400), (422), (511) and (440) planes of cubic Co3O4, respectively. Crystallite sizes (DXRD) for Co3O4 after heating in air at 300°C was estimated from the broadening of the most intense XRD peak (311) using the Debye-Scherrer approximation [24]. The average particle size of Co3O4 catalyst was calculated to be 44nm.

Raman spectroscopy

Raman spectroscopy of Co3O4 nanostructure is displayed in Figure 3. The Raman spectrum of the Co3O4 in the range of 100- 800 cm-1 shows five obvious peaks (A1g + Eg + 3F2g) located at around 187, 495, 505, 597 and 658 cm-1, corresponding to the five Raman-active modes of Co3O4. The peak at 187 cm-1 is attributed to the F(3)2g mode of tetrahedral sites (CoO4). The peaks at 459 and 505 cm-1 are assigned to the Eg and F(2) 2g symmetry, respectively. Whereas the peak at 597cm-1 is attributed to the F(1)2g symmetry. The strong band at 658 cm-1 with A1g symmetry is attributed to the characteristics of octahedral CoO6 sites corresponding to the unique characteristics of spinel-type cubic Co3O4 phase [25,26] and no additional peaks assigned to other impurities such as Co2O3 and CoO have been found in good agreement with the XRD result. The Raman shifts are consistent with those of pure crystalline Co3O4, indicating that the Co3O4 catalyst has a similar crystal structure of the bulk Co3O4.

Scanning electronic microscopy (SEM)

Figures 4a & 4b shows the SEM images of the as-prepared precursor obtained by hydrothermal treatment at 150°C and after calcination at 300°C. As shown in Figure 4b, The Co3O4 morphology proved to be stable and did not collapse after calcination at 300°C in air for 2h. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) was used as a surfactant, which can modify the surface energy of the crystallographic surface. Co3O4 has a uniform urchin-like structure covered with dense nanowires starting from the center with an average of diameter of 4-6μm. The nanowires appear to have a common center and grow to the outside along the radial direction.

H2-TPR studies

nostructures, TPR measurements were carried out and shown in Figure 5. The H2-TPR profile of the catalyst shows two main reduction peaks at about 360°C and 440°C, which can be attributed to the reduction of Co3O4 into CoO and from CoO to metallic Co [27], respectively. The narrow peaks indicate the reduction process was fast. The curve exhibits Co3+ is reduced at first, and then the produced Co2+ and Co2+ in the catalyst itself are further reduced into metallic Co.

Nitrogen adsorption-desorption

As shown in Figure 6, The N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms at 77 K which is close to type IV of the IUPAC classification [28] with an evident hysteresis loop in the 0.5 to 1.0 range suggesting that the Co3O4 ursin-like is basically mesoporous.

The specific area of the sample calculated by BET to be 43m2/g and the average pore diameters is 16 nm. These porous structures can be helpful for CO molecules to rapidly penetrate into the pores and contact to active sites during the catalytic process [29,30].

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)

XPS analysis was employed to investigate the surface elemental composition and chemical state of the as-obtained Co3O4-ursin like a catalyst, as shown in Figure 7. The XPS survey spectrum (Figure 7a) reveals that the sample only consists of cobalt and oxygen (the C1s peak was appeared, which could be due to the support used to prepare a sample for XPS analysis).The Co2p spectra in Figure 7b exhibited two major peaks with binding energies at around 780.0 eV and 795.1 eV corresponding to the Co2p3/2 and Co2p1/2, respectively, suggesting that the cobalt oxide was present in the form of Co3O4 [31,32].

Next, Co2p3/2 peaks in Figures 7b & 7c were fitted and de convoluted into two peaks of 780.8 and 779.5 eV, which are attributed to Co2+ and Co3+ respectively. As shown in Figure 7d, the O 1s electronic levels also were examined. The asymmetric O 1s could be de convoluted to two components at 531.5 and 529.5 eV. The XPS peak at 529.5 eV was attributed to the surface lattice oxygen (Olatt) species, and the 531.5 eV peak was ascribed to the surface adsorbed oxygen (Oads) species in Co3O4 [33,34]. The O1s peak at 531.5 eV in the spectrum indicates the presence of surface adsorbed oxygen such as O22- or O-, belonging to defect-oxide or hydroxyl-like group [35,36]. The presence of surface hydroxyl like groups can result from oxygen vacancy on the surface of the Co3O4 catalyst originating from the dissociative adsorption of H2O molecules. The oxide defects can adsorb and activate gaseous O2 to form active oxygen species, which is beneficial to promote the oxidation reaction. Furthermore, Co3O4 ursin-like had the Oads/ Olatt ratio about 1.7 proving that its surface possesses the largest amount of facile and reactive oxygen species, which is beneficial to promote the CO oxidation reaction [37].

Catalytic properties of Co3O4 ursin-like in CO oxidation

As a typical probe reaction of numerous novel catalytic materials, CO oxidation was carried out to evaluate the catalytic activity of the as-prepared Co3O4 ursin-like. As shown in Figure 8a, the light-off temperature (10% conversion rate) at 60°C and when the temperature reaches to 120°C, the CO conversion ratio reaches 100%, which exhibits higher catalytic activity than that of the Co3O4 nanowires [4] and Co3O4 nanorods [38]. The longterm stability of the catalyst is important in practical applications. Furthermore, the stability test for CO oxidation was performed over the period of 20 h at T=120°C, as shown in Figure 8b. The high catalytic activity and stability for CO oxidation can be attributed to its higher mobility than lattice oxygen. In addition, the oxide defects can adsorb and activate gaseous O22 to form active oxygen species, which is beneficial to promote the CO oxidation reaction.

Scanning electronic microscopy of the spent catalyst

As shown in Figure 9, the morphology of the spent catalyst after 20 h on stream reaction still retains ursin-like shape.

It can be shown that excellent catalytic performance and long-term stability for CO oxidation make the Co3O4 nanomaterial possible candidate to be used as a catalyst for CO oxidation.

Conclusion

In this paper, we have obtained Co3O4 precursor by a lowtemperature hydrothermal method. The product Co3O4 has a uniform urchin-like structure covered with dense nanowires starting from the center with an average of diameter of 4-6 μm by PEG-400 as a template. The light-off temperature (10% conversion) of CO oxidation on Co3O4 ursin-like catalyst was at 60°C and when the temperature reaches to 120°C, the CO conversion ratio reaches 100%. The stability test for CO oxidation was performed over the period of 20h at T = 120°C. It has been shown that the high catalytic activity and stability for CO oxidation can be attributed to its higher mobility than lattice oxygen. In addition, the oxide defects can adsorb and activate gaseous O2 to form active oxygen species, which is beneficial to promote the CO oxidation reaction. The as-obtained results make the Co3O4 nanomaterial possible candidate to be used as catalyst for CO oxidation.

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omc-juniperpublishers · 4 years ago

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Synthesis and Characterization of Low-Cost Activated Carbons for Pollutants Removal from Automotive Emissions-JuniperPublishers

Journal of Chemistry-JuniperPublishers

Abstract

Air purification is one of the most widely known environmental applications of activated carbons. In order to guarantee the successful removal of contaminants and pollutants on activated carbons, the development of new adsorbents has been increasing in the last few years. This paper presents a systematic study for cleaning vehicles emissions of CO, SO2, NO2 and H2S using the process of physical adsorption on novel adsorbents obtained from tropical biomasses. Use of this simple method is a valuable alternative to meet emission standards in Developing Countries. It is known that the agricultural wastes studied here are a feasible alternative for granular activated carbons preparation for pollutants removal during engines operation, approaching its efficiency to the commercial Catalytic Converters.

Keywords: Combustion gases purification; Activated carbons; Adsorption and adsorbents; Pollutants removal

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Introduction

“Quality Can Be Planned.”-Joseph Juran

Wastes cannot be introduced to the environment in unlimited amounts, especially in case of air pollutants. Different measures have been taken to limit the pollution emission. These are e.g.: the elimination of technological processes generating a lot of waste, introduction of new technologies which minimize the contamination, etc. If it is not possible to reduce the emissions, the waste gas must be purified [1,2]. Nowadays, the economic conditions of Developing Countries don’t allow that all individuals own a new automotive. It is necessary to develop alternatives to reduce the negative environmental impact associated with obsolete engines operation. The best way to address it is by reducing certain exhaust gas components during fuel combustion. The answer therefore is to look at vehicles as an integral whole to identify which solutions would be more feasible. Taking this holistic approach to vehicle improvement as a basis, three main exhaust emission control strategies can be defined:

a.Reduction of fuel consumption;

b.Exhaust gas treatment, and

c.Performance monitoring.

From these three alternatives the second one is currently the more effective for air quality improvement. The main gas treatment currently used is the Catalytic Converter, typically comprises of an expensive porous ceramic substrate with large surface area [3]. Unfortunately some users in Central America and the Caribbe an Countries tend to remove the Catalytic Converter from the vehicles to get better power loads. Over the last decade, the study of combustion gas treatment has been focused on more sophisticated Catalytic Converters. Consequently, the study of other alternatives for exhaust gas purification is important. There are a few methods to purify harmful combustion gases such as physical adsorption [4,5], chemical absorption [6], catalytic methods, etc. [7,8]. It is necessary then to select a suitable method to purify harmful gas for Developing Countries. Besides, standards for vehicles become more mandatory day to day. The more feasible alternative would be the development of customized activated carbons filters for the betterment of the environment. This can be accomplished by reducing the emissions that contribute to smog and acid rains [9].

Activated carbons can be obtained from different precursors, with benefits to the environment [10-12]. Due to its chemical composition, forest biomasses are valuable sources in the synthesis of adsorbents materials. Several examples of activated carbons preparation can be found in the open literature [13,14]. They have been used among others in the purification of pollutants gases such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen oxides and mercury [15-17]. Taking into account this background, the main objectives of this work can be summarized as follows:

I.Study the feasibility of some agricultural wastes as raw material for activated carbons production with high specific surface area, high mechanical resistance and wide availability.

II. Definition of the best experimental conditions for “chemical activation” with H3PO4 such as “physical activation” with steam water for each precursor.

III. Study of the elimination of pollutant gases in vehicles engines with filters of the adsorbents produced.

IV. Proposal of a methodology for filters evaluation in the removal of undesirable pollutants (CO, SO2, NO2 and H2S) during engines operation.

The practical aspects addressed in this research cover the broad spectrum of applications for air cleaning. Better engines performances can be obtained with an adsorption technique of activated carbons, through an extremely economic method.

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Materials and Methods

The raw materials selected for the study are presented in Tables 1-3.

Preparation of Activated Carbons

The starting raw materials were cut up in small pieces and next subjected to pyrolysis. This process was carried out in a tubular reactor in nitrogen atmosphere. The samples were heated (10 °C/ min) from room temperature to the final pyrolysis temperature of 500. In the final pyrolysis temperature, samples were kept for 60 minutes and then cooled down. The solid products of pyrolysis were next subjected to physical activation [18]. In the case of chemical activation the raw materials were the original precursors which were overnight impregnated into H3PO4 and later submitted to pyrolysis into a stainless steel reactor of 30cm of length per 3cm of diameter. Once the reactor reached the desired temperature the samples were kept at the final temperature according to the experimental conditions of the specific experiment. The activated products then cooled down and washed with enough water till get a neutral pH. Finally, the products were dry at 120°C and then stored [19]. Two different processes were used for the synthesis of the activated carbons from the chars previously obtained by pyrolysis. [18,19]. The experimental conditions used were:

Factorial experimental designs 32 were executed to evaluate the simultaneous influence of the activation conditions on the final product features [14,20]. Following the details for both synthesis processes:

Key properties of the activated carbons prepared were analyzed:

a. Raw material availability;

b. High specific surface area;

c. High mechanical resistance;

d. High adsorption speed.

Characterization of the Raw Materials and Synthetized Activated Carbons

Elemental Analysis: The amount of elements (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen) in the raw materials was determined by an Elemental Analyzer by flash combustion. The samples were firstly dried in an oven at 110°C before the measurement was carried out. The materials was burned at a temperature of 1000°C in flowing oxygen for C, H and N analysis in the analyzer. The CO2, H2O and NOx combustion gases were passed through a reduction tube with helium as the carrier gas to convert the NOx nitrogen oxides into N2 and bind the free oxygen. The CO2 and H2O were measured by selective IR detector. After corresponding absorption of these gases, the content of the remaining nitrogen was determined by thermal conductivity detection. The oxygen was calculated by the difference of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen.

Apparent Density Measurement: Apparent Density is a measure of the mass per unit volume of a material. It is also called Bulk Density and provides a measure of the “fluffiness” of a material in its natural form. In this work the Standard ASTM D1895 was used. According to this standard the materials are poured into a cylinder of known volume (e.g. 100 mL pipettes) and later weight. Apparent density was calculated as the mass of material divided by the volume occupied into the cylinder [21].

Specific Surface Area Measurement: In order to examine the structure of the synthetized materials, the measurement of the specific surface area of the activated carbons was carried out by gas adsorption isotherms using a Sorptometer applying BET Model. All samples were degassed at 200°C prior to N2 adsorption measurements. Specific surface area was determined by a multipoint BET method using the adsorption data in the relative pressure range: 0.05-0.3 [22,23].

Mechanical Resistance Measurement: The mechanical resistance of the obtained activated carbons was measured through a simple method. A know mass of the granular material was impacted by six glass balls into a semispherical container of stainless steel. The percentage relation between the fragmented mass retained in a 0.5mm mesh and the initial mass is used to estimate the mechanical resistance [24].

Adsorption Speed Evaluation: The adsorption speed was determined by Arrhenius Equation:

where: dX/dt is speed of the adsorption process studied; α is the residual concentration of the adsorbed; and k'ads the apparent kinetic constant of the adsorption process that can be determined by:

Applying logarithm to (Equation 2) brings the possibility to change an exponential equation into a linear dependence, see below:

Plotting ln k'ads vs 1 the activation energy (EA) and the preexponential factor (k0) of the adsorption process studied can be calculated. In the Results discussion ads k'ads will be refers as K for practical reasons.

Designing Process of Activated Carbon Filters

Figure 1 illustrates the process of activated carbon units customized assembling. These filters are very useful to study pollutant gases elimination in automotive engines with the adsorbents produced [25]. The samples, in the form of granules of 2-5 mm in diameter, were packed into a steel column (length 300 mm and internal diameter 90 mm). The gas was passed through the bed of the adsorbent at 0.50 L/min. The concentration of CO, SO2, NO2 and H2S were monitored using a Gas Chromatograph Equipment with standard TCD detector. The concentrations were calculated by integration of the area above the curves.

Pollutants Monitoring at Laboratory Scale

There is no known method available in the open literature which is capable of simultaneously determining all components of combustion gas evaluated here [2]. So the method developed in this work in an innovative alternative for Developing Countries. In order to determine the suitability of the obtained adsorbents in the elimination of CO, SO2, NO2 and H2S, the pollutants removal rate was determined. Figure 2 show a schematic diagram of the customized laboratory system for pollutants monitoring. The system includes, among others:

a. 6 cylinder automotive engine;

b. Activated carbon filter;

c. Exhaust gas analyzer device (Gas Chromatograph);

d. Computer system for data acquisition and recording, etc.

Gas Monitoring System: A standard gas chromatography was used with the following specs:

i. Detector: TCD;

ii. Carrier: Helium;

iii. Column: Porapak Q and Molecular Sieve 5A;

iv. Oven Temperature: 100°C;

v. Sample volume: 1 ml;

vi. Carrier Flow: 25 ml/min;

vii. Detector Temperature: 120°C

Under the described chromatographic conditions, the four gases could be easily separated and quantified [25,26].

The methodology used starting with the preparation of the calibration gas sample by injecting known volumes of each of the four pure gases (CO, SO2, NO2 and H2S) and balance nitrogen into adequate Gas Sampling Bag through the bag’s rubber septum. One mL of the calibration gas mixture and the combustion gases were analyzed by a GC system. Randomly measures of combustion gases before and after the purification process were made on a similar manner in order to evaluate the removal rate of the undesirable pollutants.

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Results and Discussion

Composition and Physical Properties of Raw Materials and Synthetized Products

Table 4 brings a summary of the chemical composition (elemental analysis), such as some physical properties of the 5 precursors studied. Elemental nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen were determined from the elemental analyzer by flash combustion while oxygen was determined by the difference of these three elements. Table 4 shows that the largest amount of element in the raw materials was carbon (except for Corncob which had smaller amount of carbon than oxygen), followed by oxygen, and the smallest amount was nitrogen. The lower content of carbon for Corncob can be attributed to a higher content of volatiles in the structure, translated into a high porosity for the raw material. All precursors do not contain sulfur in their structure, which is very favorable from the ecological and technological points of view.

dap: apparent density; dr: real density; P: porosity

The activation process increases carbon amount (~20- 40%) after modification. On the contrary, there was a reduction in the oxygen content (~20-30%) after physical and chemical modifications. There will be also a reduction of hydrogen amount. The amount of nitrogen was so small for all materials. In Table 4 it can be observed that the initial porosity of all material, except corncobs, have lower values, below 0.5, it makes these materials adequate for activated carbons preparation through chemical or physical activation. The best products synthetized by each process will be reported in Tables 5 & 6.

S: specific surface; K: apparent kinetic constant of the adsorption process; Y: yield; Mr: mechanical resistance; dap: apparent density.

Activated carbon from Central American Mahogany was the more reactive material with a significant porosity development (S = 847 m2/g). Should be noted also that Activated carbon from Mamey Zapote was the best adsorbent (S=940m2/g) and also have the higher mechanical resistance, yield and apparent density, very important for filters durability, but it’s the less available material. Finally it’s necessary to remark that Common Corncobs, a widely available agricultural by-product in Central American Countries, showed the worst results for all adsorbents properties; it can be attributable to the higher porosity of the initial raw material (P = 0.79%).

Table 6 show that activated carbon from Central American Mahogany was again the more reactive material but registered now the higher yield and adsorbent area (S = 832 m2/g). Furthermore, Activated carbon from Mamey Zapote was the second better adsorbent (S = 805 m2/g) and again have the higher mechanical resistance and apparent density. One more time activated carbon from Common Corncobs was the worst adsorbent (S = 470 m2/g). This fact is a consequence of poorly porous structure development during the activation process. Further analysis of the data from Tables 5 & 6 indicates that irrespectively of the variant used, the process of activation leads to further changes in the structure of carbonaceous material. The activated carbons synthetized from different materials studied here differ significantly mainly in the specific surface area development. The adsorbents differ not only in the surface properties but also in their texture and morphology that depend first of all on the variant of activation and the pyrolysis conditions of the initial material. Figure 3 illustrates the differences in specific surface development with both methods and the same materials.

In Figure 3, it can clearly be observed that larger specific surface area developments were achieved with physical activation processes. Those products were the better adsorbents to remove the undesirable pollutants. It also confirms that the factorial experimental designs used are the most suitable to optimize the conditions for activated carbon preparation. Textural parameters significantly affect the adsorption properties of the samples studied. [5] This observation suggests that the functional groups of the surface also have considerable influence on the abilities for combustion gases removal. All adsorbents studied had a rapid decrease in CO, SO2, NO2 and H2S concentration after gases interacted with the corresponding filters. High intensity of these harmful gas reductions at ambient conditions can be the reason for much better adsorption on higher surface area products. This explains the lower efficiency of gases removal by chemically activated carbons. The chemical activation process has the additional disadvantage of the required product washing after preparation which inevitably aggregates additional costs.

Gas Monitoring System

The calibrating gas analysis through the regression equations obtained from triplicate analysis of the gas mixtures at identical concentrations, revealed excellent agreement with the known concentrations. The pollutants monitoring system and analytical method used were effective for the simultaneous analyses of the four toxic combustion gases. Figure 4 shows two examples of 2 chromatograms obtained during the analysis of combustion gases purified with activated carbons from Mamey Zapote physically activated. In this figure it can clearly be observed the significant difference before and after gases interaction with adsorbents that can remove large amount of these undesirable gases with the associated environmental benefits.

The analyses of combustion gases revealed moderate concentrations of H2S and CO but very high concentrations of SO2 and NO2. The most effective adsorbent to remove these gases were the physically activated ones. At the present state of knowledge we can only speculate about the reasons for such poor results obtained from the chemically activated samples. Most probably the reason is the presence of a large number of acidic groups on their surface, in contrast to the physically activated samples, that probably have more basic functional groups present on the surface of the samples. Other chemicals present in the combustion atmospheres did not appear to interfere with the analyses. The chromatographic peaks were well separated and defined and the gases were present in amounts that could be easily determined. An excellent precision with relative standard deviations significantly below 2% were achieved in all gas monitoring analysis. The speed, sensitivity and selectivity of the used method make it suitable for analyzing combustion gas mixture of the four gases studied. Table 7 shows the overall average values of pollutants removal with activated carbons (A.C.) during automotive engines combustion.

In Table 7 it can clearly be observed that SO2 and NO2 amounts monitored are remarkable higher than the average limit values for 24 h. The good news is that the activated carbons studied can efficiently remove about 80% of pollutants in exhaust gases from automotive engines with the added value that the harmful gases concentration goes below the limit values. Figure 5 show the correlation between pollutants removal rate and specific surface area of activated carbons during automotive engines operation. In Figure 5 it can be clearly be observed that higher activated carbons specific surface area translated into higher pollutants removal rates that could be estimated by the equation 4 with a correlation coefficient R2 = 0.995:

A proper choice of the parameters of chemical and physical activation such as temperature, activation time, activates agent, etc., permits getting universal adsorbents showing very good adsorption properties towards such pollutants as SO2, CO, NO2 and H2S, however more studies are needed.

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Conclusion

Agricultural wastes studied here are a feasible alternative for the synthesis of activated carbons for pollutants removal during automotive engines operation. The main features that make these products feasible for the diminishing of automotive engines emission are their high adsorption capacity, approaching its efficiency to the commercial Catalytic Converters such as the cheaper costs and its renewability. Based on these results the granular activated carbons studied, produced in large amounts, are fully exploitable for combustion gases treatment. The complex composition of the flue gas with SO2, CO, NO2 and H2S can be successfully analyzed with good compound separation and repeatability. The method used in this investigation would be also be suitable for combustion toxicology researches and could possibly be easily modified to analyze these gases when they are liberated from biological sources [27].

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Acknowledgement

The author wishes to acknowledge Maria Andrea Camerucci and Ana Lia Cavalieri from Mar del Plata University, Argentina, they provided a crucial help in the experiments of this work.

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sriginstrument-blog · 5 years ago

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The Thermal Conductivity Detector (TCD) is the most universal detector available. Depending on the compound, the TCD responds with a detection range of 100-300 ppm from 100% down.

#Thermal Conductivity Detector TCD

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labexpo · 3 years ago

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Gas Chromatograph

A very sensitive thermal conductivity detector (TCD) or a highly stable hydrogen flame ionization detector is assemblies on the 65-GC100 Gas Chromatograph instrument (FID).

#Gas Chromatograph 75

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dv554822 · 3 years ago

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Global Gas Chromatography Detector Market Development History, Regional Overview Revenue and Business Prospect 2027

The global Gas Chromatography Detector Market is segmented in By Type:-Flame Ionization Detector (FID), Nitrogen Phosphorus Detector (NPD), Electron Capture Detector (ECD), Thermal Conductivity Detector (TCD), Flame Photometric Detector (FPD), Photoionization Detector (PID), Electrolytic Conductivity Detector (ECD), Mass Spectrometer (MS); By End-User Industries:-Biotechnological & Pharmaceutical Companies, CRO’s & CMO’s, Research Institutes, Research Organizations and by regions. Gas Chromatography Detector Market is anticipated to mask a significant CAGR during the forecast period i.e. 2018-2027.

In gas chromatography as solutes elute out from the column, they interact with the detector. The interaction is converted by the detector into an electronic signal that is sent to the data system. A specific detector is dependent on the type of detector gas and is fairly universal between GC manufacturers. However, the flow rates for each type of detector vary between different gas chromatography detector manufacturers. It is vital to abide by the recommended flow rates to attain the optimal selectivity, sensitivity and linear range for a detector.

Europe is the leading shareholder in the global gas chromatography detectors market chiefly owing to increased funding in research activities along with the increase in the number of biotechnological and pharmacy companies in the region. Europe is followed by North America in the gas chromatography detectors market in terms of revenue. Asia-Pacific is however anticipated to be the fastest growing region in gas chromatography detectors due to improving economic conditions and increased government funding for research.

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Increasing R&D activities

Cumulative adoption of advanced gas chromatography detectors is propelling the expansion of the market across the world. Ongoing researches have predicted increase in the analytical power of gas chromatography detectors. Manufacturers are additionally fixated on innovation and more towards end-users to deliver toughness, high sensitivity, better selectivity and comfort to apply.

However, the complexity of gas chromatography detectors is expected to hinder the market growth owing to increased intricacy involved in the entire procedure.

Further, for the in-depth analysis, the report encompasses the industry growth drivers, restraints, supply and demand risk, market attractiveness, BPS analysis and Porter’s five force model.

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This report also provides the existing competitive scenario of some of the key players of the global Gas Chromatography Detector market which includes company profiling of Shimadzu Corporation, Cmc Instruments GmbH, Rudolf Dieselstrasse, Agilent Technologies, LECO Corporation, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc., Uniphos Envirotronic Pvt. Ltd., PerkinElmer Inc., Danaher Corporation, and Scion Instruments. The profiling enfolds key information of the companies which encompasses business overview, products and services, key financials and recent news and developments. On the whole, the report depicts detailed overview of the global Gas Chromatography Detector market that will help industry consultants, equipment manufacturers, existing players searching for expansion opportunities, new players searching possibilities and other stakeholders to align their market centric strategies according to the ongoing and expected trends in the future.

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newsmartmarketing · 3 years ago

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Gas Chromatography System Market Research Report 2023 - Industry Size, Share, Demands, Regional Analysis & Estimations Till 2028

The Gas Chromatography System Market Report, in its latest update, highlights the significant impacts and the recent strategical changes under the present socio-economic scenario. The Gas Chromatography System industry growth avenues are deeply supported by exhaustive research by the top analysts of the industry. The report starts with the executive summary, followed by a value chain and marketing channels study. The report then estimates the CAGR and market revenue of the Global and regional segments.

Base Year: 2021

Estimated Year: 2022

Forecast Till: 2023 to 2028

The report classifies the market into different segments based on type and product. These segments are studied in detail, incorporating the market estimates and forecasts at regional and country levels. The segment analysis is helpful in understanding the growth areas and potential opportunities of the market.

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A special section is dedicated to the analysis of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the growth of the Gas Chromatography System market. The impact is closely studied in terms of production, import, export, and supply.

The report covers the complete competitive landscape of the Worldwide Gas Chromatography System market with company profiles of key players such as:

Agilent Technologies

Dani Instruments

Emd Millipore/Merck Millipore

Perkinelmer

Phenomenex

Restek Corporation

Shimadzu Corporation

Sigma-Aldrich Corporation

Thermo Fisher Scientific

W.R. Grace And Company

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Gas Chromatography System Market Analysis by Type:

Flame Ionization Detector (FID)

Thermal Conductivity Detector (TCD)

Electron Capture Detector (ECD)

Nitrogen Phosphorous Detector (NPD)

Flame photometric detector (FPD)

Pulsed Discharge Detector (PDD)

Other

Gas Chromatography System Market Analysis by Applications:

Food

Environmental

Pharmaceutical

Chemical

Forensic

Industrial

Other

Gas Chromatography System Market Analysis by Geography:

North America (USA, Canada, and Mexico)

Europe (Germany, UK, France, Italy, Russia, Spain, Rest of Europe)

Asia Pacific (China, India, Japan, South Korea, Australia, South-East Asia, Rest of Asia-Pacific)

Latin America (Brazil, Argentina, Peru, Chile, Rest of Latin America)

The Middle East and Africa (Saudi Arabia, UAE, Israel, South Africa, Rest of the Middle East and Africa)

Key questions answered in the report:

What is the expected growth of the Gas Chromatography System market between 2023 to 2028?

Which application and type segment holds the maximum share in the Global Gas Chromatography System market?

Which regional Gas Chromatography System market shows the highest growth CAGR between 2023 to 2028?

What are the opportunities and challenges currently faced by the Gas Chromatography System market?

Who are the leading market players and what are their Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT)?

What business strategies are the competitors considering to stay in the Gas Chromatography System market?

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#Gas Chromatography System Market #Gas Chromatography System Market Report #Gas Chromatography System Market Size #Gas Chromatography System Market Share #Gas Chromatography System Market Growth

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researchnesterinsights · 3 years ago

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Gas Chromatography Detector Market | Rising Demand, Technological Innovations and Regional Outlook end of 2027

Download Sample of This Strategic Report @ https://www.researchnester.com/sample-request-883

Increasing R&D activities

However, the complexity of gas chromatography detectors is expected to hinder the market growth owing to increased intricacy involved in the entire procedure.

Further, for the in-depth analysis, the report encompasses the industry growth drivers, restraints, supply and demand risk, market attractiveness, BPS analysis and Porter’s five force model.

Curious about this latest version of report? Obtain Report Details @ https://www.researchnester.com/reports/gas-chromatography-detector-market/883

About Research Nester

Research Nester is a leading service provider for strategic market research and consulting. We aim to provide unbiased, unparalleled market insights and industry analysis to help industries, conglomerates and executives to take wise decisions for their future marketing strategy, expansion and investment etc. We believe every business can expand to its new horizon, provided a right guidance at a right time is available through strategic minds. Our out of box thinking helps our clients to take wise decision so as to avoid future uncertainties.

AJ Daniel Email: [email protected] U.S. Phone: [+1 646 586 9123] U.K. Phone: [+44 203 608 591]

#Gas Chromatography Detector Market

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linhgd9 · 4 years ago

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Global Gas Chromatography Detector Market Drivers, growth in business and Restraints Forecast 2021-2027

This Report Represents the worldwide Gas Chromatography Detector market size (value, consumption, and production), splits the breakdown (data status 2014-2020 and forecast to 2027), by manufacturers, region, type, and application. This study also analyzes the market status, future trends, market drivers, market share, growth rate, opportunities and challenges, sales channels, distributors, risks and entry barriers, and Porter’s Five Forces Analysis which also includes coronavirus updates. It also has an In-depth analysis of the industry’s competitive landscape, restraints, detailed information about different drivers, and global opportunities. Key competitors included in Global Gas Chromatography Detector Market are Shimadzu Corporation, Perkinelmer Inc., Phenomenex Inc., W.R. Grace and Company, Restek Corporation, Dani Instruments S.P.A, Agilent Technologies Inc., Sigma-Aldrich Corporation, Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc..

The report covers key strategic Points Regarding developments of the market including acquisitions & mergers, agreements, partnerships, new type launches, research & development, collaborations & joint ventures, regional expansion of major participants involved in the Gas Chromatography Detector market on a global and regional basis. This Gas Chromatography Detector Market Report covers global, regional, and country-level market size, market shares, market growth rate analysis (include Reseaon of highest and lowest peak Market analysis), product launches, recent trend, the impact of covid19 on worldwide or regional Gas Chromatography Detector Market. Both top-down and bottom-up approaches have been used to estimate and validate the market size of the Gas Chromatography Detector market, to estimate the Gas Chromatography Detector size of various other dependent submarkets in the overall market. Key players in the market have been identified through secondary research, and their market shares have been determined through primary and secondary research. All percentage shares split, and breakdowns have been determined using secondary sources and Basic primary sources

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Our Research Specialist gives you a Free PDF Sample Report copy as per your Research Requirement, also including impact analysis of COVID-19 on Gas Chromatography Detector Business Industries

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A brief introduction to the research report and Overview of the market

Syndicate Market Research methodology

Graphical introduction of global as well as the regional analysis

Selected illustrations of market insights and trends.

Know top key players in the market with their revenue analysis

Example pages from the report

The study objectives of Global Gas Chromatography Detector Market are:

To split the breakdown data by regions, type, manufacturers, and applications.

To identify significant trends, drivers, influence factors in global and regions.

To analyze and research the global Gas Chromatography Detector status and future forecast, involving, production, revenue, consumption, historical, and forecast.

To analyze the global and key regions’ market potential and advantage, opportunity, and challenge, restraints, and risks.

To analyze competitive developments such as expansions, agreements, new product launches, and acquisitions in the market.

To present the key Gas Chromatography Detector manufacturers, production, revenue, market share, and recent development.

Global Gas Chromatography Detector market report presentation has been estimated at length and according to expert analysis, is anticipated to entail an impressive growth of xx million USD in 2021 and is projected to further reach a total growth estimation of xx million USD through the forecast till 2027, growing at a CAGR of xx%, and you get accurate CAGR according to Gas Chromatography Detector market size which actual exist

Scope of Report:

Gas Chromatography Detector Market 2021 global industry research report is a professional and in-depth study on the market size, growth, share, trends, as well as industry analysis. The report begins with an overview of the industry chain structure and describes the upstream. In addition, the report introduces a market competition overview among the major companies and company profiles, besides, market price and channel features are covered in the report. Also, the report analyses market size and forecast in different geographies, types, and end-use segments. Furthermore, market size, the revenue share of each segment, and its sub-segments, as well as forecast figures are also covered in this report.

Gas Chromatography Detector Analysis: By Applications

Food & Beverage Industries, Academic Research institutes, Biotechnological & Pharmaceutical Industries, Hospitals/Clinics, Cosmetics Industries, Others

Gas Chromatography Detector Market: By Product

Electrolytic Conductivity Detector (ECD), Mass Spectrometer (MS), Flame Ionization Detector (FID), Nitrogen Phosphorus Detector (NPD), Electron Capture Detector (ECD), Thermal Conductivity Detector (TCD), Flame Photometric Detector (FPD), Photoionization

Gas Chromatography Detector Global Market: By Region

North America

U.S.Canada

Rest of North America

Europe

Germany

France

Italy

Spain

Rest of Europe

Asia Pacific

China

Japan

India

Southeast Asia

Rest of Asia Pacific

Latin America

Brazil

Argentina

Rest of Latin America

The Middle East and Africa

GCC Countries

South Africa

Rest of Middle East & Africa

Table of Content include Gas Chromatography Detector Market Worldwide are:

1 Study Coverage 1.1 Gas Chromatography Detector Product 1.2 Key Market Segments in This Study 1.3 Key Manufacturers Covered 1.4 Market by Type 1.4.1 Global Market Size Growth Rate by Type (Electrolytic Conductivity Detector (ECD), Mass Spectrometer (MS), Flame Ionization Detector (FID), Nitrogen Phosphorus Detector (NPD), Electron Capture Detector (ECD), Thermal Conductivity Detector (TCD), Flame Photometric Detector (FPD), Photoionization ) 1.5 Market by Application 1.5.1 Global Market Size Growth Rate by Application (Food & Beverage Industries, Academic Research institutes, Biotechnological & Pharmaceutical Industries, Hospitals/Clinics, Cosmetics Industries, Others) 1.6 Study Objectives 1.7 Years Considered

2 Executive Summary 2.1 Global Gas Chromatography Detector Market Size 2.1.1 Global Gas Chromatography Detector Revenue 2013-2025 2.1.2 Global Gas Chromatography Detector Production 2013-2025 2.2 Gas Chromatography Detector Growth Rate (CAGR) 2018-2025 2.3 Analysis of Competitive Landscape 2.3.1 Manufacturers Market Concentration Ratio (CR5 and HHI) 2.3.2 Key Manufacturers 2.3.2.1 Manufacturing Base Distribution, Headquarters 2.3.2.2 Manufacturers Product Offered 2.3.2.3 Date of Manufacturers Enter into Market 2.4 Key Trends for Markets & Products

3 Gas Chromatography Detector Market Size by Manufacturers 3.1 Production by Manufacturers 3.1.1 Production by Manufacturers 3.1.2 Production Market Share by Manufacturers 3.2 Revenue by Manufacturers 3.2.1 Revenue by Manufacturers (2013-2018) 3.2.2 Revenue Share by Manufacturers (2013-2018) 3.3 Price by Manufacturers 3.4 Mergers & Acquisitions, Expansion Plans

4 Gas Chromatography Detector Production by Regions —–contd—

5 Gas Chromatography Detector Consumption by Regions —–contd—-

6 Market Size by Type —–contd—

7 Market Size by Application 7.1 Overview 7.2 Global Breakdown Dada by Application 7.2.1 Global Consumption by Application 7.2.2 Global Consumption Market Share by Application (2013-2018)

8 Manufacturers Profiles —–contd—

9 Production Forecasts —–contd—

10 Consumption Forecast —–contd—

11 Value Chain and Sales Channels Analysis 11.1 Value Chain Analysis 11.2 Sales Channels Analysis 11.2.1 Gas Chromatography Detector Sales Channels 11.2.2 Distributors 11.3 Customers

12 Market Opportunities & Challenges, Risks and Influences Factors Analysis 12.1 Market Opportunities and Drivers 12.2 Market Challenges 12.3 Market Risks/Restraints 12.4 Key World Economic Indicators

13 Key Findings in the Global Gas Chromatography Detector Study

14 Appendix 14.1 Research Methodology 14.1.1 Methodology/Research Approach 14.1.1.1 Research Programs/Design 14.1.1.2 Market Size Estimation 14.1.1.3 Market Breakdown and Data Triangulation 14.1.2 Data Source 14.1.2.1 Secondary Sources 14.1.2.2 Primary Sources 14.2 Author Details 14.3 Disclaimer

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gasanalyzers · 4 years ago

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wemahesh · 6 years ago

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Type of Detector in GC

Mass flow depend Decorator

FLAME IONIZATION DETECTOR (FID):

NITROGEN PHOSPHORUS DETECTOR (NPD):

FLAME PHOTOMETRIC DETECTOR (FPD):

Concentration type Detector

ELECTRON CAPTURE DETECTOR (ECD):

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY DETECTOR (TCD):

PHOTOIONIZATION DETECTOR (PID):

ELECTROLYTIC CONDUCTIVITY DETECTOR (ELCD)

As solutes elute from the column, they interact with the detector. The detector converts this…

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#type of Decorator

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wearetriene · 6 years ago

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CHAPTER 32 — PART 2/3

→ Chromatographic Detectors

Characteristics of the Ideal Detector:

Adequate sensitivity. In general, the sensitivities of present-day detectors lie in the range of 10–8 to 10–15 g solute/s.

Good stability and reproducibility.

A linear response to solutes that extends over several orders of magnitude.

A temperature range from room temperature to at least 4008C.

A short response time that is independent of flow rate.

High reliability and ease of use. To the greatest extent possible, the detector should be foolproof in the hands of inexperienced operators.

Similarity in response toward all solutes or, alternatively, a highly predictable and selective response toward one or more classes of solutes.

Nondestructive of sample.

Flame Ionization Detectors

The flame ionization detector (FID) is the most widely used and generally applicable detector for gas chromatography. The organic compounds are detected by monitoring the current produced by collecting the ions and electrons. A few hundred volts applied between the burner tip and a collector electrode located above the flame serves to collect the ions and electrons. The resulting current (,10–12 A) is then measured with a sensitive picoammeter.

The FID is insensitive toward noncombustible gases, such as H2O, CO2, SO2, and NOx. These properties make the flame ionization detector a most useful general detector for the analysis of most organic samples including those that are contaminated with water and the oxides of nitrogen and sulfur.

The FID exhibits a high sensitivity (,10–13 g/s), large linear response range (,107), and low noise. It is generally rugged and easy to use. This detector has the advantage that changes in flow rate of the mobile phase have little effect on detector response and disadvantages that destroys the sample during the combustion step and requires additional gases and controllers.

Thermal Conductivity Detectors

The thermal conductivity detector (TCD) was one of the earliest detectors for gas chromatography. This device consists of an electrically heated source whose temperature at constant electric power depends on the thermal conductivity of the surrounding gas. The heated element may be a fine platinum, gold, or tungsten wire or, alternatively, a small thermistor. The electrical resistance of this element depends on the thermal conductivity of the gas.

Detection by thermal conductivity is less satisfactory with carrier gases whose conductivities closely resemble those of most sample components. The advantages of the TCD are its simplicity, its large linear dynamic range (about five orders of magnitude), its general response to both organic and inorganic species, and its nondestructive character, which permits collection of solutes after detection. The chief limitation of this detector is its relatively low sensitivity (,10 8 g/s solute/mL carrier gas). Other detectors exceed this sensitivity by factors of 104 to 107. The low sensitivities of TCDs often precludes their use with capillary columns where sample amounts are very small.

Electron Capture Detectors

The electron capture detector (ECD) has become one of the most widely used detectors for environmental samples because this detector selectively responds to halogen-containing organic compounds, such as pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls. In this detector, the sample eluate from a column is passed over a radioactive b emitter, usually nickel-63. Compounds, such as halogens, peroxides, quinones, and nitro groups, are detected with high sensitivity. The detector is insensitive to functional groups such as amines, alcohols, and hydrocarbons. Compounds, such as halogens, peroxides, quinones, and nitro groups, are detected with high sensitivity.

Electron capture detectors are highly sensitive and have the advantage of not altering the sample significantly (in contrast to the flame ionization detector, which consumes the sample). The linear response of the detector, however, is limited to about two orders of magnitude.

Mass Spectrometry Detectors

One of the most powerful detectors for GC is the mass spectrometer. The combination of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry is known as GC/MS.3 A mass spectrometer measures the mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) of ions that have been produced from the sample. The flow rate from capillary columns is usually low enough that the column output can be fed directly into the ionization chamber of the mass spectrometer. The most common ion sources for GC/MS are electron impact and chemical ionization and the most common mass analyzers are quadrupole and ion-trap analyzers.

A computer data system is needed to process the large amount of data obtained. The data can be analyzed in several way:

o The ion abundance in each spectrum can be summed and plotted as a function of time to give a total-ion chromatogram. o Also, displays the mass spectrum at a time during the chromatogram to identify the species eluting at that time. o A single mass-to-charge (m/z) value can be selected and monitored throughout the chromatographic experiment, a technique known as selected-ion monitoring.

Mass spectrometry can not only determine a peak is due to the more than one component, but it can identify the various unresolved species. GC has also been coupled with tandem mass spectrometers and with Fourier transform mass spectrometers to give GC/MS/MS or GC/MSn systems, which are very powerful tools for identifying components in mixtures.

Typical outputs for a GC/MS system.

LC-MS analysis of an extract from the corpora cardiaca of Ceroplesis capensis. Material from the CC of the cerambycid beetle, Ceroplesis capensis was extracted with 80% methanol and analysed by LC-MS. A The total ion chromatogram B A full scan positive electrospray ionisation (ESI) mass spectrum of the peak shown in ( A ) with a retention time of 5.40 min

Gas Chromatographic Columns and Stationary Phases

→ Capillary Columns (Tubular Column)

2 basic types:

o Wall-coated open tubular (WCOT)- are capillary tubes coated with a thin layer of the liquid stationary phase. Early WCOT columns were constructed of stainless steel, aluminum, copper, or plastic. Subsequently, glass was used.

o Support-coated open tubular (SCOT)- the inner surface of the capillary is lined with a thin film (,30 mm) of a solid support material, such as diatomaceous earth, on which the liquid stationary phase is adsorbed. This type of column holds several times as much stationary phase as does a wall-coated column and thus has a greater sample capacity.

· Fused-silica open tubular (FSOT) columns- Fused-silica capillaries are drawn from specially purified silica that contain minimal amounts of metal oxides. These capillaries have much thinner walls than their glass counterparts. Commercial fused silica columns offer several important advantages over glass columns, such as physical strength, much lower reactivity toward sample components, and flexibility. For most applications, they have replaced the older type WCOT glass columns.

· Megabore columns- Capillary columns with 530 mm inside diameters, tolerate sample sizes that are similar to those for packed columns. The performance characteristics of megabore capillary columns are not as good as those of smaller diameter columns but significantly better than those of packed columns.

→ Packed Columns

Modern packed columns are fabricated from glass or metal tubing and are typically 2 to 3 m long and have inside diameters of 2 to 4 mm. These tubes are densely packed with a uniform, finely divided packing material, or solid support, that is coated with a thin layer (0.05 to 1 mm) of the stationary liquid phase. The tubes are usually formed as coils with diameters of roughly 15 cm so that they can be conveniently placed in a temperature-controlled oven.

o Solid Support Materials- The packing (solid support), in a packed column serves to hold the liquid stationary phase in place so that as large a surface area as possible is exposed to the mobile phase. The ideal support consists of small, uniform, spherical particles with good mechanical strength and a specific surface area of at least 1 m2/g.

o Particle Size of Supports- The efficiency of a gas chromatographic column increases rapidly with decreasing particle diameter of the packing. The pressure difference required to maintain an acceptable flow rate of carrier gas, however, varies inversely as the square of the particle diameter. The usual support particles are 60 to 80 mesh (250 to 170 mm) or 80 to 100 mesh (170 to 149 mm).

→ Liquid Stationary Phases

Desirable properties for the immobilized liquid phase:

1. Low volatility 2. Thermal stability 3. Chemical inertness 4. Solvent characteristics such that k and a value for the solutes to be resolved fall within a suitable range.

The retention time for an analyte on a column depends on its distribution constant, which in turn is related to the chemical nature of the liquid stationary phase. To separate various sample components, their distribution constants must be sufficiently different to accomplish a clean separation.

To have a reasonable residence time on the column, an analyte must show some degree of compatibility (solubility) with the stationary phase. The polarity of a molecule, as indicated by its dipole moment, is a measure of the electric field produced by separation of charge within the molecule. Generally, the polarity of the stationary phase should match that of the sample components. When the match is good, the order of elution is determined by the boiling point of the eluents.

The most widely used stationary phases for both packed and open tubular column gas chromatography in order of increasing polarity. These six liquids can probably provide satisfactory separations for 90% or more of samples.

→ Bonded and Cross-Linked Stationary Phases

The purpose of bonding and cross-linking is to provide a longer lasting stationary phase that can be rinsed with a solvent when the film becomes contaminated.

One way of cross-linking is to incorporate a peroxide into the original liquid. When the film is heated, reaction between the methyl groups in the polymer chains is initiated by a free radical mechanism. The resulting films are less extractable and have considerably greater thermal stability than do untreated films. Cross-linking has also been initiated by exposing the coated columns to gamma radiation.

→ Film Thickness

Commercial columns are available having stationary phases that vary in thickness from 0.1 to 5 mm. Film thickness primarily affects the retentive character and the capacity of a column. Thin films are useful for separating species of low volatility in a reasonable length of time. For most applications with 0.25- or 0.32-mm columns, a film thickness of 0.25 mm is recommended. With megabore columns, 1 to 1.5 mm films are often used. Today, columns with 8-mm films are marketed.

*CHAPTER 24 CONTINUATION ON THE NEXT POST

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sigmaipl · 8 years ago

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Data Processing System

The Autochro data processing system is versatile & can work with both â€“ GC & HPLC of any make.

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chitrakullkarni · 4 years ago

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Gas Chromatography (GC) Market Sales/Retail Channel Analysis and Profit Margin Study, 2025

The global Gas Chromatography (GC) Market research report provides complete insights on industry scope, trends, regional estimates, key application, competitive landscape and financial performance of prominent players. It also offers ready data-driven answers to several industry-level questions. This study enables numerous opportunities for the market players to invest in research and development.

Market Overview:

The global gas chromatography (GC) market size is expected to value at USD 4.3 billion by 2025. The market is subject to witness a substantial growth due to the rising investments by private players and numerous governmental initiatives for development of modern in chromatography technologies. Other factors such as rising healthcare expenditure across developed economies along with increasing collaborations among various chromatography manufacturers and research laboratories are expected to drive market growth in the upcoming years.

Key Players:

GE Healthcare

Shimadzu Corporation

Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.

Agilent Technologies

R. Grace & Co.-Conn.

Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc.

Restek Corporation

PerkinElmer, Inc.

Danaher Corporation

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Growth Drivers:

Globally, the gas chromatography market is predicted to grow at CAGR of 6.4 % in forecast period, providing numerous opportunities for market players to invest in research and development in the market. Increasing investment by various regional government around the globe in the chromatography techniques for separating chemicals in a complex sample is expected to drive the growth of gas chromatography (GC) industry over the forecast period. Recent advancement in gas chromatography (GC) is attributed to the increasing investment for research & development from local governments in the North America region, thereby solidifying market position, in the recent years.

Product Outlook:

Accessories & ConsumablesColumns and accessories Fittings and tubing Auto-sampler accessories Flow management and pressure regulator accessories

InstrumentsSystems Auto-samplers Fraction collectors DetectorsFlame Ionization Detectors (FID) Thermal Conductivity Detectors (TCD) Mass spectrometry detectors ReagentsAnalytical gas chromatography reagents Bioprocess gas chromatography reagents

Regional Outlook:

The gas chromatography (GC) industry is divided by region as North America, Europe, Asia-Pacific, Latin America and Africa. North America has shown major growth in recent years owing to the rise in the implementation of latest technologies in medicine & pharmaceutical sector, increase in the venture capital funding and existence of well-established lab testing facilities in the region. Several developed European economies with promising financial & demographic landscape and growing focus towards chromatography-based research & studies are predicted to record comparatively higher CAGR in upcoming years.

Asia-Pacific region is predicted to hold major market share in the gas chromatography (GC) market with massive growth in forecast period. Countries such as India, China and Japan are leading the Asia-Pacific market with rising economic condition, growing scope for chromatography-based research and significant investment by leading industry players considering potential growth opportunities in the region.

Browse Related Category Research Reports @ https://industryanalysisandnews.wordpress.com/

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marymosley · 5 years ago

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What kind of adulterants are present in alcohol, how does different type of adulterants affect the human body and in what ways they can be detected?

The alcohol is brewed legally under government supervisions and also illegally at unregistered breweries or homebrews, therefore not properly tested for safety and sold at low price to make money and its popular among low income communities, which can be proven as harmful sometimes. The chances of contamination are also there in illegal production due to errors in distillation or accidentally. Therefore, the addition of any foreign materials in alcohol like water, drugs, or sugars, thus on tamper its quantity/quantity is referred to as “Adulteration of alcohol”. According to section 272-273 of IPC, Food Safety and Standards Act 2006 and Consumer Protection Bill 2019, adulteration is a punishable offence. Adulteration can be done intentionally or unintentionally. Usually, most of the liquor retailers, bars, restaurants and clubs are known to intentionally commit adulteration of spirits and other alcoholic beverages by “watering-down” their liquor to increase their sales and to set aside money and in wine for sweetness enhancement end up by adding some starch and sugar sources, apart from grapes. Methanol has been added to liquor and legitimately created wines to build their “chomp” and ethylene glycol to expand their sweetness. During illegal production the unintentional contamination of heavy metals (lead, cadmium, arsenic, ashes, copper etc.), higher alcohols, acetaldehyde, etc. can occur. The methanol and additionally ethylene glycol or drugs can be demonstrated as lethal and might be deadly also.

EFFECTS ON HUMAN BODY

Alcohol, when consumed in large quantity, suppress the central nervous system and effects the individual symptoms be like slurred speech, vomiting, blackouts, hallucinations and the adverse effects are liver damage, stomach dysfunction, and cancer sometimes, which are harmful and even fatal.

As per the definition by World Health Organization “Illegally manufactured spirit drinks or adulterated counterfeit consumption can cause methanol poisoning”

However, the low concentrations of naturally present methanol are not as such harmful, but higher concentrations may be toxic. Once consumed, methanol is broken down into two major compounds i.e. formic acid and formaldehyde, which are toxic and deadly when taken in large amounts. Methanol poisoning symptoms in the initial, when the formic acid concentrates in the body, an individual start experiencing fatigue, feel unstable and disinhibited. With time these symptoms will increases rapidly into a vertigo, stomach pain headache and vomiting and in some cases, patient suffers from nausea, lack of breath, and often encounters with irregular muscle contraction(convulsions) and permanent visual impairment. Isopropyl alcohol present in hand sanitizers is consumed sometimes intentionally or unintentionally causes toxicity, when metabolized forms ketone, in severe cases symptoms may be hemorrhagic gastritis, ketosis, or hypoglycemia. Most casualties look for clinical consideration after a huge deferral, which adds to the significant level of morbidity and mortality.

The other toxic substance added to alcohol and its products is ethylene glycol. Ethylene glycol is a sweet liquid and also odorless and colorless usually found in antifreeze. Even consumption (accidentally or intentionally) of very little amount may end up into toxicity and death. When consumed in huge amounts poisoning is caused by ethylene glycol called ethylene glycol poisoning. When in a person’s body ethylene glycol metabolizes, crystalline compounds are produced which can affects the functioning kidneys when get accumulated. Ethylene glycol can alter the acid/base balance of the body by producing acidic compounds which eventually effects individual lungs, heart and nervous system. Symptoms may include, vomiting, headache, nausea, convulsions, daze (diminished level of readiness) or indeed coma. Metabolic acidosis and kidney failure are considered as major drawbacks of poisoning due to ethylene glycol. Undesirable and unpredictable consequences can be seen when alcohol is consolidated with medications (prescribed or not prescribed). Ingestion of alcohol along with some type of drug results in the “synergistic effect”. As the drug combines with alcohol it will build the impacts of alcohol on your body. Cocaine, marijuana, opioids, nicotine, quinine etc. are well-known common illegal drugs which are usually blended with alcohol. When alcohol and drugs are combines in the body, the aftereffects of each are extraordinarily enhanced resulting in unpredicted side effects and considerable impairment (coordination, perception, and ability of judgment). It can also result into arrested breathing, fluctuation in pulse rate and blood pressure, unconsciousness, coma, and potential death. As energy drinks contains large amount of ginseng, caffeine, taurine, and other herbal components, so their mixing with alcohol may lead to similar synergistic effect on one’s body.

DETECTION AND ANALYSIS OF ADULTERANTS

In most of the cases, the circumstances or blood test are considered as helpful measures for detection of poisoning. Various organs like brain, lung, liver and kidney and also blood can be analyzed for the concentration of methanol and formic acid in the body. With the help of Head Space Gas Chromatography (head space-GC) coupled with FID detector we can analyze the ethylene glycol and formic acid present in blood and tissues. The use of brain tissues, serum, plasma, vitreous humor, vomit, urine etc. could also help to enhance the analysis of drug-alcohol intoxication. Renal histology slides in ethylene glycol poisoning cases were examined and graded by polarized light microscopy, birefringent oxalate crystals in renal tissue can be observed.

In case alcohol bottles or glasses or containers are found on crime scene ,the following methods of identifying the composition of alcohols can be adapted, including site-specific natural isotope fractionation nuclear magnetic resonance (SNIF-NMR),it detects adulteration in alcohol on the behalf of isotopic ratio of carbon and hydrogen , High Performance Liquid Chromatography(HPLC), Ultra Violet-visible spectrophotometry(UV/VIS), Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrographic analysis (GC-MS) Fourier-transform infrared spectrum analysis (FTIR),different Gas Chromatography detectors such as Flame Ionization Detector, Thermal Conductivity Detector (GC-FID, ECD and TCD), Electron Capture Detector and, and Ion Chromatography. Beer can be tested in different ways like FTIR and Proton NMR to determine its type and if there might are complete fraud. A simple procedure can be carried out for detection of rum and vodka and rum by using GC-FID or ion chromatography. Compounds like, acetaldehyde, chloride, n-propanol, nitrate, ethanol, and iso-butanol can be detected using gas chromatography. Tequila can be analyzed by using fluorescence spectroscopy. Heavy metals like lead, arsenic, copper etc. can also be detected by chemical as well as instrumental means.

CONCLUSION

Adulteration of alcohol and its products is mostly done with water, sugars, methanol and ethylene glycol, to extend the sale and to gain profit. The chemical compounds added can be proven as toxic and even fatal, they can cause poisoning sometimes or effect the individual very badly or even may cause death. As the treatment purpose ethanol is used as antidote in some cases of methanol, ethylene glycol or isopropyl alcohol poisoning. In case of any casualty the blood of the victim or patient is analyzed and in death cases different body organs/tissues are also examined. There are various instrumental methods GC-FID, FTIR etc., which can be used for detection of various adulterants present as well as to analyze their concentration in the person’s body.

REFERENCES

Kristín, M. (2010, October 01). ResearchGate | Find and share research. (PDF) Adulterated alcoholic beverages. Retrieved April 15, 2020, from https://ift.tt/2Szofal

G. Rosano, T., A. Swift, T., & J. Kranick, C. (2009). Ethylene Glycol and Glycolic Acid in Postmortem Blood from Fatal Poisonings. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, Vol. 33, October 2009, 33. Retrieved from https://watermark.silverchair.com/33-8-508.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAAlYwggJSBgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggJDMII

Anon (2018). Adulterated or watered-down alcohol – CCPC Consumers, [Online]. Available from: https://www.ccpc.ie/consumers/shopping/buying-goods/adulterated-or-watered-down-alcohol/ [Accessed] 19/October/2019

Lachenmeier, D. (2016). Advances in the Detection of the Adulteration of Alcoholic Beverages Including Unrecorded Alcohol. [Online] Available from: AdulterationofAlcoholicBeveragesinDOWNEY2016AdvancesinFoodAuthenticityTesting [Accessed] 19/October/2018

(2019, July 23). ABC Health. HOW DOES METHANOL AFFECT THE HUMAN BODY? Retrieved April 15, 2020, from https://www.myclallamcounty.com/2019/07/23/how-does-methanol-affect-the-human-body/

https://answersdrive.com/how-does-ethylene-glycol-affect-the-body-1462097

D.Fraser, A., & MacNeil, W. (01 March 1989). Gas Chromatographic Analysis of Methyl Formate and Application in Methanol Poisoning Cases. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 13(2), 73-76. Retrieved, from https://ift.tt/3b1d2FV

EJ, A., DA, E., & AJ, J. (June 2006). Homicidal ethylene glycol intoxication: a report of a case… Am J Forensic Med Pathol, 151-5. Retrieved, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16738434

LA, F., MG, A., & CA, N. (2003 April 23). Post-mortem analysis of formic acid disposition in acute methanol intoxication. Forensic Sci Int., 133(1-2), 152-8. Retrieved , from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12742704

Kim, H., Na, J., & Lee, Y. (2015). An autopsy case of methanol induced intracranial hemorrhage. Int J Clin Exp Pathol, 8(10), 13643–13646. Retrieved , from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4680535/

https://www.pallegarlawfirm.com/the-synergistic-effect-of-combining-drugs-and-alcohol-drug-dui.html

https://www.uhs.umich.edu/combine

https://www.neogen.com/neocenter/blog/food-fraud-the-adulterated-alcohol-trend/

M. Newman, I., Quian, L., & Tamrakar, N. (2018 Dec). Chemical Composition and Safety of Unrecorded Grain Alcohol (Bai Jiu) Samples from Three Provinces in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(12). https://ift.tt/2xAXlb0

Author :- Chhavi Singh, Intern at Legal Desire

Miss Chhavi Singh, at present she is pursuing Masters in Forensic science, Department of anthropology ( University of Delhi). She also has done 1-year “certificate course in forensic science” from the department of anthropology itself. She had done her bachelor’s in “Life Sciences” from “Kalindi college “, University of Delhi. She has done internships in various fields ,”Serology division” in CFSL ,CBI New Delhi, “Toxicology and Ballistics ” division in FSL, Rohini, Delhi. She also has done” Police training ” with Crime Branch Rithala, Delhi Police, and visited various crime scenes. She has also presented ABSTRACT in Forensic Science Conference, at the department of anthropology, Delhi University. Currently working on the dissertation Topic “Adulteration of alcohol”.

The post What kind of adulterants are present in alcohol, how does different type of adulterants affect the human body and in what ways they can be detected? appeared first on Legal Desire.

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market-insider · 5 years ago

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Gas Chromatography Market Worth $4.3 Billion By 2025 | CAGR: 6.4 %

The global gas chromatography market size is anticipated to reach USD 4.3 billion by 2025, according to a new report by Grand View Research, Inc. The market is expected to witness a CAGR of 6.4% over the forecast period, owing to increasing government investments in chromatography technologies coupled with rising collaborations between chromatography manufacturers and research laboratories.

Government in some parts of the world are investing in the chromatography techniques. For instance, Government of Canada has invested into business innovation initiative that is likely to help southern Ontario companies such as Natrix Separations, Inc. for developing new ideas and take their innovations to market. This funding is expected to assist the company in designing a prototype and developing single-use membrane-based chromatography products for large-scale biopharmaceutical manufacturing.

Rising collaborations between chromatography manufacturers and research laboratories are gaining pace in order to develop, evaluate, and validate new methods. For instance, PerkinElmer, Inc., has collaborated with Waters, to get practical and sustainable scientific innovations in order to optimize laboratory operations and to meet regulatory compliance.

The research activities include application areas, such as food and natural product analysis, pharmaceutical analysis, chemistry, petrochemistry, polymer analysis, and environmental analysis. Additionally, Hichrom Limited, a UK-based company collaborated with the chromatographic instrument and column manufacturers, and academic institutes or groups, to provide method development support, chromatographic methodologies troubleshooting, and others.

For More Details Please Visit @: http://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/gas-chromatography-market

Further Key Findings From the Study Suggest:

· The accessories & consumables segment held lucrative market share in 2016 and is expected to grow at a significant rate over the forecast period owing to growing demand for GC accessories as they have limited durability and repetitive use

· The healthcare segment is expected to be the fastest growing segment over the forecast period due to increasing applications of gas chromatography for biopharmaceutical industries such as analysis of volatile and semi-volatile compounds, and identification of amount of chemicals in drugs

· North America is expected to dominate the gas chromatography market over the forecast period due to increasing Canadian government investment in the market coupled with growing pharmaceutical & biotechnology industries

· Some of the key players in market are GE Healthcare; Shimadzu Corporation; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.; Agilent Technologies; W. R. Grace & Co.-Conn.; Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc.; Restek Corporation; PerkinElmer, Inc.; Danaher Corporation; and DANI Instruments S.p.A.

Grand View Research has segmented the global gas chromatography market on the basis of product, end-use, and region:

Gas Chromatography Product Outlook (Revenue, USD Million, 2014 - 2025)

· Accessories & Consumables

o Columns and accessories

o Fittings and tubing

o Auto-sampler accessories

o Flow management and pressure regulator accessories

o Other

· Instruments

o Systems

o Auto-samplers

o Fraction collectors

o Detectors

o Flame Ionization Detectors (FID)

o Thermal Conductivity Detectors (TCD)

o Mass spectrometry detectors

o Other detectors

· Reagents

o Analytical gas chromatography reagents

o Bioprocess gas chromatography reagents

Gas Chromatography End-Use Outlook (Revenue, USD Million, 2014 - 2025)

· Healthcare

· Other

Gas Chromatography Regional Outlook (Revenue, USD Million, 2014 - 2025)

· North America

o U.S.

o Canada

· Europe

o Germany

o UK

o France

o Italy

o Spain

· Asia Pacific

o Japan

o China

· Latin America

o Brazil

o Mexico

· Middle East and Africa (MEA)

o South Africa

#healthcare #Gas Chromatography Market

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