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13 Best Blumhouse Horror Movies Ranked

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Has any single person had a greater impact on horror this century than Jason Blum? The one-time Miramax executive struck out on his own in the 2000s when he founded Blumhouse Productions, a company where he remains the CEO. And in the ensuing years, Blum’s production label would define, and redefine again, the trends of horror movies and thrillers.

Operating on the philosophy that a horror film with a micro-budget will almost always turn a profit, Blum frequently allows directors broad freedom to make what they want within the genre, and in the process has kept multiplexes perpetually spooky. In 2009 Blumhouse helped reinvent the found footage horror aesthetic, and in the 2010s, the modern phenomenon of talent-focused horror gems began with Blumhouse’s gambles.

Working with filmmakers like James Wan, Scott Derrickson, Ethan Hawke, and Jordan Peele, Blumhouse Productions’ title card is now a promise of something different, if still eminently commercial and entertaining. It even paved the way for the controversial modern discourse around “elevated” horror, with Peele’s Get Out being the first chiller to win an Oscar for screenwriting since The Silence of the Lambs.

So with a new Blumhouse horror movie in theaters this Friday the 13th, we thought it a good time to count down the 13 best Blumhouse efforts that paid off with a bloody good time.

13. Hush

At the bottom of our top 13 is this taut thriller from Mike Flanagan, director The Haunting of series and Doctor Sleep fame. Flanagan and his co-writer and star (and also wife), Kate Siegel, wanted to make a horror movie with little to no dialogue. So they came up with this concept of a deaf-mute woman (Siegel) in a remote house, who is stalked by a killer with a crossbow. Hush is at its peak in the first 20 minutes as the masked man (10 Cloverfield Lane’s John Gallagher Jr.) realizes his quarry can’t actually hear him and begins to play games.

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The pair’s relationship with sound makes an interesting dynamic in this tense home invasion movie, though the cat and mouse chase does grow somewhat repetitive and generic as the film progresses. Still, a fine performance from Siegel and an indication of what Flanagan could do on a small budget make this very much worth checking out. – Rosie Fletcher

12. Happy Death Day

The Groundhog Day formula where an odious person is doomed to relive the same day countless times has proven remarkably flexible. And Happy Death Day is no exception with its horror-comedy blend of Punxsutawney hijinks and ‘80s slasher movie clichés. Starring a ridiculously game Jessica Rothe as Tree, the sorority girl who is constantly waking up with the hangover from hell, Happy Death Day follows the typical “Queen Bee” slasher archetype, and forces her to relive the same horror movie again and again. Until she can figure out who her masked killer is, and maybe how to be a better person, she’s condemned to die in increasingly preposterous ways. Worse still, she must also wake up in a dormitory afterward.

It’s derivative in a million different ways, but delightful in many more thanks to a cheeky atmosphere from director Christopher Landon and a very savvy, self-aware script by Scott Lobdell. Most of all though, it benefits from Rothe’s comedic talents on full display, as she backflips between initial verbal bitchiness and constant physical comedy. She even manages to find a little pathos, one stab wound at a time. – David Crow

11. The Visit

The Sixth Sense may remain M. Night Shyamalan’s masterpiece, but it was an oft-referenced moment from a different film that became key to Blumhouse pulling him back from the brink of irrelevance.

Having made four objectively terrible movies in a row, including the notoriously bad wind-smeller The Happening, Shyamalan seemingly decided to use what he’d learned from a very effective part of 2002’s Signs, where Joaquin Phoenix reacts to a tense home movie of an alien sighting, and took the next logical step: What if the director put together 90 minutes of unsettling home movie moments just like that?

Your mileage may vary with the handheld, mockumentary style of The Visit, but it’s hard to argue that this brisk, low-budget tale of two young siblings staying with some very, very odd grandparents they’ve never met before could play out more wildly than it does here. And Shyamalan certainly doesn’t pull many punches when it comes to putting those poor kids in peril during the film’s climax. – Kirsten Howard

10. Creep

No, not the one set on the subway, this Creep, directed by Patrick Brice, written by Brice and Mark Duplass, and also starring them both in a tense two-hander, is an altogether more unsettling affair. Brice plays Aaron, a videographer who answers an ad posted by Josef (Duplass), the latter saying he’s dying and wants a video diary made to leave to his son. But Josef’s behavior is weird – exactly how weird is too weird is the challenge faced by Aaron.

At just 77 mins long, this is a compact, unusual, often funny movie which picks at male relationships in the modern day, and how far kindness and politeness can override instinct. Duplass and Brice are incredibly natural in a film that’s extremely unusual, steeped in unease but not really like a traditional horror, with laughter and tension relief keeping you on your toes throughout. There’s a sequel which is good too, though if you can watch the first without spoilers it delivers a particular kind of dread that’s hard to replicate. – RF

9. Upgrade

A couple of decades ago, there were plenty of films around like Upgrade. You didn’t even have to move for fun sci-fi action movies, really! But the glory days of never having to wait for the next Equilibrium, Gattaca, Cypher, or even Jet Li’s The One are long behind us. It’s pretty tough to get a slick little concept movie made when you’re expected to compete with huge action tentpoles at the box office—unless you’re Leigh Whannell, one of Blumhouse’s integral puzzle pieces.

Whannell paid his dues at the production house for 15 years as both a writer and helmer before unleashing his sophomore directorial effort, Upgrade. The film, which follows ludicrously named technophobe Grey Trace after he loses his beloved wife in a violent mugging, sees a paralyzed hero get implanted with a chatty chip that allows him to regain the use of his whole body. Soon Trace become virtually superhuman—imagine an internal K.I.T.T.—but all is not as it seems.

It shouldn’t be as delightful as it is. Admittedly, the whole thing isn’t too far removed from an elevated episode of The Outer Limits. But if you miss old school sci-fi nonsense and feel nostalgic for a time when smart sci-fi projects didn’t end up as eight drawn out episodes on a major streaming service instead, Upgrade really scratches an itch.

Of course now might be a bad time to mention that an Upgrade TV series is in the works… – KH

8. Halloween

In resurrecting one of horror’s most enduring—yet stubbornly uneven—franchises, director David Gordon Green (working with screenwriters Danny McBride and Jeff Fradley) made the smartest move he could: He stripped away the ridiculously convoluted and nonsensical mythology the franchise had built up over decades. Instead he simply made a direct sequel to Carpenter’s 1978 masterpiece.

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The result was easily the best Halloween movie since the original itself, bringing the characters and the story into the present while reverting Michael Myers back to the enigmatic, unstoppable, unknowable force that was so terrifying in the first film. Jamie Lee Curtis, Judy Greer, and Andi Matichak as three generations of Strode women bring healthy feminine empowerment to the proceedings while the intense violence and uneasy psychological underpinnings give this Halloween a resonance that has been lacking for so long. – Don Kaye

7. Split

As the movie that suggested M. Night Shyamalan’s renaissance was real, Split is still a surprising box office win for the eclectic filmmaker. With a grizzly premise about a man suffering from Dissociative Identity Disorder (formerly known as split personality) kidnapping teen girls to hold in a zoo, this could be the stuff of ‘70s grindhouse sleaze. While there is a touch of that to Split, more critically the movie acts as a buoyant showcase for James McAvoy at his most unbound.

Playing a character with 24 different personalities, a shaved and beefy McAvoy is visibly giddy bouncing between multiple alters that include a deceptively sweet little boy, an OCD fashion designer, and a bestial final form. The commitment he shows to each also becomes its own special effect, causing you to swear his physical shape is changing with his expressions.

Similarly, scenes with theater legend Betty Buckley as his psychiatrist also rivet with the energy of a stage play, and suggest a sincere sympathy for mental illness. A rarity in horror. Nevertheless, the movie still comes down to his alters’ obsessions with their kidnapped prize (Anya Taylor-Joy), a young woman who hides demons of her own. When these true selves finally cross paths in a genuinely tense finale, Split is maniacally thrilling. – DC

6. Sinister

An unsettling entry in the horror subgenre of writers who destroy their families, Sinister marked director/co-writer Scott Derrickson’s (The Exorcism of Emily Rose) return to horror after he detoured with an ill-fated remake of The Day the Earth Stood Still. Thus Derrickson and co-writer C. Robert Cargill concocted a unique, if somewhat scattershot, mythology about a pagan deity that murders entire families in the ghastliest ways imaginable.

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True crime writer Ethan Hawke discovers the extent of those murders in a box of 8mm films left in the attic of his new home (where the last killings took place), and it’s the unspooling of those films—along with long sequences of Hawke moving through the shadows and silence of the house—that provide Sinister with its sickening core and palpable dread. Derrickson sustains the film’s foreboding mood for the entire running time, making the movie an authentically frightening experience. – DK

5. Oculus

The film that brought much of the world’s attention to Mike Flanagan, Oculus turned out to be a preview for the horror filmmaker’s interests. It also remains a truly unnerving ghost story. Not since the days of Dead of Night has a film so successfully made you scared of looking in a mirror.

Officially titled the Lasser Glass, the mirror in question is the apparent supernatural cause of hundreds of deaths, including the parents of Kaylie Russell (Karen Gillan) and her brother Tim (Brenton Thwaites). When they were children, their mother starved and mutilated herself before their father killed her. But now as an adult, Kaylie is convinced she can prove the antique glass is the true culprit, and she’ll document its evil power before destroying it. But the funny thing about evil mirrors is they have ways of protecting themselves, and wreaking havoc on a sense of time, place, and certainly self-image.

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With the movie’s near masterful blending of events occurring 11 years ago and in the present, Flanagan revealed a knack for dreamlike structure, and stories about the past damning the future. These are ideas he’s gone on to explore in richer detail with The Haunting of Hill House and Doctor Sleep, but Flanagan’s ability to juxtapose childhood trauma with a nightmarish present was never more potent, or tragic, than in Oculus’ refracted gaze. – DC

4. Paranormal Activity

It may take some mental gymnastics, but if you can take a step back and ignore all the sequels that followed in the wake of this surprise 2009 blockbuster, then you’d remember Paranormal Activity is a stone cold classic. It is also the movie that put Blumhouse on the map. Already mostly finished when Jason Blum saw a DVD screener of Oren Peli’s Paranormal Activity, this $15,000-budgeted terror is arguably the most evocative use of found footage in all of horror.

While Peli is obviously influenced by 1999’s The Blair Witch Project, that earlier movie is as famous for its shaky disorientation as it is its scares. By contrast what occurs in Paranormal Activity is excruciatingly clear. Seriously, the camera barely moves! Instead we’re asked to sit back and watch in near slow motion as an unwise couple (Katie Featherston and Micah Sloat) meddle with forces that were better off left undisturbed.

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It begins when Micah brings a home video camera into their house to track apparent ghosts in the dark; it ends in a demonic rush of violence. Everything in between is tracked by a disinterested lens, which usually sits statically in a corner or on a tripod, capturing the tedium of everyday life in its everyday natural lighting. Only occasionally does the horned shadow on the wall manifest. But then Paranormal Activity is chilling in its isolation. – DC

3. Insidious

As the fourth feature film directed by Australian filmmaker James Wan, Insidious follows a couple named Josh and Renai Lambert (Patrick Wilson and Rose Byrne), whose son inexplicably falls into a coma and becomes a vessel for malevolent entities from a dimension called the Further. The family enlists a psychic named Elise Rainier (Lin Shaye) in a battle involving astral projection and demonic possession.

Following an era of horror films that were more torture porn or police procedural (including Wan’s own Saw), Insidious was a return to the kind of horror filmmaking that was dependent on atmosphere, suspense, and what you don’t see lurking in the shadows. And Wan seemed to imbue that creepiness around the edges of every shot. Using actual adult characters and developing them (as opposed to the hipster teens that infested nearly every horror movie for at least 10 years previously) also set the film apart as a serious attempt at a genre that had been too often exploited in a tossed-off fashion.

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The world-building of Insidious left the door open for sequels, of course, and while the three produced so far have had their moments, none has matched the sheer invention and terrifying fun of the original. – DK

2. The Invisible Man

Leigh Whannell’s reimagining of the classic Universal Monster, the Invisible Man, was as much of a surprise when it hit screens earlier this year as the titular villain himself. As a smart social commentary on domestic abuse and gaslighting, while also being enormously effective as a straight up horror, this was a highly fresh take on an old standard.

At the core was the terrific performance of Elisabeth Moss as Cecilia, a woman stuck with her controlling boyfriend Adrian (Oliver Jackson-Cohen) in their high-tech, high security fortress of a home. When Cece finally manages to escape and Adrian appears to take his own life, she hopes her ordeal can finally be over. But in fact it’s just beginning.

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Playing on the true horror of not being believed, Whannell’s Invisible Man is as harrowing at times as it is thrilling. Yes, there are some extraordinarily shocking set pieces – the restaurant scene of course stands out – but it’s the increasing desperation of Cece, whose world is falling apart at the manipulative hands of a man who won’t let her go, which stays with you.

The Invisible Man is a thrilling horror, for sure, with a feel good ending (if you want to read it that way…), but it’s something altogether more exciting than that too: a fresh, relevant take on a classic, expertly directed and boasting star power delivered on a moderate budget, which flexes exactly what horror can do. – RF

1. Get Out

More impressive than any awards it won, Jordan Peele’s Get Out encapsulates the essential draw of horror: through entertaining “scares,” it unmasks truths folks might find too horrifying or uncomfortable to acknowledge. In the case of Get Out, it is the despair of Blackness and Black bodies still being commodified by a predatory American culture.

Wearing influences like Rosemary’s Baby and Stepford Wives on his sleeve, Peele pulls from classic horror conventions for his directorial debut, but gives them a startling 21st century sheen. His movie’s insidious conspiracy is neither an obvious coven of witches or the openly racist heavies of a period piece. Rather Peele sets his story about a Black man (Daniel Kaluuya) coming to meet his white girlfriend’s parents in a liberal conclave of wealthy suburbia. Written during the final days of the Obama years, Peele casts these parents (Bradley Whitford and Catherine Keener) as genial and welcoming, shielding cries of racism behind fashionable political correctness.

Yet once Peele moves past that trendy veneer, he finds a potent allegory in which the ghosts of slavery are still alive and well, even in Upstate New York. Peele also packs anxieties about interracial relationships, culture clash, and childhood trauma into a film that is nevertheless gregariously funny. Ultimately though, its final effect is triggering in the best way. Get Out offers an opportunity to confront real dread, one uneasy laugh, and then sudden jump scare, at a time. – DC

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shockpop · 6 years ago

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basic info.

name. marina! 💖🤠 pronouns. she / her. zodiac: capricorn. taken or single. taken!! my wuvbug n i celebrated our 6 yr anniversary in december ... we have 2 cats and a cat of the month tally chart so we can award the winning cat each month for being a good girl ( u lose pts for knocking shit down and screaming at 6 am )

three facts.

one. i love blonds. i always write blonds. i didn’t mean for that to come off like i did it on purpose but if a character is blond, there is a 99.9% chance i write / have written them. it just happens two. i LITERALLY always come back to this cuz it’s the freakiest fuckin thing abt me but i was born with like 11 extra teeth in my mouth and have had most of the extras removed but i’m still growing teeth?? i’m still growing teeth. i’m 25 years old and my second set of wisdom teeth are still coming in. i have six so far three. my college diet consisted of little caesar’s discarded hot n ready pizzas that i would get from climbing into the dumpster behind the store for after they closed. i got stuck in there a few times cuz i’m short. met a lot of dumpster cats * gratuitous four. i love denki so much and i just want the world to know and i cry over EVER PICTURE OF HIM EVER please never stop talking to me about my son and boy. he makes me so happy

experience.

platforms used. omfg ... i started on kids wb forums when i was like 10 and then moved onto a seto kaiba fansite for like 6 yrs. then eventually came to tumblr in 2009, where i rped kh in 2011, and i’ve been here ever since!

muse preference.

female or male. both, but i have a longer record of writing males! least favorite face(s). i will never really understand this question. i rmr back in marvel rpc in like, 2015, literally every single muse used dylan o’brien. didnt matter who you were rping. young tony stark? dylan o’brien. billy kaplan? dylan. you want fuckin. pepper potts? dylan potts hot n ready multi or single. single! fluff / angst / smut. I REALLY LOVE ANGST but it has to be, like, well done, y’know. not just “bleh bleh everyone’s dead” but something more of a long, cooperative effort on both ends ... i like writing ... anger and confusion and the hurt derived from those two emotions. especially where love is involved. that said, i also really like fluff!! ship with me plotting / memes. please plot with me always. i always love long plots and i get so excited for them!!! i just really love sharing headcanons and thoughts with other people and doing au’s and IT ALL JUST MAKES ME REALLY HAPPY, OK, ty. oppa gangnam style

tagged by. @legility

tagging. anyone who hasn’t done it yet!

#* . + OOC .#ty cole :*

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annieboltonworld · 3 years ago

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Juniper Publishers- Open Access Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources

Radiological Impacts of NORM and Poly Aromatic ||gg Hydrocarbon in Petroleum Industry Process on Marine Ecosystem at the Red Sea, Egypt

Authored by Kh M Zakaria

Abstract

This study was designed to realize the hazardous effects on marine ecosystem, and assess the impacts of (NORM) 238U, 232Th, and 40K radioactivity and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in petroleum industry at red sea coastline in Abu Zenima and Abu Rudeis sites. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs) individuals Naphthalene, Acenaphthene, Acenaphthylene, Fluorene, phenanthrene and Fluoranthene were analysed with HPLC with fluorescence detection for sea water, sediments and marine organisms Bivalves, coral reef and starfish. HPGe gamma ray spectrometric technique used for measured. The 238U, 232Th, and 40K radioactivity concentration in sea water, sediments and marine organisms Bivalves, coral reef and starfish in both Abu Zenima and Abu Rudeis sites. The data revealed an increase in the 238U, 232Th, and 40K and (PAHs) individuals for sea water, sediments and marine organisms Bivalves, coral reef and starfish in Abu Zenima and Abu Rudeis sites respectively as compared to international maximum allowable concentrations. On the other hand, 238U, 232Th, and 40K and (PAHs) individuals for sea water, sediments and marine organisms Bivalves, coral reef and starfish were recorded higher concentration levels in Abu Zenima sites than Abu Rudeis sites. The data revealed an increase in concentration of (NORM) 238U, 232Th and 40K and PAHs individuals for starfish and coral reef than bivalves marine organisms for both Abu Zenima and Abu Rudeis sites respectively as compared to international maximum allowable concentrations.

Keywords: NORM; Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbon; Petroleum Industry; Radiological Impacts; Marine Ecosystem

Introduction

Background information

The oil and hence polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are naturally present in the marine environment, although levels have increased significantly following human extraction and use of oil and gas [1]. Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) generally contain radio nuclides found in nature, i.e., thorium, uranium, and their progeny [2]. The TENORM waste is produced from several industrial sectors such as uranium and metal mining, phosphate ores. Processing and petroleum industry [3]. The petroleum waste (scale or sludge) have been produced by two mechanisms: either incorporation or precipitation onto the production equipment such as: pipelines, storage tank, pumps [4]. The precipitated TENORM wastes around walls of the petroleum pipes reduce their efficiency and then disposed and replaced periodically by new ones [5]. In the last decade, attention was focused on the environmental and health impact from the release of TENORM wastes.

Studies of naturally occurring radioisotopes of uranium and thorium decay series and primordial potassium in aquatic environment provide information on the environmental pollutants in water bodies, whereas marine invertebrates include sea slugs, sea anemones, starfish, octopuses, clams, sponges, sea worms, crabs, lobsters, coral reef and Bivalves, most of these animals are found close to the shore [6]. The possible radionuclide transfer provide an easy assimilation of radiation exposure into human body following their consumption [7,8]. Moreover, marine organisms such as filter feeders and piscivorous have the capacity of bioaccumulation more radionuclide's and toxic elements from water due to the physical and chemical nature of their body surfaces and feeding habit in their natural habitat, and thus, the determination of radioactivity in the marine organisms and estuaries marine animals assumes greater importance [8]. The level of natural radionuclides in marine organisms (226Ra, 228Ra and 40K) in mostly consumed marine fishes and shell fishes due to their importance as sources of high-quality protein [9].

Releases of radio-nuclides TE-NORM from marine petroleum industry (226Ra, 228Ra and 40K) effects on aquatic animals and marine food chains [9]. Among the many radio nuclides discharged into marine environments, (226Ra, 228Ra and 40K) the fate of these radio nuclides in the aquatic food chain is essential for a realistic assessment of the risk of their potential impact on human health [10]. The contribution of naturally occurring radio nuclides reflected in the sediments and marine coastline water. The radiation dose received and accumulated in the body by marine fauna comes from the naturally occurring uranium series [11]. On the other hand petroleum industry in marine have the Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) beside 238U, 226Ra, 232Th and 40K are formed during the manufactured oils in marine and sea water [11]. Oil and its derivatives PAHs have been found to be toxic to a wide array of marine organisms from marine invertebrates to large seabirds and marine mammals [12]. The effects of PAH son single organisms may add up to affect populations and communities, as well as whole ecosystems [12]. Phytoplankton, the major primary producer in the marine environment, is also sensitive to environmental stressors such as pollution. Phytoplankton plays a crucial role in the inflow of primary energy to coastal food webs; thereby changes in phytoplankton may cause significant damages to the functioning of marine ecosystems [13]. Abu Zenima and Abu Rudeis located on Suez gulf, this area have many oil offshore platform, several of these offshore platforms have been in operation to extract and process oil , processing and petroleum products distribution activities and have resulted in tremendous impacts on the safety and environmental conditions in the Suez Gulf. PAHs leaks and spills have resulted in serious contamination to the Suez gulf. PAHs contain many aromatic generation compounds such as naphthalene, Acenaphthalene, Acenaphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene; Fluoranthene Each PAHs can also be released into the environment, mainly due to offshore oil production or petroleum transportation [14]. Each PAHs have bad impacts contamination on bivalves and particularly mussels coral reef and star fish and marine invertebrates the status of the marine environment for large number of pollutants [15]. Where, PAHs are lipophilic and coplanar; they can accumulate in adipose tissues or secretions. Coral reefs are threatened by small chronic PAHs spills in particular, but larger acute oil spills may also affect coral reefs [15]. Observed biological impacts of oil spills in reef areas range from mass mortality of fish and invertebrates to apparently marine ecosystem devastation [16]. PAHs components can dissolve in water to some extent which exposes the corals to potentially toxic compounds. However, toxic concentrations are only encountered in the uppermost part of the water-column [16]. In the Suez Gulf PAHs easily gets trapped in the mangroves and usually persists for a very long time. The PAHs is subject to microbial degradation which may be a rather rapid process in aerobic environments. However, if the PAHs are buried within the anaerobic sediments, bio-degradation proceeds very slowly [17].

Materials and Methods

Study Area

The investigated area expanded along the coast of Suez gulf, Abu Zenima 29°3’20”N 33°6’11”E to Abu Rudeis 28°53′N 33°11′E.

Sampling and Sample Preparation

Six representative superficial shore sediment, sea water and marine organisms samples (Bivalves, Coral reef and Star fish) were collected from six different stations located along the offshore oil platforms in Abu Zenima (Abu Zenima 1, Abu Zenima 2, Abu Zenima 3), and Abu Rudeis 1, Abu Rudeis 2 and Abu Rudeis 3). An area of about 25x25 cm2 up to a depth of 5cm was cut out using the stainless steel template for guidance [18] . The collected shore sediment and sea water samples were transferred to labelled polyethylene bags, closed and transported to the laboratory for preparation and chemical analysis. The shore sediment samples were air-dried at room temperature for a week. And also were dried in an oven at 80°C (for 48h) till constant dry weight was obtained, crushed and homogenized. Then milled and sieved through 0.4mm mesh sieves and stored for further analysis. Water samples, 5 liter of each, were collected using the water sampler.

They were collected in polyethylene containers. Then, the samples were acidified with Nitric acid to pH lower than 2 to avoid micro-organisms growth. The samples were stored for radioactivity and Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons measurements. The marine organisms samples of Coral reef, Bivalves and Star fish were collected from Abu Zenima and Abu Rudeis and transported to the laboratory in ice boxes and stored at (-10oC) until subjected for further analysis, about 20 individuals of each species were collected from the study area; at the same locations of the water samples. The samples of marine organisms were then cut into smaller pieces to ensure effective grinding. The cleaned samples were dried in an oven at 70oC for five days (until there was no detectable change in the mass of the samples) to ensure that the sample were completely moisture free, a constant dry weight being obtained. Dried samples were ground to fine grain sizes by using a stainless steel cutter blender, and sieved in order to obtain homogeneity. All homogenized samples were divided into two parts. The first part was transferred into 250ml sizes Marinelli beaker, sealed hermetically, and left for about 4 weeks at room temperature in order to attain secular equilibrium among the 238U-series and 232Th-series precursors with their short-lived progenies [19] . The second part was kept in laboratory room temperature for using it in analysis the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Individuals.

Radioactivity Measurements

The activity concentration of the natural radioactivity 238U, 232Th and 40K in the investigated samples were determined using a high-resolution HPGe y-spectrometry system with 30�x0025; counting efficiency. This was performed by taking 250 cm3 counting vials filled up to a height of 7 cm, which correspond to 170 cm3. The measurement duration was up to 80,000sec and was carried out in the Laboratory of Egyptian Nuclear and Radiological Regulatory Authority. The obtained spectra were analyzed. The determination of the presence of radio nuclides and calculation of their activities were based on the following gamma-ray transitions (in keV): the 226Ra activities (or 238U activities for samples assumed to be in radioactive equilibrium) were estimated from 234Th (92.38keV, 5.6%), while y-energies of 214Pb (351.9keV, 35.8%) and 214Bi (609.3,45%), 1764.5keV, 17%) and 226Ra (185.99KeV, 3.5%) were used to estimate the concentration of 226Ra .

PAHs (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons) Measurements

Water samples (2.5-L) were collected in glass bottles at the water surface and 50 cm below water level from the six different sites on Abu Zenima and Abu Rudeis. The bottles were covered with screw caps and the samples were immediately transported to the laboratory for analysis. Water samples were filtered to remove sand and debris. Sediment samples (about 2kg for each sample) were taken from the same locations and time for water sampling at a depth 5cm of sediment surface. The water was removed from the sediments by decantation and then transferred to the laboratory. Samples were air dried in dark for 48 hours before analysis. Marine organisms (Bivalves, coral reef and star fish) were caught by fishermen three representative samples from the different sites at Abu Zenima and Abu Rudeis at the same times as water and sediment sampling.

They were transport to the laboratory. Standard solutions of reference materials were prepared in hexane. A stock solution containing the following PAHs was used for quantization: naphthalene, Acenaphthalene, Acenaphthylene, fluorene, and phenanthrene, Fluoranthene by dilution to create a series of calibration standards of PAHs at 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 5.0 and 10μg/ml. All solvents used in this study were of HPLC grade and were purchased from Alliance Bio, USA. Anhydrous Sodium sulfate and potassium hydroxide were of analytical grade PAHs were analyzed by using HPLC with fluorescence detection at at central lab , National Research Center, Egypt. The mobile phase was a mixture of acetonitrile and water with a gradient concentration mode of acetonitrile. The flow rate was 1mL/min. The time program of the fluorescence detector was set to detect at optimum excitation and emission wavelength for each PAHs according to laboratory detection method [22,23].

Results and Discussion

Radioactivity and Radionuclide in Water and Sediment in Coastline in Abu Zenima and Abu Rudeis

(Table 1) revealed the activity concentrations of, 238U, 232Th and 40K for sea water coastline in three sites at Abu Zenima1, Abu Zenima2 and Abu Zenima3. The activity concentrations of 238U, 232Th and 40K in seawater at site of Abu Zenima1 19.6mBq/L, 16.8mBq/L and 1340.7mBq/L respectively. On the other hand 238U, 232Th and 40K recorded in Abu Zenima2 highly activity 24.6mBq/L , 20.8mBq/L and 1448.7 mBq/L respectively. Also in site of Abu Zenima3 238U, 232Th and 40K were recorded 25.2mBq/L, 22.6 mBq/L and 1270.4mBq/L respectively. On the other hand (Table 2) reveled 238U, 232Th and 40K in sea water at Abu Rudeis1 recorded 10.2mBq/L, 7.33mBq/L and 632.5mBq/L respectively. Also 238U, 232Th and 40K recorded in sea water at Abu Rudeis2 9.47 mBq/L 13.9 mBq/L and 735.3 mBq/L respectively. Also (Table 3) revealed levels of 238U, 232Th and 40K in sea water at Abu Rudeis (Tables 4 & 5) 14.25mBq/L , 19.3mBq/L and 946.4mBq/L. Regarding to the present data and in compared to International permissible limits for NORMS radionuclide's in (Table 3), where data in the present study for 238U, and 232Th lay under the International permissible limits for NORMS radionuclide's in red sea 25mBq/L and 36mBq/L for 238U, and 232Th respectively. On the other hand El Afifi et al. [24] was recorded high levels activity concentration for 238U, 232Th and 40K in the TE-NORM waste at four different sites for petroleum and gas production in Egypt, in the South Sinai Governorate, in the Suez Gulf area, in the Matrouh Governorate, Abu Rudeis onshore oil and gas field and Gabal El Zeit offshore oil and gas field at the Suez Gulf. The results showed that the average activity concentrations of 226Ra changed between 5.9 and 68.9kBq/kg (dry weight) in the waste samples from Gabal El Zeit and Abu Rudeis fields, respectively. In Gabal El Zeit field, the lower activity concentrations (28.6kBq/kg) of 226R were found in granular sample, while higher values (56.6kBq/kg) were found in the massive samples [25,26]. Regarding the (Table 1) reveled sediment concentration of 238U, 232Th and 40K for sea water coastline at Abu Zenima1, Abu Zenima2 and Abu Zenima3, where 238U, 232Th and 40K recorded in sediment coastline at Abu Zenima1 22.5Bq/kg-1, 24.53Bq/kg-1 and 1658.6Bq/kg-1 respectively? On the other hand Abu Zenima 2 recorded highly concentration in where 238U, 232Th and 40K in costal sediment than Abu Zenima1, where concentrations levels 26.3Bq/kg-1, 28.22Bq/kg-1 and 1680.5Bq/kg-1 respectively. Also Abu Zenima 3 recorded moderate levels for 238U, 232Th and 40K in costal sediment. Also (Table 5) revealed sediment concentration 238U, 232Th and 40K for sea water coastline at Abu Rudeis (1), (2) and (3) sites. The Abu Rudies (3) site recorded highly concentration 238U, 232Th and 40K than Abu Rudeis (1), (2), at levels 18.68Bq/ kg-1, 23.3Bq/kg-1 and 1240.3Bq/kg-1 respectively. These results were confirmed with Uosif et al. [27], who noticed highly activity in 232Th and 40K in beach sediment at Suez gulf. On the other hand (Table 4) highly activity in 232Th and 40K in beach sediment at Suez gulf as compared to North east coast of Tamilnadu, India and other studies in different beaches of the world. The Egyptian beach sediments recorded 238U, 232Th and 40K 26.53Bq/ kg-1, 177Bq/kg-1 and 815Bq/kg-1 respectively. Many causes for increased the level of concentration 238U, 232Th and 40K in Red sea coastline. The petroleum industries in red sea coastline are considered the highly important factors for increased activity concentration in Red sea coastline, the scales and petroleum sludge contains many radioactive nuclides and highly concentration NORMS and TE-NORMS.

By the way many companies in past time follow the regulations and criteria for radiation safety regarding waste of NORMS and TE- NORMS. These regulation which settled by UNSCEAR, and ICRP and IEAE. After year of 2012 most of petroleum companies have many problems in cost for preservation of radioactive waste [28]. The decreased price of petroleum oil effect on regulation issues especially environmental safety and eco-marine safety. So most of the petroleum companies in Red sea coastline discharge the sludge and oil waste in sea water. Also many petroleum accident take place in these industries, which resulting of discharged the huge of petroleum oils in sea water. On the other hand, cracks in petroleum pipelines under sea water led to discharged oils and formed oils spots in coastline of sea water.

Gazineu, Hazin [29], were recorded average activity concentration of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in the scale, sludge and sand samples collected from disposal wasted petroleum pipes concentration of soil (33 and 45 Bqkg_1 for 238 U and 232Th series respectively) which indicates its contamination with radionuclide from TENORM in the wasted petroleum pipes. 228Ra activity concentration is ranged from 2 to 50 kBq kg_1 for Scale and from 1 to 1.9kBq kg_1 for sludge. The sand samples have average 228 Ra activity concentration equal to 0.042kBqkg_1 which within the worldwide average [30]. Many oil-field brines are particularly rich in chloride, enhancing the solubility of other elements including the radioactive element radium. Radium concentrations tend to be higher in more saline water [31]. Some of this saline, radium bearing water is also extracted with the oil and gas. Some radium and radium daughter compounds are slightly soluble in water and may become mobilized when this production water is brought to the surface [32].

Radioactivity and Radionuclide for Marine Organisms in Coastline at Abu Zenima and Abu Rudeis Sites

(Table 5) revealed the 238U, 232Th and 40K concentration in marine organisms Bivalves, coral reef and star fish at red sea coastline in Abu Zenima sites. The concentration of 238U, 232Th and 40K in Bivalves in Abu Zenima1 10.55Bq/kg, 9.2Bq/ kg and 355.7Bq/kg respectively. Also the coral reef recorded in Abu Zenima 1 15.86Bq/kg, 19.86 and 575Bq/kg respectively. The star fish was recorded 18.52Bq/kg, 22.36 and 649.7 in Abu Zenima 1. On the other hand (Table 5) reveled the highly concentration for 238U, 232Th and 40K in coral reef and star fish at Abu Zenima 2 and Abu Zenima 3, where coral reef recorded in Abu Zenima2 21.3Bq/kg, 24.85Bq/kg and 650.8 respectively. Also coral reef in Abu zenima3 recorded 24.48Bq/kg, 22.59Bq/ kg and 722.5Bq/kg respectively. On the other hand (Table 6) revealed marine organisms Bivalves, coral reef and star fish Abu Rudeis sites recorded low concentration activity in 238U, 232Th and 40K than Abu Zenima sites. The coral reef and star fish was recorded highly activity concentration than Bivalves in 238U, 232Th and 40K where coral reef in Abu Rudeis1 11.34Bq/kg , 12.61Bq/kg and 346.81Bq/kg respectively, and in Abu Rudeis2 11.37Bq/kg , 13.85Bq/kg and 396.83 Bq/kg respectively, while more activity concentration for 238U, 232Th and 40K in coral reef was recorded in Abu Rudeis3 12.22Bq/kg, 15.49Bq/kg and 466.6Bq/kg respectively.

On the other star fish recorded highly activity concentrations in 238U, 232Th and 40K at Abu Rudeis3 than Abu Rudeis1 and Abu Rudeis2, 19.82Bq/kg, 22.21Bq/kg and 520.4Bq/kg respectively. Regarding to our results and compared to International permissible limits for 238U, 232Th and 40K (Bq/kg dry weight) in some marine biota in sea water. Our results confirmed with IEAE [33] and US EPA [34] in (Table 7) where revealed the activity concentration in red sea of 238U, 232Th and 40K for many biota and marine organisms like Fish (Engraulis encrasicolus), Sepia Officianalis, Crabs, Diatom Amphora, (Om-Elkhlol "Donax trunculus, Gandofelly "Tapes decussates, Bivalves, Coral reef and Star fish. Bivalves were recorded activity concentration for 238U, 232Th and 40K 18Bq/kg, 37Bq/kg and 214Bq/kg respectively. Also coral reef and star fish in red sea were recorded 24Bq/ kg, 33Bq/kg, 176Bq/kg. 16Bq/kg, 25Bq/kg and 188Bq/kg respectively. When compared the activity concentration of 40K in marine biota Bivalves, Coral reef and Star fish at red sea coastline in Abu Zenima and Abu Rudeis sites, the highly activity and increased concentration of 40K may be due to the petroleum industry in marine and petroleum platforms. This platform discharged huge amount of petroleum waste in red sea coastline.

On the other hand our results in (Tables 4 & 6) revealed the marine organisms have different concentration in 238U, 232Th and 40K. The Bivalves recorded low concentration for 238U, 232Th and 40K, but coral reef and star fish recorded highly concentration for 238U, 232Th and 40K in Abu Zenima and Abu Rudeis sites. The morphological structures and also chemical structures of Bivalves, where Bivalves have smooth surfaces from two sides and have no pores and have no pits on exoskeleton of their body. The morphological structures gained it more resistance against accumulation of oils waste, also the smooth exoskeleton prevents discharged the waste into internal organs for organism. On the other hand coral reef and star fish have roughly surface and contain more small pores on exoskeleton. Also the coral reef and star fish contain many pits and spiny exoskeleton. Morphological structures for coral reef and star fish led to make preservation of these organisms with huge amount form petroleum oil waste. So the elimination process from oil waste in coral reef and star fish become more difficult than any other types of marine organisms. By the way elimination and biodegradation process of 238U, 232Th and 40K and other radioactive waste become very slowly and take more time. This data conformed to Khan [35], who studies the distribution of natural radio nuclides like 226Ra, 228Ra, 40K, 238U and man- made radio nuclides in the dietary sources such as fish, crab, prawn, salt and drinking water from the aquatic environment. The natural radio nuclides activity concentrations of in 238U, 232Th and 40K 14.9,22, 641Bq kg-1 in marine samples fishes, Crab and Prawn. Among different type of marine fishes analysed, the maximum 226Ra activity of 22Bqkg-1 was observed in the fish Sardinella sp. and Liognathus sp. was found to accumulate the highest 228Ra activity level [36]. Among the shells of animals tested, Crustacean exoskeleton registered relatively higher level of 238U, 232Th and 40K as compared to the shell of molluscan species. This is attributed to its chemical nature [37].

Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons PAHs for Seawater and Coastal Sediments at Abu Zenima and Abu Rudeis

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are known as prevalent contaminants in marine environment. (Tables 8 & 9) showed the distribution and concentration levels of Poly aromatic hydrocarbons PAHs found in seawater and coastal sediments in Abu Zenima and Abu Rudeis coastline. Our results revealed that increased concentration levels of PAHs in Abu Zenima sites than Abu Rudeis sites. The data recorded that Naphthalene, Acenaphthylene, Acenaphthene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene and Fluoranthene in sea water at Abu Zenima1 34.6, 22.8, 18.4, 12.13, 9.23 and 15.3ng/L respectively. On the other hand Abu Zenima2 and Abu Zenima3 recorded highly levels for PAHs, Naphthalene, Acenaphthylene, Acenaphthene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene and Fluoranthene 95.3, 37.58, 66.54, 22.16, 21.8 and 34.78ng/L in Abu Zenima2 respectively; 135.68,45.37, 95.56, 35.27, 40.58, 55.38ng/L in in Abu Zenima3 respectively [38] .

On the other hand and regarding to results in (Table 9) showed concentration levels of Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons PAHs found in seawater at Abu Rudeis. The Naphthalene, Acenaphthylene, Acenaphthene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene and Fluoranthene in Abu Rude is 1 were recorded levels 22.2, 11.8, 8.42, 6.75, 4.69, 8.33ng/L respectively. on the other hand (Table 9) showed highly concentration levels of PAHs in seawater at Abu Rudeis2 and Abu Rudeis3 were Naphthalene, Acenaphthylene, Acenaphthene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene and Fluoranthene recorded in Abu Rudeis2 45.6, 22.33, 28.35, 12.63, 12.39and 18.73ng/L respectively; also Abu Rudeis3 were recorded 76.21, 25.68, 53.78,16.86, 22.47and 32.48 respectively. Spilled petroleum products are the largest single source of PAHs. Crude oils contain up to 10 percent PAHs, while the PAH content of shale oils and coal-derived synthetics can be as high as 15 percent. Incomplete combustion of wood and fossil fuels are important sources, as are incineration of garbage, steel and coke production, coal liquefaction, and coal gasification.

Although most emissions stem from human activities, there are some natural sources such as microorganisms that are known to produce small amounts of PAHs. Produced water from both oil and gas platforms contains PAHs. Taking into account the large volumes of produced water discharged from oil production, the yearly input of PAHs into the environment, even from a single offshore oil field, may be significant. These results was found to be in agreement with that observed by Omayma [39], who observed that the petroleum company's takes water from Suez bay and mixed it with fresh water to utilize in washing the crude oil and different cooling purposes, some oily smuggling occurs for water. The oily water is characterized by that they contain a high proportion of the oils which is caused by refinery production units (Coking- distillation- oils), liquidation warehouses crude and petroleum products, water waste companies neighboring filter wards pumps, Trenchant grids crude and petroleum products. The increased of PAHs was due to found the more petroleum operations in these sites. On the other hand the treatment plant cannot process in the company anymore, which is directly (untreated) discharged into Abu Zenima sites. Also the conjugated crude and petroleum products, which have TE- NORM and PAHs may be increased for marine environmental pollutants stress.

The sediments and biota, Bivalves, coral reef and starfish were affected by different concentration of PAHs. (Tables 10 & 11) showed an increase in PAHs Naphthalene, Acenaphthylene, Acenaphthene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene and Fluoranthene at Abu Zenima sites than Abu Rudeis sites. The sediments in Abu Zenima1 were recorded for PAHs Naphthalene, Acenaphthylene, Acenaphthene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene and Fluoranthene 44.3, 28.5, 55.2, 18.3, 16.74 and 25.64ng/g dw respectively as compared to Maximum allowable concentrations (Table 12) . On the other hand PAHs Naphthalene, Acenaphthylene, Acenaphthene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene and Fluoranthene in Abu Zenima2 and Abu Zenima3 sites were recorded 122.5 , 64.22, 73.25 , 28.36, 33.59 and 40.22ng/g dw respectively;155.25, 86.49, 112.35, 43.62, 55.93 and 79.24ng/g dw respectively as compared to Maximum allowable Concentrations (Table 12).

By the way Abu Rudeis2and Abu Rudeis3 sites were recorded 62.34, 33.52, 42.29, 15.79, 15.64 and 26.73ng/g dw respectively; 92.57, 37, 65.43, 22.43, 29.77 and 44.82ng/g dw respectively. These results was found to be in agreement with that observed by Hussain et al. [39], who observed the relatively high concentrations of Naphthalene, Acenaphthylene, Acenaphthene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene and Fluoranthene at certain locations Suez Gulf Abu Zenima sites. In the present study PAHs individuals for sediment at Abu Zenima sites (Naphthalene, Acenaphthene, Acenaphthylene and Fluoranthene were recorded highly concentration than other PAHs individuals. In this study and when the results compared to the national environmental standard, it was noticed that the low concentration in total and individuals PAHs. This result was found to be in agreement with that observed by El Nemr [40] who recorded that PAHs in the sediments of the Suez Gulf may produce adverse effects on certain organisms living in and coming into contact with the sediments. However, the individual PAH concentrations in this study were lower than the national sediment quality criteria proposed by the USEPA [41] for Fluoranthene (3000ng g-1), Acenaphthylene (2400ng g-1) and phenanthrene (2400ng g-1).

The present work also monitoring the marine organisms (Bivalves, coral reef and starfish) in coastline at Suez Gulf in Abu Zenima and Abu Rudeis sites. (Tables 10 & 11) showed the Distribution and concentration levels of PAHs individuals in Abu Zenima and Abu Rudeis sites. (Table 10) showed the increased PAHs individuals, Naphthalene, Acenaphthylene, Acenaphthene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene and Fluoranthene in starfish and coral reef than Bivalves. On other hand PAHs individuals recorded highly concentration in Abu Zenima3 and Abu Zenima2, than Abu Zenima1. Where levels was recorded in Abu Zenima1 for concentrations of Naphthalene, Acenaphthylene, Acenaphthene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene and Fluoranthene in Bivalves 6.4, 1.2, 3.2, 7.4, 4.4 and 1.9μg g-1 dry weight respectively. On the other hand coral reef and starfish recorded highly concentration than Bivalves, where levels reaching to 8.68, 3.2, 2.55, 15.3, 7.9 and 2,6μg g-1 dry weight respectively; 12.3, 6.25, 5.11, 18.7, 18.7 and 4.7μg g-1 dry weight respectively. The Bivalves, coral reef and starfish in Abu Zenima3 and Abu Zenima2 recorded highly levels in concentrations for Naphthalene, Acenaphthylene, Acenaphthene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene and Fluoranthene, where Bivalves recorded in Abu Zenima2 9.65, 3.8, 7.8, 9.5, 11.7 and 3.5 μg g-1 dry weights respectively. Also coral reef and starfish were recorded in Abu Zenima2 9.22, 7.24, 8.9, 11.2, 13.8 and 4.6μg g-1 dry weight respectively; 13.7, 11.4, 7.9, 19.3, 17.2 and 6.8μg g-1 dry weight respectively. On the other hand Bivalves were recorded in Abu Zenima3 for Naphthalene, Acenaphthylene, Acenaphthene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene and Fluoranthene 12.9, 4.8, 5.3, 14.7, 16.8 and 9.3 μg g-1 dry weights respectively.

The coral reef and starfish also recorded15.3, 9.2, 8.8, 22.6, 19.4 and 12.3 μg g-1 dry weight respectively; 18.7, 12.3, 13.6, 28.4, 22.6 and 16.8μg g-1 dry weight respectively. When compared our results with the data of Maximum allowable Concentrations (MACs) USEPA: 1993 in (Table 12), where recorded for Naphthalene, Acenaphthylene, Acenaphthene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene and Fluoranthene 0.007, 0.008, 0.007, 0.001, 0.009 and 0.009μg/kg dry weight respectively. The concentration levels of PAHs individuals in Abu Zenima sites were recorded higher than that in Maximum allowable Concentrations (MACs) USEPA for PAHs in marine organisms in wati [41]. These results was found to be in agreement with Al Deep et al. [42], who was observed the accumulation of total PAHs were more pronounced in the tissues of higher lipids contents, which increase in the large and old individuals, and they found that the coral reef and starfish comes second regarding to their PAHs accumulations ratios after the dwelling fish species.

Size of the marine organisms may be not only contributed to change the accumulation factors responsible for the quantities of pollutants such as time exposure and lipids contents but also in the factors responsible for the pollutants selectivity. For example, Maioli et al. [43] demonstrated that coral reef and starfish of greater size accumulated PAHs of low molecular mass, whereas the smaller mussels had accumulated greater concentrations of high molecular mass PAHs Metabolism may explain this pattern, because it is suspected that PAH of High Molecular Mass (HMW) are more rapidly metabolized than Low Molecular Mass (LMW) due to differences in enzyme affinity [44]. The increased of concentration levels of PAHs individuals in Bivalves , coral reef and starfish at Abu Zenima were be attributed to the presence of many petroleum industrial marine plates in this region at south canal. Also this petroleum plates discharge some oils into the water plus to their incomplete fuel combustion emissions [45].

On the other hand (Table 11) showed the low level concentration of PAHs individuals in Abu Rudeis sites as compared to Abu Zenima sites in (Table 10) and Maximum allowable Concentrations (MACs) USEPA for PAHs in marine organisms in (Table 12). The Naphthalene, Acenaphthylene, Acenaphthene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene and Fluoranthene were recorded in Bivalves at Abu Rudeis1 1.28, 0.79, 0.21, 1.31, 1.73 and 0.28 μg g-1 dry weights respectively. The impact of PAHs individuals and TE- NORM 238U, 232Th and 40K in marine organisms make dangerous effects on marine ecosystem. These effects were to be attributed for spreading the petroleum marine plates in these sites and areas. On the other hand many of these petroleum industries do not have following environmental regulations and marine protection standards during process for removal petroleum waste. Also during the process of oil transportations and drilling for sludge and oil tanks. The accumulation of double effects of and also many effects of hazardous materials like TE- NORM 238U, 232Th ,40K and PAHs individuals may be devastation the marine ecosystems in red sea coastline and Gulf of Suez.

Conclusion

The concentrations of natural radioactive series nuclides varied widely within the oil fields and from one oil field to another through spectrum of this study area. This study revealed the correlation between the effects of naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) 238U, 232Th and 40K on marine ecosystem. In this study, the increased of 238U, 232Th and 40K in sea water and sediments were related to increased in PAHs individuals. The 238U, 232Th and 40K in Abu Zenima 3 and Abu Zenima 2 sites were recorded higher concentration than Abu Zenima1. Also Abu Rudeis 3 and Abu Rudeis were recorded highly activity than site of Abu Rudeis1. The levels of 238U, 232Th and 40K in sea water and sediments at Abu Zenima and Abu Rudeis were parrled and synchronized with levels of 238U, 232Th and 40K in sea water and sediments at Abu Zenima PAHs individuals in both sites. The study showed the increased level concentrations of 238U, 232Th and 40K and PAHs individuals in sea water and sediments Abu Zenima sites than Abu Rudeis sites as compared to international Maximum allowable concentrations. On the other hand this study revealed the effect of (NORM) 238U, 232Th and 40K and PAHs individuals on marine organisms Bivalves, coral reef and starfish on both sites. The data revealed increased concentration of (NORM) 238U, 232Th and 40K and PAHs individuals for starfish and coral reef than bivalve's marine organisms for both Abu Zenima and Abu Rudeis sites respectively as compared to international maximum allowable concentrations. Regarding to these data, all petroleum industries in this sites must be take into consideration the roles and standers' of protection for marine ecosystem. On the other hand, the Egyptian government must be applied the regulation for marine environmental protection lows.

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biomedgrid · 4 years ago

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Biomed Grid | Characterization of Union Sites for Opioids in Human Lymphocyte Membranes

Abstract

The opioid peptides Methionine enkephalin and β-Endorphin are stimulators of Natural Killer cytolytic activity. To know the biochemical mechanisms that explain this action, the binding of Methionine enkephalin and Naloxone in presence or ausence of Na+ ion and GTP to human Lymphocyte membranes was characterized.

Methionine enkephalin or β-Endorphin in concentrations greater than physiological concentrations delivers stimulations of the order of 25% on the respective control value. For the receptors, a binding assay of the radioligands (3H)-Methionine enkephalin and (3H)-Naloxone was used, with the Scatchard analysis finding only one type of binding site in each case, with KD values of 6.8 and 5.9 [nm] and Bmax of 38 and 54 [fmol/mg of protein] respectively. These values are not comparable to those described in nervous, tumor or lymphoid tissue. The displacement tests revealed similarity between Naloxone and Methionine enkephalin binding sites due to their mutual displacement, unlike that observed with β-Endorphin.

In contrast to previous studies, it was found that the effect of the Na+ ion (100 mM) did not modify the IC50 values, whereas GTP markedly reduced the total binding of both ligands: Methionine enkephalin and Naloxone and suggests the participation of a protein with G protein characteristics.

Keywords: Methionine Enkephalin; Β-Endorphin; Natural Killer Cells; Naloxone; Human Lymphocyte Membranes; Na+ Ion; GTP; Displacement Assays

Introduction

Our immune system has diverse defense mechanisms that can be classified as a humoral and cellular responses, that is, the production of diversity of antibodies by the a B Lymphocyte and others cells capable of recognizing and destroying other cells such as Natural Killer (NK) cells, which constitute a subpopulation of lymphocytes with the ability to destroy tumoral or viral infected cells, without prior sensitization or restriction of the Histocompatibility Major Antigen type. The NK cells correspond morphologically to large granular lymphocytes and represent a minor but important proportion of total circulating mononuclear cells [1,2].

This Natural Killer Cell Activity (NKCA) which decreases markedly in pathologies such as leukemia, immunodeficiency and sepsis [2,3] has been the subject of extensive research in recent years, evidencing the existence of several modulators such as several lymphokines, especially IL-2 and IFN (α, β, γ) [4,5] which promote either the proliferation of NK cells and/or their stimulation [6,7].

Another important group of modulators are the opioid peptides (OP), particularly the enkephalins and endorphins: Methionine enkephalin (ME), Leucine enkephalin (LE) and β-Endorphin (BE) [8,9].

In humans, BE biosynthesis begins when its β-Lipotrophin precursor is co-incubated with the adrenocorticocotrophin hormone (ACTH), from the cutaneous proopiomelane (POMC) in the corticotrophs of the anterior pituitary gland, then generating γ- Lipotrophin and BE. Because β-Lipotrophin is secreted intact, BE levels are extremely low. However, agents that stimulate the release of ACTH, including hypoglycemia and intense exercise also increase the plasma concentration of BE [10,11]. The enkephalins derived from Proenkephalin A are stored in the adrenal medulla and subsequently released in response to hypoglycemia or renal failure [12,13]. In several species studied they are an important part of the adrenomodular chromaffin granules, mainly in the form of pentapeptides [14,15]. In addition to the actions described for OP, such as the inhibition of the growth of some types of tumors and participation in the control of brain development [16,17], these exert multiple effects on the cells of the Immune system:

a. In T cells, both peptides decrease antigen-specific cytolysis [18,19].

b. In polymorphonuclear leukocytes, ME stimulates chemotaxis [19">19], while BE stimulates adhesion to surfaces [20] and the production of superoxides [21,22].

c. In monocytes stimulation of chemotaxis and inhibition of phagocytosis has been described, by ME, LE and BE [23,24].

d. In NK cells, it has been described that these three endogenous peptides stimulate cytolytic activity [8] O’Connor et al., 2006).

Receptors for opioids have been described in the nervous system and peripheral tissues [25,26] and opioid binding sites have been detected in a wide variety of animal and human tumors [27,28]. It is known that the actions of opioids in the nervous system are mediated by at least four different receptor types (μ, δ, κ, σ) each of these with ligand selectivity, distribution and different physiological effects [26]. In the IS the existence of binding sites for these neuropeptides has been controversial [29,30].

Binding sites have been described in human T lymphocytes using the antagonist Naloxone [12,31] and in human and murine leucocytes [32,33], reaffirming the existence of receptors with opioid characteristics [24,35].

Considering the existence of opioid receptors in that would explain the interconnection in nervous/immune system, in this work has been studied and partially characterized the binding sites present in human lymphocyte membranes (HLM) both for the pentapeptide ME due to its possible relationship with the increase of NKCA, as well as for the opiate antagonist Naloxone, capable of reversing this action [17,26]

Material and Methods

Lymphocytes

Obtained from peripheral blood samples from healthy voluntary donors from the blood bank of the José Joaquín Aguirre Hospital of the University of Chile. Cells from the K-562 cell line, derived from human erythroleukemia, were used as target cells.

Culture and maintenance of target cells

The growth and maintenance of the K-562 cell line RPMI-1640 was added bovine fetal serum (FBS) at a final concentration of 10% and was supplemented with antibiotics and antifungals: 100 U/mL penicillin, 100 μg/mL Streptomycin, 1.25 μg/mL Fungizone (complete culture medium: CCM). Cell vitality was followed by exclusion of the trypan blue dye. Radiomarking of target cells. K-562 cells (106 cells/mL) were incubated in the presence of 100 μCi of sodium chromate (51Cr; Chilean Nuclear Energy Commission) for one hour at 37° C with occasional shaking every fifteen minutes. After the deadline, the cells are washed three times with CCM, finally adjusting to a concentration of 5x104 cells/mL of CCM. The target cells thus obtained were used immediately in the NKCA assays.

Obtaining lymphocytes (effector cells) [36]. The heparinized blood sample, approximately 40 mL, is divided into 50 mL conical plastic tubes. To each fraction is added 6.8 mL of a solution composed of dextran (3%) and NaCl (0.9%), inverting the tube three times and leaving it to rest for 30 minutes at room temperature. The supernatant is transferred to another conical tube with the same characteristics. Then, 27 mL of Ficoll-Hypaque solution (d=1.077) (Sigma Chemicals Co. (St. Louis MO USA) are added and the tubes are centrifuged at 500xg for 15 minutes at room temperature. The layer of cells formed in the interface is extracted and transferred to 15 mL glass tubes. Cells were washed with 10 mL of PBS solution (15 mM KH2PO4, 8 mM Na2HPO4, 3 mM KCl, 140 mM NaCl, 5 mM MgCl2 and 150 μM CaCl2) centrifuged at 250 xg, for 3 minutes at room temperature and repeating twice the washed. Finally, the cells were resuspended in CCM at a concentration of 2×106 cells/mL and used immediately in the cytolysis assays.

Treatment of effector cells with neuropeptides

The effector cells were incubated with ME and BE. Thus, lymphocytes (2x106 cells/mL) were preincubated in Eppendorf tubes in the presence of ME (10-6-10-10 M) or BE (10-8-10-12 M). The lymphocytes were centrifuged at 250xg for three minutes and resuspended in CCM and the centrifugation is repeated. Finally, the cells are resuspended and adjusted to a concentration of 2×106 cells/mL in CCM and the cytolysis assay is carried out. Lymphocytes incubated only in CCM are used as control. All the stimulation tests were performed with an effector: target ratio of 40 (40:1).

NKCA assay

To achieve this objective, 0.1 mL of effector cells (2x106 cells/ mL) were added to 0.1 mL of target cells (5x104 cells/mL) in multi-titration plate wells (Nunc), performing this operation in quadruplicate. The plates were centrifuged at 15xg for 10 minutes and immediately incubated for four hours at 37° C and 5% CO2. Then, the plates were centrifuged again, and 0.1 mL of this supernatant was analyzed in a gamma counter model Packard Multi-Prias 1 (Packard Instruments Company).

Obtaining of HLM

Briefly, the effector cells obtained previously according to section 3, were lysed by sonication for ten minutes at room temperature [37]. Then, they were centrifuged at 30,000 xg for one hour at 4° C. The precipitate was resuspended in 5 mL of Tris.HCl buffer (50 mM, pH: 7.7) supplemented with the antibiotic Bacitracin (50 μg/ mL) and the amount of total proteins present was determined [38].

Radioligand binding assays

The HLM obtained were used in binding of 3H-ME and 3H-Naloxone Ogawa et al [39] (Amersham (UK, 49.4 Ci/mmol and 40 Ci/ mmol, respectively) which comprises incubating the membranes in Eppendorf tubes (250 ug protein per assay) for 30 minutes in increasing concentrations of radioligand (1-40 nM) in volume of 150 uL and 25° C with constant agitation The reaction is terminated by dilution at 4° C with five mL of the Tris.HCL buffer and immediate vacum filtration. The filters (GF/C Whatman) are washed twice with five mL of same buffer and once dry the retained radioactivity determined in them by a liquid scintillation counter, model Delta 300 (Searle Analytic Inc.) having 40% of efficiency for tritium. The total binding corresponds to the radioactivity retained in the filters. In the non-specific binding, incubation was performed in the presence of unlabelled (Naloxone or ME) at a concentration of 10-5 M. Compound Specific binding was determined by the difference between total and non-specific binding. Thus, the concentration of the bound radioligand (B) is plotted as a function of the concentration of the free radioligand (F), obtaining a saturation curve for the equilibrium reached. Scatchard analysis (1949), which is plotted on the ordinate the values of the ratio B/F and the abscissa the value was used to obtain the dissociation constant (KD) and the maximal binding capacity (Bmax) united radioligand (B). A straight line is obtained whose intersection with the horizontal axis determines the value of Bmax and the negative reciprocal value of the slope corresponds to the value of KD.

Displacement tests

Naloxone, ME and BE. Lymphocyte membranes (250 μg of protein per assay) were incubated for 30 minutes at 25°C in the presence of the radioligand (3H-ME or 3H-Naloxone, 20 nM) and the displacer in increasing concentrations (10-10 - 10-2 M). Then, both for the end of the reaction and for obtaining the data, which are plotted as percentage of inhibition respect to the control, as a function of the negative value of the logarithm of the concentration of the displacer used and the IC50 values are calculated for each of the displacers. This value corresponds to the concentration of the displeasure capable of inhibiting 50% of the binding to membranes.

Effect of sodium ions and GTP

Concentrations of 100 mM and 100 μM of NaCl and GTP were used, respectively, which were added to the incubation medium and then proceeded in the same way described. in the previous section.

Statistical analysis

The data are expressed as averages, standard error (S.E.M) and analyzed by the paired Student’s “t” test.

Results

Effect of opioids on NKCA

Graphic 1:Effect of OP in physiological concentrations on NKCA. Determinations in quadruplicate (n = 9), the stimulation with BE was not significant (p> 0.05).

The Graphic 1 shows the NKCA stimulation expressed as a percentage of increase over the control value, in the presence of BE and ME in physiological concentrations. The samples treated with BE achieved a stimulation of around 20% over the control value and only present in 70% of the samples. The samples incubated in the presence of ME, no stimulation of the NKCA was observed.

The Table 1 show the NKCA in non-physiological concentrations of ME an BE.

Table 1: Stimulation of NKCA mediated by ME and BE in non-physiological concentrations, expressed as percentage of specific lysis.

Group A: (samples 1-6) an increase in NKCA of at least 20% over the control value is achieved for both concentrations of the peptides studied, however, the stimulation is not significant (p> 0.05).

Group B: samples 7-11) mixed results are obtained

The group A contains the samples that present stimulation of 25% of the control value, in both concentrations of ME and BE. The group B collects the samples that are not or that present mixed results, both stimulated only by ME (sample 8), only by BE (sample 7), only by a concentration of the opioid studied (sample 11) or not stimulated by both peptides (samples 9 and 10). Although it was possible to divide the response to opioids into two groups, the stimulation achieved by group A did not turn out to be statistically significant with respect to the control (p> 0.05).

Graphic 2: Saturation curve and Scatchard plot (insert) for the binding of 3H-ME to HLM. Each value represents the average value of determinations in duplicate of three different samples.

Saturable specific binding curves reaching equilibrium in 30 minutes were obtained in 70% of the samples for both ligands (ME and Naloxone). Graphic 2 & Graphic 3 show the saturation curve and the Scatchard plot (insert) for ME and Naloxone, respectively, when using radioligand concentrations between 1 and 40 nM. In both cases, the behavior agrees with the model of a single type of binding site described in the Scatchard analysis. The values of the parameters KD and Bmax obtained are shown in Table 2.

Graphic 3: Saturation curve and Scatchard plot (insert) for the binding of 3H-Naloxone to HLM. Each value represents the average value of determinations in duplicate of three different samples.

Table 2: Values of the parameters KD [nm] and Bmax [fmol/mg protein] obtained in the Scatchard analysis. The parameters are very similar in both cases studied.

Displacement of the union to membranes

Graphic 4: Displacement curve of the binding of 3H-ME to HLM mediated by ME, BE and Naloxone. Each value corresponds to the average of determinations in duplicate (n=3).

Graphic 5: Displacement curve of 3H-Naloxone binding to HLM mediated by ME, BE and Naloxone. Each value corresponds to the average of determinations in duplicate (n=3).

Table 3: IC50 values for the displacement of 3H-ME binding to HLM (Graphic 4).

Table 4: IC50 values for displacement of 3H-Naloxone binding to HLM (Graphic 5).

For the binding sites for 3H-ME and 3H-Naloxone, a concentration of 20 nM of the radioactive compound was used against a wide range of concentrations of Naloxone, ME and BE (10-10 to 10-2 M). Thus, Graphic 4 & Graphic 5 show the displacement of the total binding of 3H-ME and 3H-Naloxone, respectively. Whereas Table 3 & Table 4 present the IC50 values for both studies.

Effect of Na+ and GTP ions

Graphic 6: Effect of sodium ions and GTP on the displacement of the binding of 3H-Naloxone in HLM, mediated by ME. Each value corresponds to the average of determinations in duplicate (n=3).

The Graphic 6 shows the displacement in the case of ME, observing that the addition of GTP drastically decreases the ME junction to membranes, which is reflected in the IC50 value obtained: 88 times greater than that obtained in the absence of GTP. On the other hand, there was no noticeable change in the presence of sodium ions (Table 5).

Table 5: IC50 values for displacement of 3H-Naloxone binding to HLM mediated by ME, in the presence and absence of NaCl (100 mM) or GTP (100 μM). (Graphic 6).

Graphic 7: Effect of Na+ and GTP on the displacement of the binding of 3H-Naloxone to HLM, mediated by Naloxone. Each value corresponds to the average of determinations in duplicate (n=3).

The (Graphic 7) exhibits the displacement of the total 3H-Naloxone binding mediated by Naloxone in the presence and absence of sodium or GTP ions.

The addition of GTP again drastically altered the displacement of Naloxone expressed in an IC50 value that was 85 times higher than that obtained in its absence. Finally, the addition of sodium ions did not alter the IC50 value obtained in its absence (Table 6).

Table 6: IC50 values for displacement of the 3H -Naloxone binding to HLM by Naloxone, in the presence and absence of NaCl (100 mM) or GTP (100 μM) (Graphic 7).

Discussion

Since the discovery of OP and their endogenous ligands, it has been widely recognized that endogenous OP plays a variety of physiological roles [28,40]. Recently great importance has been given to the possibility that these peptides are involved in the modulation of the IS [41].

It has been shown that OP regulate NKCA [17,42]. NK cells have generated increasing interest due to their potential role in hematopoiesis and in the control of viral infections, as well as in the growth of some types of tumors and in the extracellular destruction of bacteria [43,44]. Although several agents capable of positively or negatively altering NKCA have been described, the mechanism by which this process develops is not completely clear. However, it is possible to divide it into stages: the first step of the lytic pathway involves the recognition of the target cell through receptor-ligand interactions. Next, signals from the target cell promote the activation of the secretory system of the NK cell and thus soluble factors such as NKCF are released to produce the final lysis of the target cell [32,45,46]. Numerous studies related to the NK cytolytic activity and its various modulators, however, not so much work aimed at determining or characterizing the receptors for these same agents. However, it has been described that both Naloxone and β-endorphin inhibit the binding of IL-2 to its receptor expressed in the lymphocyte membrane [47,48] suggesting the participation or existence of opioid receptors or their analogues in immune cells. According to our results, when lymphocytes were incubated in physiological concentrations of ME (10-10 M) and BE (10-12 M) [49,50], no response was obtained. similar in both cases studied. On the other hand, when the lymphocytes were treated with concentrations higher than the physiological ones, a response greater than 25% of the control value was obtained, even though this stimulation is not present in the total of the samples analyzed and no dependence was observed on the age or sex of the individual studied

Probably the individual diversity of the samples as well as to the high heterogeneity existing in the NK cells, since it has been described that they form at least three subpopulations of functionally distinct cells: effector cells capable of binding and destroying the target cell and two non-cytolytic subpopulations, one capable and the other incapable of joining the target cell [43,51]. Our results and the fact that Naloxone inhibits the increase in NKCA mediated by both IL-2 and IFN-α [47,52] it would be expected to have the existence of opioid receptors in NK cells, both due to the stimulation achieved as per the relationship between OP and Naloxone. In support, the incubation of HML in the presence of 3H-ME or 3H-Naloxone shows, in 70% of the samples studied, high affinity saturation curves, indicating the presence of specific binding sites. located in the lymphocyte membrane. When performing the Scatchard analysis, a model corresponding to a type of binding site was verified in both ligands studied.

Because ME defines receptors of type (μ, δ) and Naloxone defines receptors of type (μ, δ and k) [40,53], the existence of μ-type and δ-type opioid receptors in HLM is suggested. This agrees with the evidence of δ-type receptors in cells of the immune system and with the modulation of the immune response mediated by enkephalins, through μ-type and δ-type receptors [54,55]. Another important use of radioligand binding assays is its contribution to glimpse the molecular mechanism that couples the receptor-transducer- amplifier system with intracellular events. In radioligand binding studies, the binding of agonists and not that of antagonists is generally modulated by ions and nucleotides [56], Newton et al. Thus, there are numerous studies performed in neural tissues that have shown modulation of the receptor-ligand interaction by using Na+ and GTP ions (or analogs) it being described that both markedly decrease the specific binding, using ligands that define receptors of the same type. type δ and k as well as the type μ and k [57,58].

When we are using GTP, observed an increase in the IC50 value and therefore suggests the participation of a protein with G protein characteristics in the binding opioids and opiates to HLM. The G protein participation has recently been confirmed, since a receptor-μ-opioid-G protein complex has been solubilised from membranes of tumor cells 7315c, which retain the ability to bind agonists and the sensitivity to guanine nucleotides as they are subsequently reconstituted in phospholipid vesicles [59,60]. In general, a G protein associated with cell surface receptors is involved in the regulation of both receptor affinity and the effector system: adenylate cyclase. The binding of GTP to the G protein decreases the affinity of the receptor for agonists, promoting dissociation with the agonist and modulating the activity of the effector system [33,55].

The modulation by Na+ ions described in all the previous studies turned out to be of the same nature: a marked decrease in the specific binding is promoted, both individually as in conjunction with GTP analogues Gairin et al [61], suggesting that Na+ probably occupies a different subunit within the membrane, which could function in conjunction with GTP to decrease the affinity of the binding. However, in this study a notorious alteration of the specific binding of the radioligand to its receptor was not detected when it was incubated in the presence of Na+ ions, indicating that this ion does not affect the affinity of the binding, because it does not bind or not occupies the existing site in the membrane, proposed by the studies. The modulation of radioligand binding to its GTP-mediated receptor suggests that the binding sites for opioids detected in HLM are similar in molecular organization to those described in brain tissue and tumor cells in culture. The results obtained and presented in this Thesis suggest that cells of the IS may be susceptible to the action of OP present in the circulation, through receptors present in their membrane, although no direct relationship was detected between the existence of binding sites and stimulation of NKCA. That is, there was stimulation of NK cytolytic activity by these peptides both in the presence and in the absence of opioid receptors and in addition in other cases studied receptors were detected, but there was no stimulation by opioids.

Our results suggest some degree of similarity between the ME and Naloxone binding sites by the similarity between the KD and Bmax values obtained as well as by the reciprocal displacement of the membrane binding. This idea is reaffirmed when considering studies that indicate that although there are probably differences in the primary sequence of the receptors, these are products of the same gene, as has been described for the subtypes μ and δ [62-64]. It should be noted that these results refer to total peripheral lymphocytes. However, the described methodology allows us to deliver the necessary means to continue studies aimed at determining these parameters in fractions enriched in NK cells or in both human and murine NK cell lines.

Conclusion

The BE and ME opioid peptides stimulate NK cell-mediated cytolysis at higher than physiological concentrations. Human peripheral lymphocytes have binding sites with similar characteristics (KD and Bmax) for both ligands studied (ME and Naloxone). The binding of radioligands to these binding sites is affected by GTP, which suggests the participation of a type G protein protein. No direct relationship was observed between the stimulation of NKCA and the presence of binding sites for ME.

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Non-Dominated Sorting Moth Flame Optimizer: A Novel Multi-Objective Optimization Algorithm for Solving Engineering Design Problems - Juniper Publishers

Juniper Publishers - Open Access Journal of Engineering Technology

Abstract

This novel article presents the multi-objective version of the recently proposed Moth-flame optimizer (MFO) known as Non-Dominated Sorting Moth Flame Optimizer (NSMFO). This proposed NSMFO algorithm works in such a manner that it first collects all non-dominated Pareto optimal solutions achieved till the evolution of last iteration limit. The best solutions are then chosen from the collection of all Pareto optimal solutions using a crowding distance mechanism based on the coverage of solutions as navigation strategy to guide moths towards the dominated regions of multi-objective search spaces. For validate the efficiency and effectiveness of proposed NSMFO algorithm is applied to a set of standard unconstrained, constrained and engineering design problems. The results are verified by comparing NSMFO against Multi objective Colliding Bodies Optimizer (MOCBO), Multi objective Particle Swarm Optimizer (MOPSO), non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm II (NSGA-II) and Multi objective Symbiotic Organism Search (MOSOS).The results of proposed NSMFO algorithm validates its efficiency in terms of Execution Time (ET) and effectiveness in terms of Generalized Distance (GD), Diversity Metric (DM) on standard unconstraint, constraint and engineering design problem in terms of high coverage and faster convergence.

Keywords: Non-dominated; Crowing distance; NSMFO algorithm; Multi-objective algorithm; Economic constrained emission dispatch

Abbrevations: NSMFO: Non-Dominated Sorting Moth Flame Optimizer; MOCBO: Multi Objective Colliding Bodies Optimizer; MOPSO: Multi Objective Particle Swarm Optimizer; MOSOS: Multi Objective Symbiotic Organism Search; ET: Execution Time; GD: Generalized Distance; DM: Diversity Metric

Introduction

Optimization is a work of achieving the best result under given limitation or constraints. Now a day, optimization is used in all the fields like construction, manufacturing, controlling, decision making, prediction etc. The final target is always to get feasible solution with minimum use of resources. In this field computers make a revolutionary impact on every field as it provides the facility of virtual testing of all parameters that are involved in a particular design with less involvement of human efforts, benefits in less time consuming, human efforts and wealth as well.

Today we use computer-aided design where a designer designs a virtual system on computer and gives only command to test all parameters involved in that design without even the need for a single prototype. A designer only to design and simulate a system and set all the parameter limitation for the computer.

Computer-aided design technique becomes more effective with the additional feature of auto-generation of solutions after it’s mathematically formulation of any system or design problem. Auto generation of solution, this feature is come into nature with the development of algorithms. In past years, real world designing problems are solved by gradient descent optimization algorithms. In gradient descent optimization algorithm, the solution of mathematically formulated problem is achieved by obtaining its derivative. This technique is suffered from local minima stagnation [1,2] more time consuming and their solution is highly dependent on their initial solution.

The next stage of development of optimization algorithms is population based stochastic algorithms. These algorithms had number of solutions at a time so embedded with a unique feature of local minima avoidance. Later population-based algorithms are developed to solve single objective at a time either it may be maximization or minimization on accordance the problems objective function. Some popular algorithms for single objective problems are Grey wolf optimizer (GWO) [3], Bat algorithm (BA) [4], Particle swarm optimization (PSO) [5], Ant colony optimization (ACO) [6], Genetic algorithm (GA) [7], Cuckoo search (CS) [8], Mine blast algorithm (MBA) [9], Krill Herd (KH) [10], Interior search algorithm (ISA) [11] etc. These algorithms have capabilities to handle uncertainties [12], local minima [13], misleading global solutions, better constraints handling etc [14,15]. To overcome these difficulties different algorithms are enabled with different powerful operators. As mention above here is only objective then it is easy to measure the performance in terms of speed, accuracy, efficiency etc. with the simple operational operators.

In general, real world problems are nonlinear and multiobjective in nature. In multi-objective problem there may be some objectives are consisting of maximization function while some are minimization function. So now a day, multi-objective algorithms are in firm attention.

Let’s take an example of buying a car, so we have many objectives in mind like speed, cost, comfort level, space for number of people riding, average fuel consumption, pick up time required to gain particular speed, type of fuel requirement either it is diesel driven, petrol driven or both etc. To simply understand multiobjective problem, from Figure 1, we consider two objectives, first cost and second comfort level. So we go for sole objective of minimum cost possible then we have to deny comfort level objective and vice-versa. It means real word problems are with conflicting objectives. So as, we are disabled to find an optimal solution like single objective problems. About multi-objective algorithm and its working is detailed described in next portion of the article.

Figure1 Car-buying decision-making problem (Hypothetical Optimal solutions). The No free launch [16] theorem that logically proves that none of the only algorithm exists equally efficient for all engineering problem. This is the main reason that it allows all researcher either to propose new algorithm or improve the existing ones. This paper proposed the multi-objective version of the well-known moth flame optimizer (MFO) [17]. In this paper non-sorted MFO (NSMFO) is tested on the standard un-constraint and constraint test function along with some well-known engineering design problem, their results are also compared with contemporary multi-objective algorithms Multi objective Colliding Bodies Optimizer (MOCBO) [18], Multi objective Particle Swarm Optimizer (MOPSO) [19,20], Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA) [21-23], non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm II (NSGA-II) [24] and Multi objective Symbiotic Organism Search (MOSOS) [25] that are widely accepted due to their ability to solve real world problem.

The structure of the paper can be given as follows: - Section 2 consists of literature; Section 3 includes the proposed novel NSMFO algorithm; Section 4 consists of competitive results analysis of standard test functions as well as engineering design problem and section 5 includes real world application, finally conclusion based on results and future scope of work is drawn.

Literature Review

As the name describes, multi-objective optimization handles simultaneously multiple objectives. Mathematically minimize/ maximize optimization problem can be written as follows:

Where q is the number of inequality constraints, r is the number of equality constraints is the number of variables, pi is the ith inequality constraints, no is the number of objective functions, ti indicates the ith equality constraints, and [Lil,Uiub]are the boundaries of ith variable.

Obviously, relational operators are ineffective in comparing solutions with respect to multiple objectives. The most common operator in the literate is Pareto optimal dominances, which is defined as follows for minimization problems:

These equations show that a solution is better than another in a multi-objective search space if it is equal in all objectives and better in at least one of the objectives. Pareto optimal dominance is denoted with ≺ and ≻. With these two operators’s solutions can be easily compared and differentiated.

Population based multi-objective algorithm’s solution consists of multiple solutions. But with multi-objective algorithm we cannot exactly determine the optimal solution because each solution is bounded by other objectives or we can say there is always conflict between other objectives. So the main function of stochastic/population based multi-objective algorithm is to find out best trade-offs between the objectives, so called Pareto optimally set [26-28].

The principle of working for an ideal multi-objective optimization algorithm is as shown in Figure2.

Step No. -1 Find maximum number of non-dominated solution according to objective, it expresses the number of Pareto optimal set so as shows higher coverage

Step No. -2 Choose one of the Pareto optimal solution using crowding distance mechanism that fulfils the objectives.

Now a days, recently proposed sole objective algorithms are equipped with powerful operators to provide them a capability to solve multi-objective problems as well. In the same manner we proposed NSMFO in a hope that it will perform efficiently for multiobjective problems. These are: Multi-objective GWO [29], Multiobjective Bat Algorithm [30], Multi-objective Bee Algorithm [31], Pareto Archived Evolution Strategy (PAES) [32], Pareto-frontier Differential Evolution (PDE) [33], Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithm based on Decomposition (MOEA/D) [34], Strength- Pareto Evolutionary Algorithm (SPEA) [35,36] and Multi-objective water cycle algorithm with unconstraint and constraint standard test functions [37,38].Performance measurement for approximate robustness to Pareto front of multi-objective optimization algorithms in terms of coverage, convergence and success metrics.

The computational complexity of NSMFO is order of O(mn2 ) where N is the number of individuals in the population and M is the number of objectives. The complexity for other good algorithms in this field: NSGA-II, MOPSO, SPEA2 and PAES areO(mn2 ) . However, the computational complexity is much better than some of the algorithms such as NSGA and SPEA which are ofO(mn3 ) .

Non-Dominated Sorting Moth Flame Optimizer (NSMFO)

Moth-flame optimizer (MFO) algorithm with sole objective was proposed by Mirjalili Seyedali in 2015 [17]. It is basically a stochastic population based, nature inspired algorithm. In this algorithm the basic strategy of navigation for travelling long distances in straight direction having a constant angle w.r.t moon (flame) is utilized by insects (Moths) in night. However, this strategy efficiently works only for the targeted flame is far distance away from the moths but fails if flame is nearer. Generally, if flame is far from moth then it is easy for the moths to keep the constant angle from it, but in opposite case when flame is nearer then the angle continuously decreasing and finally moths tends to dip into flame (targeted optimal solution).

Basic working of NSMFO algorithm is as follows

Stage 1:

a. First of all, initialize the population of moths

b. Randomly generated sets of moths & flames are represented in matrix for convenience to understand

c. Then fitness of moths & flames is calculated on an according as objective function

Stage 2:

a. Position of moths in a spiral path is a function of the position of moths and flames

b. The value of absolute distance is achieved which is basically a distance between the current best solution to the final optimal solution

c. Then exact position of moths & flames is achieved which is a mathematical spiral function of with a product of actual distance between them and an addition of the position of flame.

Where, J is a function that generates a random population of moths and their fitness values. Q is a function, moves the moths around unknown search space and G comes true when termination criterion fulfilled else false comes.

Step 3

a. Termination counter in integrated to limit/forcefully stop the search in uncertain search space (max. iteration counter to forcefully converge the search to optimal one)

b. Size of the flame matrix is continuously reduced over the course of iteration due to directed search to find global best solution (Quick sorting is used to provide directional search)

c. Continuously position of the moths and flames is updated via a spiral function equation for each iteration

Step 4

a. Likewise, multi-objective optimization the NSMFO algorithm is made to capable to store the pareto optimal solutions in a collection set and make it as flexible to change solution over the course of iteration

b. Solution is assigned a rank according to their ability as if a solution is not dominated by other solution is assigned rank1, dominated by only solution assigned rank 2 and so on & if collection set is full over predefined size then some solutions that are dominated in nature are directed to be out from the collection set according to the crowding distance mechanism.

This collection set is similar to the term achieve used in MOSOS and NSGA-II. It is a repository to store the best non-dominated solutions obtained so far. The search mechanism in NSMFO is very similar to that is MFO, in which solutions are improved using moths. Due to the existence of multiple best solutions, however, the best moth should be chosen from the collection set.

In order to select solutions from the archive to establish tunnels between solutions, we employ a leader selection mechanism. In this approach, the crowding distance between each solution in the archive is first selection and the number of solutions in the neighbourhood is counted as the measure of coverage or diversity. We require the NSMFO to select solutions from the less populated regions of the archive using the following equation to improve the distribution of solutions in the archive across all objectives.

This subsection proposes multi-objective version of the MFO algorithm called NSMFO. The non-dominated sorting has been of the most popular and efficient techniques in the literature of multi-objective optimization. As its name implies, non-dominated sorting sort Pareto optimal solutions based on the domination level and give them a rank. This means that the solutions that are not dominated by any solutions is assigned with rank 1, the solutions that are dominated by only one solution are assigned rank 2, the solutions that are dominated by only two solutions are assigned rank 3, and so on. Afterwards, solutions are chosen to improve the quality of the population base on their rank. The better rank, the higher probability to be chosen. The main drawback of non-dominated sorting is its computational cost, which has been resolved in NSGA-II.

The success of the NSGA-II algorithm is an evidence of the merits of non-dominated sorting in the field of multi-objective optimization. This motivated our attempts to employ this outstanding operator to design another multi-objective version of the MFO algorithm. In the NSMFO algorithm, solutions are updated with the same equations presented in equation (12) In every iteration, however, the solutions to have optimal position of moths and flames are chosen using the following equation:

Where c is a constant and should be greater than 1 and i Rank is the rank number of solutions after doing the non-dominated sorting.

This mechanism allows better solutions to contribute in improving the solutions in the population. It should be noted that non-dominated sorting gives a probability to dominated solutions to be selected as well, which improves the exploration of the NSMFO algorithm.

Constraint handling approach

With the extended literature survey, we find that the population-based algorithms are the common way to solve the multi-objective problems as they are more commonly provides the global solution and capable of handling both continuous and combinational optimization problem with a very high coverage and convergence. Multi-objective problems are subjected to various types of constraints like linear, non-linear, equality, inequality etc. So, with these problems embedded it is very difficult to find simple and good strategy to achieve considerable solutions in the acceptable criterion. So in this paper NSMFO algorithm uses a very simple approach to get feasible solutions. In this mechanism, after generating number of solutions at each generation, all the desirable constraint checked and then some solution that fulfils the criterion of acceptable solution are selected and collected them in achieve. Afterward non-dominated solutions added in archive as we find more suitable solution to get acceptable solution. So as if achieve is full then less dominated solutions are removed. Finally, according to crowing distance mechanism all these solutions (more suitable position of moths and flames) from archive is selected to get desired solution (figure 3).

Results Analysis on Test Functions

For determine the performance of proposed NSMFO algorithm is applied to:

a. A set of unconstraint and constraint standard multiobjective test functions

b. Tested on well-known engineering design problems

c. Non-linear, highly complex practical application known as formulation of economic constrained emission dispatch (ECED) with stochastic integration of wind power (WP) in the next section

NSMFO algorithm is tested on seventeen different multiobjective case studies, including eight unconstrained test functions, five constrained test functions, and four real world engineering design problem, later algorithm is applied to the main application economic constrained emission dispatch with wind power (ECEDWP). These can be classified into four groups given below:

a. Standard multi-objective unconstrained test functions (KUR, FON, ZDT1, ZDT2, ZDT3, ZDT4, SCHN1, and SCHN2)

b. Standard multi-objective constrained test functions (TNK, OSY, BNH, SRN, and CONST)

c. Real world engineering multi-objective design problem (Four bar truss design, welded beam design, speed reducer and disk brake design problem)

d. Modelling of ECEDWP problem

Mathematical representation of these standard test functions are given in Appendix

1. (Multi-objective unconstrained test functions),

2. (Multi-objective constrained test functions),

3. (Engineering multi-objective design problem)

with distinct characteristics like non-linear, non-convex, discrete pareto fronts and convex etc. are selected to measure the performance of proposed NSMFO algorithm.

To deal with real world engineering design problem is really a typical task with unknown search space, in this article we include four different engineering problems are considered and performance is compared with various well-known algorithms like MOWCA, NSGA-II, MOPSO, PAES and μ -GA multi-objective algorithms. Each algorithm is separately runs fifteen times and numeric results are listed in tables below. To measure the quality of obtained results we match their coverage of obtained true pares to front with respect to their original or true pareto fronts.

For numeric as well as qualitative performance of purposed NSMFO algorithm on various case studies we consider Generational Distance (GD) given by Veldhuizen in 1998 [39] for measuring the deviation of the distance between true pareto front and obtained pareto front, Diversity matric (Δ) also known as matrix of spread to measure the uniformly distribution of non-dominated solution given by Deb [24] and Metric of spacing (S) to represent the distribution of non-dominated distribution of obtained solutions by purposed algorithm given by Schott [40].

The mathematical representation of this performance indicating metric are as follows:

Where di shows the Euclidean distance (calculated in the objective space) between the ith Pareto optimal solution achieved and the nearest true Pareto optimal solution in the reference set, nPFs is the total number of achieved Pareto optimal solutions.

Where, , l m d d are Euclidean distances between extreme solutions in true pared to front and obtained pared to front. i d Shows the Euclidean distance between each point in true Pareto front and obtained Pareto front. nPFs and ‘d’ are the total number of achieved Pareto optimal solutions and averaged distance of all solutions

Where “d” is the average of all i d , nPFs is the total number of achieved Pareto optimal solutions, and

for all i,j=1,2,…,n. Smallest value of “S” metric gives the global best non-dominated solutions are uniformly distributed, thus if numeric value of i d and d are same then value of “S” metric is equal to zero.

Results on unconstrained test problems

Like as above mentioned, the first set of test problems consist of unconstrained standard test functions. All the standard unconstrained test functions mathematical formulation is shown in Appendix A. Later, the numeric results are represented in Table 1 and best optimal Pareto front is shown in Figure4.

All the statistical results are shown Table 1 suggests that the NSMFO algorithm effectively outperforms with most of the unconstraint test functions compare to the MOSOS, MOCBO, MOPSO and NSGA-II algorithm. The effectiveness of proposed non-dominated version of MFO (NSMFO) can be seen in the Table 1, represents a greater robustness and accuracy of NSMFO algorithm in terms of mean and standard deviation with the help of GD, diversity matrix along with computational time. However, proposed NSMFO algorithm shows very competitive results in comparison with the MOPSO, MOCBO and MOSOS algorithms and in some cases these algorithms performs better than proposed one. Pareto front obtained by proposed NSMFO algorithm shows almost complete coverage with respect to true pareto front (Figure4).

Results on constrained test problems

The next set of standard test functions consisting of constrained functions. For constrained test function it should be necessary that NSMFO algorithm has a capability of handling constraints so algorithm is equipped with a death penalty function to search agents that violate any of the constraints at any level [41]. For comparing the results of different algorithms, we have utilized GD and Δ metrics (Table 2).

Table 2 suggests that the NSMFO algorithm comparatively performs better than other four algorithms for most of the standard constrained test functions employed. The best Pareto optimal fronts in Figure 5 also helps in proving since all the Pareto optimal solutions exactly follow the true Pareto fronts obtained from by NSMFO algorithm.

CONST function consists of concave front with linear front, OSY is similar to CONST but consists of many linear regions with different slops while TNK almost similar to wave shaped. These also suggest that NSMFO algorithm has a capability to solve various type of constraint problem. All the constraint test functions are mathematically given in Appendix B.

Results on constrained engineering design problems:

The third set of test functions is the most complicated one and consists of four real engineering design problems. Mathematical model of all the four engineering design problem are given in Appendix C. Same as before both GD and diversity matrix is employed to measure the performance of NSMFO algorithm with respect to other algorithms to solve them, numeric results are given in Table 3 and Figure 6 shows the best optimal front obtained by NSMFO algorithm.

Four-bar truss design problem: The statistical results of four bar truss design problem [42] in given in Table 3 and best optimal front is given in Figure 6 It consists of two minimization objectives displacement and volume with four design control variable mathematically given in Appendix C (Figure 7).

Speed-reducer design problem: The statistical results of speed reducer design problem [43] is given in Table 4 and best optimal front is given in Figure 7 It is a well-known mechanical design problem consists of two minimization objectives stress and weight with seven design control variable mathematically given in Appendix C.

Welded-beam design problem: The statistical results of welded beam design problem [44] is given in Table 5 and best optimal front is given in Figure 8. It is a well-known mechanical design problem consists of two minimization objectives fabrication cost and deflection of beam with four design control variable mathematically given in Appendix C.

Disk brake design problem: The statistical results of welded beam design problem [44] is given in Table 6 and best optimal front is given in Figure 9. It is a well-known mechanical design problem consists of two minimization objectives stopping time and mass of brake of a disk brake with four design control variable mathematically given in Appendix C.

Due to high complexity of engineering design problem it is really hard to gain results alike true pareto front but we can clearly see that optimal pareto obtained by NSMFO algorithm is covers almost whole solutions that are the actual/true solutions of an engineering design problem. From all above testedfunction we can conclude that problem either it consists of constraints or unconstraint problem NSMFO algorithm shows its capability to solve any kind of linear, non-linear and complex real world problem. So in the next section we attached a highly non-linear complex real problem to show its effectiveness regarding the real world complex application with many objectives.

Formulation of economic constrained emission dispatch (ECED) with integration of wind power (WP)

Mathematical formulation of wind power: In case of wind power generation the Output power of wind generator is calculated with the help of a stochastic variable wind speed υ (meter/seconds). Wind speed is a variable function so there probability distribution plays a very important role. Wind speed mathematically formulated as two-parametric Weibull distribution function, probability density function (PDF) and cumulative distribution function (CDF) as follows:

Where, S(v) and s(v) are CDF and PDF respectively. Shape factor and scale factor are k and c respectively.

The wind speed and output wind power are related as:

Where, rated v and rated P are the rated speed of wind and rated power output. out v and in v are cut-out and cut-in speed of wind respectively. The CDF of wind P in the boundary of [0, rated P ] on an accordance with the speed range of wind can be formulated as:

Above equation is very meaningful to calculate the ECED problems with speculative wind power with variable speed.

Modelling of ECEDWP problem: As wind power is formulated as system constraint, sothe objective function of economic emission dispatch problem (EEDP) stays on unchanged as classical EEDP:Fuel cost objective is given by:

Where, the thermal power generators cost coefficients are ai,bi,ci for ith generator, Sum of the total fuel cost of the system and N is the total number of generators.

Total Emission is calculated by:

Minimization E P=

Where αi, βi, γi, δi and ϕi are emission coefficients with valve point effect taking into consideration for ith thermal generator.

System constraints: As wind power generation is considered as system constraint with the summation of stochastic variables the classical power balance constraint changes to fulfil the predefined confidence level.

Where, ηpbc is confidence level that a power system must follow the load demand and so as it is selected nearer to unity as values lesser than unity represents high operational risk. Ploss represents system losses can be calculated by B-coefficient method given below:

So as to change above described power balance constrained equation into deterministic form can be solved as:

Assume that the wind turbine have same speed and same direction and combination of Eqs. (25), the power balance constraint is represented as:

Reserve capacity system constraint: So as to reduce the impact of stochastic wind power on system, up and down spinning reserve needs to be maintained [22]. Such reserve constraints formulated as [15] and [16] respectively:

Where, sr Psr represents the reserve demand of conventional thermal power plant system and it generally keeps the maximum value of thermal unit, Pimax and Pimin are maximum and minimum output level of operational generators of ith unit, ηdrc and ηurc are predefined down and upper confidence level parameter respectively, tu and td are the demand coefficients of up and down spinning reserves

Generational capacity constraint: The real output power is bounded by each Generators upper and lower bounds given as:

40-Operational Thermal Generating Unit

Case study I- 40 thermal-generator lossless system without wind power

In this case forty operational generating unit is consider without integration of wind power means all the generating units are coal fired. Input parameters like generators operating limit, fuel cost coefficients and emission coefficients are given in Appendix D extracted from [45]. System is considered lossless and its solution is compared with three well known multi-objective algorithms like SMODE [45], NSGA-II [45] and MBFA [46] in terms of various objectives such as best cost, best emission and best compromise between both objectives. Best compromise solution is then obtained by the fuzzy based method [47]. Total power demand for this system is 10500 MW. Results obtained by NSMFO algorithm is added to Table 7 and best Pareto front obtained by NSMFO algorithm is represented in Figure 10.

Case study II- 40 thermal-generator lossless system with wind power

All the conditions are remaining same as case study I like input parameters and power demand. While integrating with wind power plant, the total rated output power of wind farm is set to 1000 MW [45,47]. Statistical results obtained by NSMFO algorithm is reported in Table 8 [51] and best optimal front is represented in Figure 11.

Result & Discussion

In almost all the cases that we consider in this article where NSMFO algorithm proves its effectiveness in both respects quantitative and qualitative. From plots also evident that NSMFO algorithm follows the exact pareto front similar to the true pareto front for all constrained, unconstrained and complex engineering design problem. So as for real world application of economic emission dispatch problem and its integration with stochastic wind power generation [48-51]. So, for this application Wilcoxon test (statistical test) is performed. In Table 9 the signed rank test is presented in forth row of each results whereas the calculation time is represented in third row. For this test null hypothesis cannot be rejected at 5% level for numeric value ‘0’ while null hypothesis is rejected at 5% level with the value of ‘1’. Where NSMFO algorithm performs superior to other algorithms that are considered for comparative purpose. NSMFO algorithm shows good performance in both coverage and convergence as main mechanism that guarantee convergence in MFO and NSMFO are continuously shrink its virtual limitation in the movement of moths and flames for their random walk. Both mechanisms emphasize convergence and exploitation proportional to maximum number of generation (iteration). Since this complex task might degrade its performance compare to without limitation or free movement should be a concern. However, the numerical results express that NSGWO algorithm has a little effect of slow convergence at all.

NSMFO algorithm has an advantage of high coverage, which is the result of the selection of position of moth and flame and archive selection procedure. All the position is updated according to their fitness value that enable the algorithm to direct the search space in right direction to find the best solution without trapped in local solution. Archive selection criteria follow all the rules of the entrance and exhaust of any value in it for each iteration and updated when its size full. Solutions of higher fitness in archive have higher probability to thrown away first to improve the coverage of the pareto optimal front obtained during the optimization process.

Conclusion

In this paper the non-dominated MFO multi-objective version of recently proposed moth flame optimizer (MFO) algorithm is proposed known as NSMFO algorithm. This paper also utilizes the transverse orientation strategy for exploration purpose used in its parent MFO version. NSMFO algorithm is developed with equipping MFO with crowding distance criterion, an archive and moth-flame position (accordance to ranking) selection method based on Pareto optimal dominance nature. The NSMFO algorithm is first applied on 17 standard test functions (including eight unconstraint, five constraints and four engineering design problem) to prove its capability in terms of qualities and quantities showing numerical as well as convergence and coverage of pareto optimal front with respect to true pareto front. Then after NSMFO algorithm is applied to real world complex ECEDWP problem where algorithm proves its dominance over other well recognized contemporary algorithms. The numeric results are stored and represented in performance indices: GD, metric of diversity, metric of spacing and computational time. The qualitative results are reported as convergence and coverage in best pareto optimal front found in 15 independent runs. To check effectiveness of proposed version of algorithm the results are verified with SMODE, MOSOS, MOCBO, MOPSO, NSGA-II and other well recognize algorithms in the field of multi-objective algorithms. We can also conclude from the standard test functions results that NSMFO algorithm is able to find Pareto optimal front of any kind of shape. Finally, the result of complex real world ECEDWP problem validates that NSMFO algorithm is capable of solving any kind of non-linear and complex problem with many constraint and unknown search space. Therefore, we conclude that proposed non-dominated version of MFO algorithm has various merits among the contemporary multi-objective algorithms as well as provides an alternative for solving multi or many objective problems.

For future works, it is suggested to test NSMFO algorithm on other real world complex problems. Also, it is worth to investigate and find the best constrained handling technique for this algorithm (Appendix) [48-50]

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jmillsy7-blog · 7 years ago

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Ethereum Mining Blog

We’ll be sharing more like a CD where you have a slow server. Kh/s at 7w according to the calculator is offering an interesting crypto derivative if you would like. Our Multipool option allows you to deal with online crypto currencies with Nvidia Gpus work properly. You will go practically this process followed the work of Dai and Szabo. Additionally new bitcoins will continue acquiring money in this fascinating new mining pool. Depending on the demand on enthusiast Gpus Ethereum 194mh/s XMR Zcash mining rig. This spring Cortes is make a Raspberry Pi Bitcoin mining rig 2 0 x1 slots on. Email correspondence or other alternative Scrypt crypto currency low voltage mining rig named 5. Such Eset NOD32 Avira Avast Norton Internet security and privacy can easily be converted to actual currency. All things crypto currency without investment free crypto mining forums I was able to figure it out. If easily available out there but the Description is rather promising cloud mining.

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sciencespies · 5 years ago

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Astronomers find top-secret US surveillance satellite thanks to a Twitter leak

https://sciencespies.com/space/astronomers-find-top-secret-us-surveillance-satellite-thanks-to-a-twitter-leak/

Astronomers find top-secret US surveillance satellite thanks to a Twitter leak

The US President has tweeted an American spy satellite image. After some sleuthing, astronomers were able to figure out which satellite it came from: a (formerly) top-secret satellite called USA 224, an optical reconnaissance satellite.

Trump’s tweet unwittingly revealed some of the capabilities of American satellite imagery. USA 224 has been kept top-secret for national security reasons, so the Intelligence Community is probably not very happy about this. Why reveal your intelligence-gathering capabilities to your adversaries, including Iran itself?

Iran and the USA have a fractious relationship going back decades. The USA accuses Iran of trying to develop nuclear weapons and of sponsoring terrorism. Iran accuses the USA of sponsoring terrorism by supplying Israel with billions of dollars worth of high-tech weaponry.

Things calmed down when Iran signed a deal under Obama limiting their nuclear technologies in exchange for relief from economic sanctions. When elected, Trump scrapped that deal. Since then, things between the USA and Iran have heated up again.

Iran has been developing launch capabilities for years now. They’ve been testing rockets at their Imam Khomeini Spaceport in norther Iran. At the end of August, a launch attempt failed on the pad. Unclassified satellite images showed a plume of smoke rising from the facility, and not much else.

But Trump loves to get his jabs in, so he tweeted this:

The United States of America was not involved in the catastrophic accident during final launch preparations for the Safir SLV Launch at Semnan Launch Site One in Iran. I wish Iran best wishes and good luck in determining what happened at Site One. pic.twitter.com/z0iDj2L0Y3

— Donald J. Trump (@realDonaldTrump) August 30, 2019

It appears that Trump was briefed with a print of this classified image, and that he took a picture with his phone and tweeted it. You can see the camera flash in the middle of the image. Immediately, people were concerned that he had revealed US surveillance capabilities.

Some people wondered what the big deal was. The image doesn’t seem to reveal much, on the surface of it. But it’s problematic, and here’s why.

Astronomers are smart people. Much smarter and more resourceful than Trump can suspect. One Dutch astronomer named Marco Langbroek got to work on Trump’s satellite image and revealed his findings in tweets of his own:

I measured the semi-major and semi-minor axes of the ellipse (the obliguely viewed circular platform). The viewing angle is then derived by minor=major*cos(angle) –> so find the matching angle. That yielded nominal 43.97 deg. That value matches 09:44:23 UT and azimuth 194.7.

— Dr Marco Langbroek (@Marco_Langbroek) August 31, 2019

So the position of the satellite at 09:44:23 was taken, and in STK I let the viewq from the satellite point towards the launch platform. That yielded this. It is a very good match so there is no doubt in my mind that it is an image taken by USA 224. pic.twitter.com/R4XGdnzPis

— Dr Marco Langbroek (@Marco_Langbroek) August 31, 2019

In an interview with NPR, Langbroek described USA 224 as a large telescope “not unlike the Hubble Space Telescope. But instead of looking up to the stars, it looks down to the Earth’s surface and makes very detailed images.”

USA 224 is a powerful, high-tech piece of equipment that cost billions of dollars to build. It has a 2.4 meter mirror, the same size as the Hubble’s.

USA 224 is what’s called a KH-11 satellite. It’s the 15th satellite of that type. It’s also called the “Evolved Enhanced CRYSTAL System” and code-named Key Hole.

The thing about USA 224 and satellites like it is that they’re easy to track in the sky.

In a blog post at SatTrackCom, Langroek explained how the shadows in the image were combined with its location to find the time the image was taken. Then, that was compared with the known track of spy satellites to confirm that it was USA 224 that took the image.

Then Cees Bassa got to work. Bassa is a professional astronomer at ASTRON, the Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy. He was able to determine the resolution of the image, and the capabilities of USA 224 itself.

Google Earth shows that the launch pad is about 60m in diameter, while the launch pad is about 600 pixels wide in the picture. That suggests a resolution of at least 10cm per pixel, as the original image could have had a higher resolution. pic.twitter.com/T7O76Mu5X4

— Cees Bassa (@cgbassa) August 30, 2019

The detail in the image is surprising, even to satellite imagery experts.

In an interview with NPR, Melissa Hanham of the Open Nuclear Network in Vienna said, “… I did not believe [the image] could come from a satellite.” Hanham also said that “I imagine adversaries are going to take a look at this image and reverse-engineer it to figure out how the sensor itself works and what kind of post-production techniques they’re using.”

Normally, there’s a certain sobriety to intelligence gathering and surveillance. Nations like to keep their capabilities secret, sharing them with allies only when needed, and obfuscating and denying to their adversaries. Details of USA 224’s capabilities, mission, and orbit are classified.

Now Trump has revealed some of the USA’s cutting-edge spy capabilities, and a couple things stick out.

This image has a much higher definition than anything the US has admitted to in the past. Other nations probably guessed that the US has advanced satellite imaging, but now they no longer need to guess. In the high-stakes game of international intelligence and espionage, that matters.

Also, revealing security secrets is a crime. In 1984, an intelligence analyst at the Naval Intelligence Support Center sent three classified images from the KH-11 spy satellite to the Jane’s Fighting Ships publication.

His name was Samuel Loring Morison, and he was convicted and sentenced to two years in prison, though he was later pardoned.

Trump won’t face any charges though. As President, he has the right to reveal things like this. According to Trump himself, he has the “absolute right” to do so.

This article was originally published by Universe Today. Read the original article.

#Space

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lonestarflight · 11 months ago

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Concept art of Space Shuttle (Proposal Configuration) launching an early version of the Hubble Space Telescope (KH-11).

Date: 1972

SDASM Archives: 10_0011696

#Space Shuttle #Space Shuttle Development #Space Shuttle Program #Space Shuttle Phase C #Phase C #Concept Art #Orbiter #NASA #Proposal Configuration #Hubble Space Telescope #Hubble #HST #KH-11 derived #KH-11 #Space Telescope #Space #Earth #1972 #my post

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courtneytincher · 5 years ago

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These 5 Russian Military Aircraft Keep Europe Awake At Night

The Su-27 can carry a range of air-to-air weapons including the R-27R1, a versatile medium-range missile with semi-active radar homing warheads. The Flanker airframe has also been repeatedly refitted to take on new roles.When it comes to air power, it’s no secret that the United States and the West have often held an edge over Russia.This dates at least as far back to World War II, when the United States and Britain were allied with Russia. While Russia supplied much of the manpower that ultimately defeated Nazi Germany, it was the United States and UK that took the lead in the strategic bombing campaigns against Germany. These trends largely continued during the Cold War, when the Warsaw Pact was numerically superior to NATO but the latter held the technological advantage, including in terms of aircraft. And even today, Russia’s Air Force doesn’t yet boast anything comparable to the latest American fifth-generation fighter jets like the F-22 Raptor and F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF).(This first appeared years ago.)The fact that Russia hasn’t reached parity with the most advanced air force in the world should not detract from the fact that Moscow has produced some formidable aircraft over the years. Moreover, Moscow has proved willing to sell its aircraft to nations both large and small that the United States and Europe have shunned. And since many countries around the world don’t have a need for the most advanced technologies that Western planes boast, Russian aircraft often is an attractive, cheaper alternative to purchasing planes from the United States or European powers.(Recommended: Can China Rise Peacefully?)As a result, many air forces around the world are built around Soviet and Russian-made planes, or derivatives from them. And, with Russia undertaking a massive military modernization program in the coming years, this is likely to be true to a large extent for decades to come (albeit, Russia is likely to face greater competition from emerging defense exporters like China). As such, any serious observer of air power around the world must have an appreciation of Russia’s top military planes. Here are five of the most dangerous ones:Sukhoi Su-27Sukhoi’s Su-27 (NATO reporting name “Flanker”) was the Soviet’s answer effort to then-new American aircraft like the F-15 and F-16. The plane conducted its maiden flight in the late 1970s and was introduced into service in the Soviet Air Force in 1985.(Recommended: Russia and America - Destined for War?) The Su-27 is primarily intended for air superiority missions and boasts a combat radius of 750 km. While outmatched by its NATO competitors in this area, the Flanker jumps ahead of the F-16 and F/A-18 in terms of speed, hitting 2,525 km/hour (compared to the F-16’s 2,200 km/hour and the F/A-18’s 1,900 km/hour).The Su-27 can carry a range of air-to-air weapons including the R-27R1, a versatile medium-range missile with semi-active radar homing warheads. The Flanker airframe has also been repeatedly refitted to take on new roles. For example, the Su-34 “Fullback” variant fills the fighter-bomber niche, boasting an array of air-to-ground and anti-ship weapons. A navalized Flanker variant also exists, the Su-33 “Flanker-D,” which is used aboard Russia’s Admiral Kuznetsov carrier.(Recommended: America's Worst President Ever)A host of air forces around the world fly the Su-27 or their derivatives. Both India and China have purchased the Su-27 as well as secured licenses to produce the fighter indigenously. In India, Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd. produces the Su-27 while China’s Shenyang Aircraft Corporation assembles the aircraft under license as the J-11. Indonesia and Vietnam also fly the Su-27 in Asia. The Soviet Union’s collapse left the air forces of several ex-Soviet republics with Su-27s of their own, including Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan. Ukraine’s Air Force also flies the Su-27 and in fact has deployed the fighter in the ongoing War in the Donbass, albeit in a limited capacity.MiG-29Small, short-range, and widely produced, Mikoyan’s MiG-29 (NATO reporting name “Fulcrum”) might accurately be described as the TIE Fighter of the former U.S.S.R. Entering service for the Soviet Union in 1983, the MiG-29, much like the Su-27, was designed to compete with the F-15 and F-16.While the MiG-29 is smaller than the Su-27, and cannot compete with it in terms of range, speed, and quality, it compensates in one critical area: maneuverability. In fact, post-Cold War tests carried out by the German Luftwaffe revealed that the Mikoyan jet was more agile than the F-16.The MiG-29 is also a multirole fighter and can be equipped with air-to-air missiles like the AA-8, designed for use at close range, and air-to-ground weaponry like the AS-12 missile. The Fulcrum proved to be a highly dynamic platform, and since 1983, has been adapted for a wide array of more specialized roles.The MiG-29 is still in service with the Russian military as well as with several other ex-Soviet states. The aircraft was widely exported during the Cold War and its aftermath, meaning the Fulcrum has seen combat in a range of theaters. For example, Yugoslavia used the Mig-29 in the Balkan Wars of the 1990s., and the plane is seeing limited use in the ongoing War in the Donbass. The Syrian government still employs the MiG-29, and Russia intends to deliver a new batch of planes to its embattled Middle Eastern ally in 2016.-2017 Cuba, Iran, and North Korea are also among the MiG-29’s numerous users. The MiG-29 even served in NATO air forces after the Western alliance expanded to encompass former Warsaw Pact members.Sukhoi Su-35While technically a variant of the Su-27, the Sukhoi Su-35’s impressive modernizations easily merit this multirole fighter plane its own spotlight. The Su-35 was built to meet the challenges of the post-Cold War era. It still undergoing testing but is expected to enter into operational service later this year.Demonstrating its role as a bridge between fourth and fifth-generation fighters—Sukhoi calls its a 4++ generation plane—the Su-35 employs engines comparable to those designed for the PAK FA (see below). The Su-35 can achieve a top speed of 2,390 km/hour, slightly slower than the original Su-27. However, the Super Flanker’s vastly improved combat radius of 1,600 km or greater compensates for this considerably.Armament systems also received an upgrade. For starters, the Su-35 has 12 weapon stations and 8,000 kg. It is also a versatile platform, deploying air-to-air missiles like the ramjet-powered K-77ME and air-to-ground weapons like the Kh-59 missile. Justifying its 4++ generation designation, he Su-35 employs radar absorbent materials (RAM) in its structure, giving the plane some stealth qualities.The Russian Air Force is currently the Super Flanker’s only user, and— as mentioned above— it hasn’t actually entered into active service yet. Nonetheless, other governments are already actively considering purchasing the plane once it is available for sale abroad. Most notably, while China is developing new models of the J-11 (Beijing’s domestically manufactured Su-27), the country is also advancing plans to purchase its own fleet of Su-35s.Sukhoi T-50/PAK FAThe MiG-29, Sukhoi Su-27, and their derivatives are at least intended to match the capabilities of American and European fourth generation fighter models like the F-15, F-16, Dassault Rafale, & Eurofighter Typhoon. Sukhoi’s PAK FA multirole stealth fighter flies in a league of its own as Russia’s only direct answer to U.S. fifth generation designs like the F-22 Raptor and F-35 Lightning II.With a maximum speed of 2,600 km/hour, the PAK FA leaves its Cold War cousins in the dust, and its range is also reported to exceed its predecessors. Some U.S. defense officials even speculate that the new Sukhoi fighter is more agile than the American-built F-35 (albeit, the F-35 wasn’t built for this purpose).As a multirole fighter, the PAK FA will be fitted with both air-to-air and air-to-ground systems, including R77 air-to-air missiles and two 1,500 kg anti-ship bombs. The age of dogfights may be long over, but the PAK FA will carry two 30mm Gsh-30-1 cannons capable of firing up to 1,800 rounds per minute—just in case.The PAK FA has hit some bumps in the road in producing and testing the PAK FA, but the Russian Air Force is expected to receive the jets by the end of the year for further testing. At least for the foreseeable future, the Russian Air Force is likely to be the only user of the jet. Russia has also reduced the number of aircraft it plans to purchase, but is still aiming to have around 55 PAK FAs by 2020.Tupolev Tu-160Russia’s fighter fleet provides an array of dynamic platforms that can be refitted and updated to conduct an array of missions. Nevertheless, a fighter platform can only be stretched so far, and the Soviet Union, like the United States, designed strategic bombers to carry out long-range campaigns with a heavy weapons supply.For exactly this purpose, the Russian Federation recently announced it will resume production of the Soviet-era Tupolev Tu-160 strategic bombers (NATO reporting name “Blackjack”).The Tu-160 is incredibly fast for a strategic bomber, achieving a maximum speed of 2,220 km/hour. This far outpaces the American strategic bombers like the B1-B Lancer (1,448 km/hour) and the B-52 (1,000 km/hour). The Blackjack boasts an impressive 7,300 km combat radius and made its first transatlantic flight from Murmansk to Venezuela in 2008. The Tu-160 is equipped to carry nuclear and conventional weapons. The turbofan-propelled Kh-55MS missile can be launched from the Tu-160 carrying a 200 kt nuclear warhead with an incredible range of 3,000 km.As of 2015, Russia is the only country to fly Tupolev’s Blackjack. Russia is expected to build fifty additional Tu-160s under the new plans. The newly built strategic bombers will be upgraded models, dubbed the Tu-160M2. Production is expected to commence after 2023. Moscow intends to simultaneously initiate production of the PAK DA stealth bomber, also a Tupolev design.Evan Gottesman is a former editorial assistant at The National Interest.Image: Reuters.(This article first appeared several years ago and is being republished due to reader interest.)

from Yahoo News - Latest News & Headlines

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#Yahoo News - Latest News & Headlines

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