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juniperpublishers-jdvs · 3 years

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Technical Computation of Animal Diet Formulation: A Review-Juniper Publishers

JUNIPER PUBLISHERS-OPEN ACCESS JOURNAL OF DAIRY & VETERINARY SCIENCES

Introduction

This article provides the general understanding of the computer programs, excel spreadsheets and software used for the livestock feed mix formulation. Various computer programs, excel spreadsheets and software have been developed for formulating optimal livestock diet. Most of the programs and software, developed for the formulation of livestock diet are based on linear programming technique which provides least cost diet formulation. Some of the programs are formulating animal diet on the basis of combination of two or more mathematical programming techniques.

Abbreviations

PRP: Profession Ration Package

Computer Programs

Jones et al. [1] developed a research program for computerized feeding management system for field service program. This was a multi-stage project for the Southern US states and its acceptance was evaluated by other states. It represents the feasibility of approaching dairy cattle nutrition from a cooperative multistage effort and works on a large database. The system is now available to dairymen for the formulation of feeding guidelines by the Dairy Herd Improvement Association.

In Roush et al. [2] developed a stochastic-linear program Excel workbook that consisted of two worksheets illustrating linear and stochastic program approaches. Both approaches used the Excel Solver addin. A published linear program problem served as an example for the ingredients, nutrients and costs as a benchmark in the development of the linear and stochastic programs. The Excel spreadsheet was set up to calculate MOS value. According to the requested probability, it was same for both of the linear and stochastic programs. Spreadsheet results illustrated the flexibility, accuracy and precision of the stochastic program over the linear program in meeting the requested nutrient probability.

Spreadsheets and Tools

In Kavcic [3] constructed a user-friendly tool for beef farmers in an Excel framework in which mathematical deterministic programming techniques have been used. A linear program along with a weighted goal program was used, which results in more efficient beef ration formulation. The user could choose different objectives, such as, to minimize forage costs, to achieve more balanced ration or to implement own weights. This tool was applicable for practical decision making on beef farms, enabling cost-effective and nutrient-balanced beef production.

In Zgajnar et al. [4] developed a spreadsheet tool for the formulation of a daily cow ration. The MS Excel platform has been used to develop two linked sub models. It merged the common LP model and the WGP model with a penalty function. The first sub model was included in the tool to make an estimate of the least-cost magnitude. The obtained result was entered into the second sub model as the goal which should be met as closely as possible. The tool was tested at two different values of preferential weights for dairy cows with a 25kg daily milk yield. In contrast to the common linear program tools, which terminate at formulation of the least-cost ration, this tool provided more efficient rations (in both economic and nutritive terms) by fine- tuning of the nutritive goals and by allowing harmless deviations from these goals by applying penalty functions.

Zgajnar et al. [5] presented a tool based on a three- stage optimization approach presented for pigs' daily ration formulation. In the first stage, a common linear program is used to formulate rations on a least-cost basis. In the second stage, a sub model, based on WGP and penalty functions, is used to formulate a nutritionally balanced and economically acceptable ration. The ration cost is calculated in the first phase. In the last stage, the tool runs the first and the second phases several times with the intent of finding the most efficient energy content of the ration. This model enables decision makers to find the optimal energy con-tent of the pigs' feed, which changes frequently owing to rapidly fluctuating economic circumstances.

Zgajnar et al. [5] developed a tool based on a three-step approach. In the first step, a common linear program was utilized to formulate least-cost ration. In the second step, a sub-model based on WGP is developed which was supported by a system of penalty functions. This approach is very much similar as that of Zgajnar et al. [4].

Software

In Weaver et al. [6,7] evaluated a method for selecting dairy ration formulation software for microcomputers. Data were collected from a survey of practicing nutritionists and software programmers. A benchmark problem consisting of 15 activities required in designing dairy rations was chosen to evaluate ease of use, ease of learning and software performance. A list of features and a benchmark problem have been developed for evaluation of dairy nutrition software. Features included documentation, user interface characteristics, setup features, input and output variables, and flexibility to specify the objective function. This feature list can be used to determine whether a users requirements will be met by specific software. The benchmark can provide a tool for quantitatively comparing the ease with which nutrition software can be learned and used.

In addition, the benchmark can provide a controlled environment to evaluate and compare ration formulation results. The features list and benchmark have demonstrated the strengths and weaknesses of Mixit 2+, Noah and Profession Ration Package (PRP) in this comparison. Comparison of these three programs was illustrated the diversity of features, user friendliness and performance among programs designed for a similar application.

BEST MIX is a commercially available feed formulation software used for achieving the optimal livestock diet at least cost with the satisfaction of all nutritional requirements. It also enables the user to control the production parameters. It's a profit driven feed formulation software. Its results can be directly translated into practical products. Feed formulation is software which helps in obtaining the least cost feed. It has two functions: formulating the least cost feed mix and analysis of the formula. Feed Formulation uses linear programming to find least cost feed mix. Trial and Error method has been used for formula analysis. Eco-Mix is also a least cost feed formulation software.

It is suitable for finding least cost feed mix for any kind of livestock. In this software, unlimited number of feed ingredients and nutrients can be incorporated for feed mix formulation. The minimum and maximum values of feed ingredients and nutrients can also be changed easily. Win Feed is the only software which works on linear as well as stochastic programming techniques and provides least cost feed mix. It can provide least cost feed mix for ruminants as well as non-ruminants. It has the power to handle unlimited number of feed ingredients and nutrients. It has an easy system to handle the database of the composition of the feed ingredients. User also has the facility to import or export data from Excel Table 1.

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juniperpublishers-jdvs · 5 years

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The Classical Swine Fever Problem in East Nusa Tenggara and its Controlling- Juniper Publishers

Classical Swine Fever Problem in East Nusa Tenggara

One of the main causes of pig production and reproductive failure in Indonesia especially in East Nusa Tenggara is infectious and non-infectious diseases. One of the viral diseases that can attack pigs is Hog Cholera or Classical Swine Fever (CSF). Hog cholera or Classical Swine Fever (CSF), is an infectious viral disease caused by the hog cholera/ CSF virus. The CSF disease is still a problem in the livestock industry in East Nusa Tenggara and has the potential to have a negative impact on socio-economy, causing high animal mortality and causing public unrest. This disease can occur acutely, sub acute, and chronic accompanied by high morbidity and mortality 95-100%.

Classical Swine Fever disease in East Nusa Tenggara was first reported in 1996 -97 on Timor Island and until 2017 most of the islands of East Nusa Tenggara province were already infected with CSF[1]. This indicates that the spread of CSF virus is very high and can also be associated with surveillance of inter-island livestock crossing. In 2011 the CSF outbreak occurred in Lembata district which killed about 696 pigs[2]. The latest report in mid-2017, the outbreak of CSF attacked pigs in East Nusa Tenggara, especially on the Flores island. The number of livestock that died at the outbreak reaches about 10,000 pigs with an estimated economic loss of Rp 25 billion[3]. The occurrence of CSF outbreaks can be influenced by the sanitation factor of the cage and also the farmer’s awareness of the importance of vaccination. Considering traditional maintenance practices can create poor farming biosecurity including the cleanliness of the animal dwelling environment and the livestock traffic arrangements. In addition, poor sanitationcan increase the presence of mechanical vectors of CSF viruses that are insects (flies and mosquitoes) [4]as well as the remaining feed in the form of animal origin contaminated with CSF virus can also be a source of transmission. Vaccination factors also take an important part in the spread of CSF disease in East Nusa Tenggara[5]. In addition to the failure factor of vaccination, awareness of farmers to vaccinate the livestock is still very minimal. The low public awareness of the importance of vaccination becomes an important task for the government to become more active in socializing and recording the development of CSF and vaccination diseases, so that the incidence of CSF cases can be controlled in the future.

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The Impacts of Classical Swine Fever Disease and its Controlling

Although CSF is not a food borne disease, but the morbidity and mortality rate of 100% result in extensive social impacts such as loss of confidence or public interest to consume pig products[6]. Therefore, the material of origin of pigs need attention and also more control so that the material of animal origin of pigs really safe, healthy and intact. In addition, the economic losses felt by farmers are also so high that it needs to be done to prevent the outbreak of CSF can be minimized. The CSF virus can survive for weeks or even months in moist environments, e.g., ham, sausages, fresh pork and excretions of infected pigs it. Contaminated meat and meat products are dangerous sources for the spread of CSF or the fresh introduction of the infection into CSF-free regions, respectively[7]. Important things to do in controlling and eradicating CSF disease are:

i. Vaccination and treatment. CSF vaccine is an effective way to prevent CSF disease. There is noeffective cure for hog cholera. Administration of antibiotics is only to prevent secondary infection of bacteria. While the giving of vitamin intended to boost immunity

ii. Implementing strict biosecurity. This can be done by monitoring the clinical symptoms of the disease, regulating the disposal of livestock waste, disinfecting equipment and cages regularly, reducing the food that comes from the rest of the restaurant or household containing pork carcasses.

iii. Handling in emergency outbreaks. In new cases rapidly reported mass destruction can be done to eliminate the source of rapid transmission of hog cholera virus. Conditional depopulation or deduction is done when the disease has spread and is not rapidly handled. While the destruction of equipment and contaminated material (disposal) is also necessary given the virus remains infective for a long time in agricultural land, especially if the area contains many pig farms. If no cases appear formonths then the cage that was previously infected with CSF can be refilled.

iv. Restructuring farms. The location of the farm should be far from the settlement to avoid the occurrence of transmission of CSF virus originating from household waste to pig farms or vice versa prevents so as not to pollute the settlement environment. Livestock management such as livestock breeding, feeding, sanitation and animal health should be well regulated for livestock quality improvement.

v. Supervision and control of live pig traffic and its products. Given that the province of East Nusa Tenggara is divided into many islands, livestock traffic and its products need to be closely monitored to prevent the spread of disease from infected areas to free areas.

vi. Communication, information and education is done through socialization to build public trust especially farmers, obtain correct information,transparency, and arouse public participation in handling hog cholera.

vii. Routine surveillance. Recording the data of CSF disease incidence is very important to know the history of the spread and development of disease prevention in order to really be controlled in the future.

Rapid and appropriate eradication of Classical Swine Fever/ Hog Cholera disease can only be done if the incident is reported quickly to the authorized officer so that the cooperation is needed between the East Nusa Tenggara government and the public in order to maximize the control of CSF disease.

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juniperpublishers-jdvs · 5 years

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Usage of Inulin, Lemon, Carrot and Pea Fibers as Prebiotic for Bifidobacteriun Animalis Subsp. Lactis (BB-12)- Juniper Publishers

Abstract

Prebiotics, contain oligosaccharides, lignin, resistant starch, tannins and associated plant substances, stimulate growth of probiotic organisms. A lot of dietary fibers (DF) are used as prebiotics in foods. In this study, it was investigated if inulin, lemon, carrot and pea fibers have prebiotic effect or not on Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis (Bifidobacterium BB-12). For this purpose skimmed milk was inoculated with Bifidobacterium BB-12 fortified with different DF, such as inulin, lemon, carrot and pea fibers. According to the results inulin and pea fiber stimulated Bifidobacterium BB-12, whereas lemon and carrot fibers had no prebiotic effect on Bifidobacterium BB-12. The highest prebiotic effect of inulin and pea fiber were found at a level of 2%.

Keywords: Bifidobacterium BB-12; İnulin; Lemon; Carrot; Pea fiber

Abbrevations: DF: Dietary Fiber; BB-12: Bifidobacterium; MRS: Man Ragosa Sharpe; LSD: Least Significant Difference

Introduction

Prebiotics are defined as non digestible food ingredients that beneficially affect the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or activity of one or more desired bacterial species in the colon, thus improving host health. Many oligosaccharides, are added to food as prebiotic, mainly to allow the preferential growth of probiotic organisms and called as prebiotics [1]. Dietary fiber (DF), which includes oligosaccharides, lignin, resistant starch, tannins and associated plant substances, is a remnant of the edible part of plant; it is analogous carbohydrates that are resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine and undergo complete or partial fermentation in the human large intestine. It improves human health by the prevention, reduction and treatment of some diseases, such as diverticular and coronary heart diseases [2,3]. In this study it was investigated whether or not inulin, lemon, carrot and pea fibers have prebiotic effect on Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis (Bifidobacterium BB-12).

Materials and Methods

Bifidobacterium BB-12 (Chr. Hansen, Turkey), inulin (Sigma, İstanbul), lemon, carrot and pea fibers (Arosel Food,İstanbul, Turkey) and skim milk powder (Pınar Dairy, İzmir, Turkey) were used as materials. Man Ragosa Sharpe (MRS) agar, nalidixic acid, neomycine sulphate, lithium chloride and paramomycine sulp hate obtained from Sigma chemicals (İstanbul, Turkey). All other reagents used were of analytical grade. 13 different reconstituted skim milk, with 12% dry matter, were prepared. For propagation of Bifidobacterium BB-12, each sterile reconstituted skim milk was supplemented with 0.50%, 1% and 2% inulin, lemon, carrot and pea fiber. Bifidobacterium BB-12 was grown until pH reach to 4.7 at 37°C, using a 0.05% (w/v) inoculum. The milks were kept cooled at 4°C until for enumeration. Bacterial counts were determined after 8h fermentation. Fermented milks were decimally diluted in 100mL sterile peptone water (0.1%) and 1mL aliquot dilutions were poured onto plates of the various selective and differential agars in triplicate. Bifidobacterium BB-12 were incubated anaerobically by using MRS-NNLP agar [4]. The plates were incubated at 37°C for 72h. Anaerobic conditions were created using Anaerocult A sochets (Merck). The results were expressed as colony-forming units per gram (cfu g-1) of sample. Statistical analyses were carried out using SPSS Version 5.0 (SPSS Inc. Chicago, IL, USA). Statistically different groups were determined by the LSD (Least Significant Difference) test [5].

Results and Discussion

Table 1 show the variations in Bifidobacterium BB-12 counts in reconstituted skim milk with and without DF. Bifidobacterium BB-12 counts were found to be in the range of 7.35-7.96 log cfu g-1, respectively. As seen, inulin and pea fiber had prebiotic effect for Bifidobacterium BB-12, whereas lemon fiber and carrot fiber did not have (p< 0.05). Even if a slight increaring was found in the Bifidobacterium BB-12 counts in the skimmed milk fortified with lemon and carrot fibers, they were not significant (p>0.05). Pea fiber led to slight increasing in the number of Bifidobacterium BB- 12, while inulin caused the noticable increasing. Guler-Akın, Göncü, Akın & Akın, & Güler-Akın [1,6,7] also reported that probiotics had the ability to ferment DFs.

Fiber level affected the number of Bifidobacterium BB-12 statistically (p< 0.05). The highest prebiotic effect of inulin and pea fiber were found at a level of 2%. The higher inulin and pea fiber added, the more Bifidobacterium BB-12 obtained. The numbers of Bifidobacterium BB-12 decreased as lemon and carrot fiber increased (p< 0.05) due to the possible decreasing of water activity of milk. As known DF is highly hygroscopic and had a high water binding capacity [8].

Conclusion

Results showed that lemon fiber and carrot fiber didn’t affect of Bifidobacterium BB-12 counts and they had no prebiotic effect for Bifidobacterium BB-12. In contrast, inulin and pea fiber stimulated Bifidobacterium BB-12 and they could be used as potential prebiotic for Bifidobacterium BB-12.

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juniperpublishers-jdvs · 5 years

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Milk Productivity of Holstein Breed of Different Selections in the Conditions of Uzbekistan- Juniper Publishers

Abstract

It was found that despite the selection, the Holstein cows have a high genetic potential of milk production and in all lactation, it is good in the specific conditions of the hot climate of Uzbekistan. The milk production level of German cows for the first lactation was 6511.2 kg of milk with a fat content of 3.84%, the Dutch - 6653.0 kg with fat content of 3.95%, and local breed - 6495.2 kg with a fat content of 3.95%. All mature cows retained high milk production, for III lactation and older it was 7112.5 kg and 3.90%, 7266.0 kg and 3.90%, 6847.5 kg and 3.94%, respectively. The yield of Dutch breeding cows was higher for I lactation by 141.80–157.8 kg, for III lactation and older by 153.5–418.5 kg, the yield of milk fat by 12.8–6.3 kg, respectively, of indicators peers of German and local selection. The cows of the studied selections combined well with high milk yield and fat content. The level of 4% milk for the studied lactation in all cows was quite high and testified to its good nutritional value. Holstein cows of different breeds are distinguished by a strong dairy type.

Keywords: Breed; Herd; Cows; Milk; Selectiont

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Introduction

In the further development of animal husbandry, the improvement of breeding, productive, reproductive, technological qualities of breeding livestock, the creation of highly productive herds, increasing the volume of livestock production, widespread use of the genetic potential of productivity of the leading breeds of the world’s gene pool is of relevance. Currently, the Holstein is the world’s highest production dairy animal. Cows of this breed are distinguished by exceptionally high milk productivity, specific qualities of the udder, adaptation and various soil and climatic conditions, high feed allowance, dairy products and other valuable breeding characteristics [1-5]. In this regard, the study of the productive qualities of Holstein cows in relation with various factors is of great scientific and practical importance in the further improvement of their economically useful traits.

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Materials and Methods

Three groups of mature cows were selected for research. The first group consisted of cows obtained from cows imported from Germany, in the second group - Holland ones and in the third group from local selection cows. In each group there were 20 cows. Studies have been conducted in the “Kuy Chirchik sut buloqi” breeding farm of the Low Chirchik district of the Tashkent region. Productive indicators of cows were studied by general received methods in zootechnics. Cows were kept in the same condition, nutrition was the same too, milk productiveness, a live mass as well as physiologic state were considered.

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Results

The milk productivity is one of the main indicators assessing the breeding value of cows. Table 1 shows the milk productivity of cows for the first lactation. As seen from Table 1, cows of European breeding in the conditions of Uzbekistan showed a rather high potential for milk production. The level of milk yield in cows of group II was, respectively, 141.8 and 157.8 kg, the yield of milk fat - by 12.8 and 6.3 kg, the yield of 4% milk - by 319.1 and 155.8 kg higher, than cows I and III groups. For every 100kg of body weight, cows of group I produced 106.5 and 19.0 kg of milk more than peers of groups II and III. We studied the productivity of cows and for II lactation (Table 2).

In lactation II, milk yield and milk fat yield in groups I and II were characterized by similar rates and they exceeded milk yield by 169 and 161.5 kg, respectively, and milk yield by 6.6 and 9.1 kg of cows of group III. The yield of 4% milk in cows I and II groups were 164 and 226.1 kg higher than the peers of group III. We continued to study the dynamics of milk production of cows in the context of lactation (Table 3). Analysis of the data in Table 3 shows that the yield of cows of group II is 153.5 and 418.5 kg (P <0.01), the yield of milk fat is 5.9 and 13.5 kg, (P <0.05), milk yield 4% milk - by 149.7 and 339, 6 kg (P <0.05), body weight - 62 and 59 kg higher than that of groups I and III cows. The highest yield of 4% milk per 100 kg of body weight was observed in the group I of cows, which produced 100 kg of body weight, respectively, by 113.6 (P> 0.01) and 53.1 kg more than their peers of II and III groups. The yield of I, II and III groups of cows for III lactation as compared with I lactation increased respectively by 601.3 kg (9.23%), by 613.0 kg (9.21%), 352.3 kg (5.42 %) and they showed a high genetic potential of milk production.

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Conclusion

a. The Holstein breed of the European selection have a high genetic potential of milk production and are distinguished by the ability to display it quite high in the specific conditions of the hot climate of Uzbekistan.

b. The Holstein breed of different selections combines well with high milk yield and fat content. Holstein breed of different breeds are distinguished by a strong dairy type.

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juniperpublishers-jdvs · 5 years

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Report on Isolation and Identification of Brucella Abortus from Aborted Foetus and Lymph Nodes of Beef Cattle in Malaysia- Juniper Publishers

Abstract

Isolation of living brucellae from tissues or organs such as aborted foetus and lymph nodes has traditionally provided the most accurate method for the detection of Brucella infection. The inoculated medium was incubated at 37 °C for 7 days with 10% CO2. Bacterial colonies growth on the agar was examined. The bacterial cells were stained with Gram-staining and Modified Ziehl-Neelsen staining methods and later were examined under microscope to determine their cell morphology. Biochemical tests were performed to complete the phenotypic and metabolic characterisation of the isolates. Brucella abortus were isolated from stomach content, lung and cotyledon of the aborted foetus; and supramammary and internal iliac lymph nodes of aborted cattle. Histopathological examination of lymph nodes found the infiltrations of microphages, neutrophils and giant cells with vacuolated and engorged macrophages scattered in the necrotic debris of supramamarry lymph node of aborted cattle.

Keywords: Brucella abortus; Lymph nodes; Aborted foetus; cattle

Introduction

Brucellosis is an infectious disease caused by Gram –negative facultative intracellular bacterial organisms of the genus Brucella. The organisms are pleomorphic, short, slender coccobacilli and their colonies are small, round, convex, smooth, moist-appearing and translucent. The organisms are pathogenic for a wide variety of animals and human beings. Brucella abortus is identified as a major pathogen of brucellosis in cattle all over the world. The disease usually asymptomatic in non-pregnant females but adult male cattle may develop an orchitis. The organisms localise in various lymph nodes of female cattle such as supramammary, udder, retropharyngeal and mandibular lymph nodes; internal and external iliac lymph nodes; regional lymph nodes and uterus. The most consistent lesion of B. abortus infection in cattle involved the lymph nodes, which were remarkably enlarged and had follicular hyperplasia with a few giant cells and macrophages Forbes et al. [1].

In pregnant animals, placentitis will occurred following infection and abortions usually happened between the fifth and ninth months of the pregnancy. Although serological tests are being used for monitoring the herds, bacteriological isolation is still a gold standard for either screening of the infection or preparing eradication programs Bricker [2]. Direct and accurate diagnosis of brucellosis can be made by microbiologic examination. Currently, identification of B. abortus using conventional methods is commonly applied in the diagnosis of brucellosis. These methods provide phenotypic and metabolic characterisations based on microbiological examinations. Biochemical tests have been used to distinguish different biotypes of Brucella species. Thus, the objective of this study was to isolate and identify Brucella abortus from cattle by using biochemical tests and histopathology examination.

Aborted foetus was obtained from cattle which is serological positive to brucellosis as detected by CFT. Stomach content, lung, liver and cotyledon were collected from the aborted foetus. Lymph nodes namely supramammary, mandibular, suprapharyngeal, mesenteric, internal iliac and superficial inguinal were collected from cattle that was slaughtered. Lymph node samples were also collected for histological examination. All samples were kept in ice-box upon transportation to the laboratory.

All samples were handle followed the techniques outline in Manual of diagnostic test and vaccines for terrestrial animal Nielsen & Ewalt [3]. The samples were inoculated onto Brucellaagar (Pronadisa, Spain) and McConkey agar (Oxoid, USA). All specimens were processed inside biosafety cabinet. Inoculated agar plates were placed in CO2 jar and incubated at 37 °C for 7 days. The growth of Brucella organisms on each agar plate was observed. Brucellae were stained with modified Ziehl-Neelseen staining method and their cell morphology was examined under microscope. Isolated Brucellae were identified and characterized by standard methods as described by Alton et al. [4]. Isolated organisms were identified by biochemical tests such as catalase, oxidase, nitrate reduction, H2S production, urease activity and growth in the presence of thionin and basic fuchsin.

On post-mortem, the aborted foetus were oedematous with blood-tinged in subcutaneous tissue (Figure 1). The umbilical was thickened and lungs showed fibrinous pneumonia. The abomasal contents were turbid, yellow and flaky. Intercotyledonary placenta was thickened with a yellow gelatinous fluid. The cotyledons were shown mild to moderate hyperaemic (Figure 2).

Brucella abortus were isolated from stomach content, lung and cotyledon of the aborted foetus. The organisms were also isolated from supramammary and internal iliac lymph nodes of slaughtered cattle that was serologically positive to brucellosis. The isolates shown typical characteristic of Brucella abortus. The organisms were grown on Brucella agar but not on McConkey agar. They required carbon dioxide for their growth and the colonies were well grown after seven days incubation at 37 °C. The bacterial colonies were raised smooth, dome shape, white in colour, moist-appearing and transparent when viewed towards a light source. The isolates were small Gram-negative coccobacillary cells, present in clumps and stained red by the modified Ziehl-Neelsen staining method. Biochemical tests result showed that, the isolates were growth in TSI agar slant and non-motile. All isolates produced oxidase, catalase and urease. They also reduced nitrates to nitrites and produced hydrogen sulphide. The isolates were grown on agar with additional of basic fuchsin but no growth on agar added with thionin.

The most valuable samples for isolation of Brucellae were included aborted foetuses (stomach contents, spleen and lung), fetal membranes, vaginal swabs, milk and semen. In post-mortem, the suitable samples were lymph nodes such as mammary and genital lymph nodes; and spleen. The supramammary lymph nodes were the best source for isolating brucellae in cattle Sutherland & Searson [5]. Specimens should be collected as soon as possible following any suspicious abortion or calving. Specimens should be processed as soon as possible. Ideally, transportation systems should ensure that specimens arrive in the laboratory within 24 hours. The procedures used for collecting and transport of specimens from healthy or clinically affected animals or post mortem, are critically important for successful laboratory analyses. These must be done in accordance with current best practice. Carbon dioxide requirement for growth, production of hydrogen sulphide and growth in present of basic fuchsin and thionin were using for confirmation and differentiate between the Brucella species Nielsen & Ewalt [3]. All isolates were submitted to Veterinary Laboratories Agency (VLA) United Kingdom for further identification and was confirmed as Brucella abortus.

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juniperpublishers-jdvs · 5 years

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Journal of Dairy & Veterinary Sciences- Juniper Publishers

Introduction

Initially developed for answering to military needs: desalination of sea water for sailors or uranium isotope enrichment, membrane technologies: ultra filtration (UF), microfiltration (MF), nano filtration (NF), reverse osmosis (RO) was then implemented in numerous industrial fields. Our research team has largely participated to insert them in many operation units of dairy technology.

In this short review, we will rapidly describe the main applications of uses of UF in cheese-making and in whey treatment, developments of MF for removing microorganisms from raw milk and for separating casein micelles. For each of the chosen examples, the requested knowledge in Dairy Science which was necessary to acquire for optimizing the application will be evocated. Finally, progress in human nutrition made feasible by membrane technologies will be also shortly reviewed.

UF in dairy technology

Use of UF was simultaneously proposed at the end of the 60’s in USA for whey proteins recovery [1] and in France for cheese making [2,3]. Both applications have known large industrial developments and UF equipment is as common as cream separator in dairy plant. Increase of protein content by UF of cheese milk is used at three levels: standardization at 36±2g.L-1, intermediate level 100-120g.L-1 or full concentration 180-200g.L-1. Practically, all of the main varieties of cheese are now made by using UF all over the world. One of the main application of the MMV process was the production of “Feta” and “Domiati” cheeses. The developed process has not only allowed making feasible an old dream of cheese maker i.e. “to realize the cheese transformation in the selling package” but also to completely avoid the environmental damages caused by the highly salted whey issued during the traditional technology. If whey treatment has required relatively few increases of knowledge in dairy science that was not the case for producing satisfactory flavored cheese through UF technology (MMV process). The increase in buffering capacity (4 to 6 times increase of Ca salts content) of the “liquid pre-cheese” has made necessary i) to determine effect of that characteristic on lactic starter lysogeny acting on soft cheese ripening ii) to lower renneting pH (in order to solubilize colloidal Ca salts) at a value taking in consideration ionization regression of phosphoseryl groups of casein i.e. around 5.0. for Brie cheese varieties. For lactic curd cheese such as Quarg, deepen characterization of the rheological behavior of concentrated curd during ultra filtration has allowed to adjust design (membrane length and pump concept) of UF equipment for obtaining the requested cheese texture [4]. Same progresses in knowledge were also necessary for using UF in the making of cheese varieties from goat’s and ewe’s milk. New uses of the end product of UF of milk and whey i.e. ultra filtrate were found in animal nutrition, for improving lactose production process or even through yeast fermentation, transformation in alcohol for drinking (Carbery process) or for fuel.

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MF in Dairy Technology

Industrial development of MF in dairy technology became a reality thanks to two major innovations: a ceramic multichannel with a high mechanical resistance and a new hydraulic concept (co-current recirculation in the micro filtrate part of the membrane) which maintains an uniform and low trans membrane pressure. MF membrane with a pore size diameter of 1.4 μm allows the specific separation of contaminating microflora of skim milk. Average decimal reduction is closed to 3.0 or higher according to the initial total count. Such a removal of contaminating flora has led to propose to the consumers’ long life raw fluid milk (3 weeks) in France and long life pasteurized milk (5 weeks) in Canada and many other countries including China. It has also assured hygienic safety of raw milk cheeses [5]. This last application has required from dairy microbiologists deepen studies for identifying the microorganisms: strains of lactic starters, NSLAB (non starter lactic acid bacteria), yeasts, propionic bacteria, Hafnia alvei, etc which must be present in the microbial ecosystem added to MF milk for obtaining the right flavor for each variety of cheese [4]. MF membrane with a pore size diameter of 0.1 μm allows specific separation of micellar casein. The retentate standardized at a casein content of 32 -35g.L-1 is now the cheese milk entering in the highly mechanized cheese plants [5]. The 0.1 μm micro filtrate qualified by Maubois et al. [6] as an ideal whey is the best material for obtaining through membrane UF the WPI (Whey Protein Isolates) requested for infant food formulas and other specialized human foods. Indeed, it is sterile, it contains no residual fat and absence of κ-glycomacropeptide in these WPI increases the content in aromatic amino-acids (Try, Phe and Tyr) which are essential for the development of infants. Moreover, if MF 0.1μmis realized at temperature around 37 °C, whey proteins are in native state i.e. with their optimal bio-active properties. Biochemical studies done on the individual whey proteins separated from these native WPI have shown the high thermal reactivity of β-lactoglobulin linking a lactose molecule as soon as above 37 °C [7].

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Human Nutrition

Thanks to the MF and UF applications summarized above, large amounts of purified milk proteins became available and have allowed numerous studies of their physiological efficiency on human beings. Bounous et al. [8] have shown the positive effect of native WPI on immune-regulation of patients suffering of diverse carcinogenetic diseases through the bio-synthesis of glutathion. Leucine 13C and 15N in situ labelling of milk proteins through cow’s perfusion have been obtained and then purified and given to human volunteers. The observations realized by Boirie et al. [9] with these protein sources have allowed to define the new original concept of slow (micellar casein) and fast (whey proteins) proteins. The same team has also shown that the whey proteins have the highest NPPU (Net Post Prandial Utilization) which reacheson humans 97% vs 80% for whole milk proteins. This result has originated protein foods specially dedicated for the nutrition of athletes or elderly people. Hydrolysis of WPI in a enzymatic membrane reactor in the conditions patented by Maubois et al. [10] leads to the production of a very defined peptide mixture (2 to residues) corresponding to the extremely precise characteristics (totally absorbed on 70cm of small intestine) of foods for enteral re-animation. MF separation from rennetted micellar casein of κ-glycomacropeptide followed by UF concentration of this peptide tested on humans induced secretion of CCK (cholecystokinine), hormone causing contraction of gallbladder and regulation of the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and consequently improving fat digestion and regulating food intake [11].

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Conclusion

Membrane technologies have originated decisive progress in dairy technology in the last 50 years for cheese making not only concerning the cheese itself but also for the co-product, the whey which is now not a by-product but a co-product with a high added value. Hygienic and safety quality of numerous dairy products has also resulted of the development of MF. These advances have been obtained thanks to a constant exchange between dairy scientists (biochemists, microbiologists, rheologists, process engineers) and dairy technologists. Both groups have through this cooperation increased their knowledge on this extraordinary liquid which is milk. Further researches are still needed in many fields such as the deep characterization of the components of microbial ecosystems leading to the optimal texture and flavor of each cheese variety or the potential applications of membrane reactors for producing either biomass or molecules having a physiological action on humans. As shortly described, milk components separated through membrane technologies have also originated significant progress in the knowledge of their bio-assimilation in human digestive tract. The research field so opened is immense particularly for determining the sophisticated mechanisms carrying out the bio-activity in Ca absorption (casein phosphopeptides), exorphin action (β-casomorphin peptide), immune-protection (lactoferricin peptide), etc [12].

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Review on Infectious Bovine Keratoconjunctivitis and its Economic Impacts in Cattle

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Abstract

Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis is one of the most common eye diseases of cattle and is of major eco-nomic importance in the world. It is a bacterial infection of the eye that causes inflammation and in severe cases temporary or permanent blindness. In cattle, the gram-negative bacterium Moraxella bovis is regarded as the main cause of the disease that affects cattle of all ages and occurs worldwide. Also, Moraxella bovoculi and a range of other bacteria, viruses, and environmental conditions seem to be involved. Moraxella bovis has several pathogenic mechanisms; however, only two, pili and the secretion of a β-hemolytic cytotoxin, have been determined to cause clinical disease. The pili allow the bacteria to attach to the dark cells of the corneal epithelium. The hemolysin is a pore-forming toxin that lyses corneal epithelial cells leading to ulceration and causes lysis of bovine leukocytes. The virulence of Moraxella bovis is influenced by both host and environmental factors. It is one of the examples of the diseases that may cause production losses in both dairy and beef farms in many countries.

The economic impact of the disease is significant due to its high contagious nature. Most cattle producers are familiar with this disease but may not know how to best treat it and minimize its spread within the herd. The cost and time used in treating infected cattle adds to the economic losses. The best strategies to prevention and control of an outbreak are maximizing the herd’s immune status, minimizing the concentration of the Moraxella bacteria, and maintaining as irritant-free environment as possible. Treatment decisions are influenced by numerous factors such as effectiveness of the drug selected, cost, labor availability, withholding times, facilities, and availability of veterinary support. Vaccines are partially protective and cannot be completely relied upon to prevent the disease. Coming up with one solution is difficult because of all the contribution factors. Therefore, isolation and a swift reaction are keys in reducing the spread of the disease.

Keywords: Cytotoxin; Economic; Hemolysin; Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis

Abbrevations: IBK: Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis; BVD: Bovine Virus Diarrhea; IBR: Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis; BHV1: Bovine Herpes Virus 1; RTX: Repeats in-Toxin; FAT: Fluorescent Antibody Testing; PCR: Polymerase Chain Reaction

Introduction

Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK), or commonly known as pinkeye is a highly contagious and infectious ocular disease of cattle characterized by conjunctivitis and ulcerative keratitis, which occurs worldwide [1]. The disease also occurs in other livestock [2] and wildlife [3] and is generally regarded as a multifactorial disease. The most common causative agent of IBK is Moraxella bovis (M. bovis) [4]. The pathogenesis of the disease is influenced by many factors, such as season, mechanical irritation, host immune response, eyelid pigmentation, and concurrent presence of pathogenic bacteria, and strain of M. bovis [5]. Also, Moraxella bovoculi and a range of other bacteria, viruses, and environmental conditions seem to be involved [6].

At the present time, it is not known if Moraxella bovoculi (M. bovoculi) plays a primary or secondary role in the pathogene sis of IBK [7]. For a long period of time it had been thought the bacterium M. bovis was the primary cause of IBK. However, M. bovoculi can be isolated with or without M. bovis from eyes of cattle with IBK. Morever, several other infectious agents such as Adenovirus, Mycoplasma, Branhamella (Neisseria), and Listeria have been recovered from the eyes of cattle showing clinical signs like those seen in Moraxella-induced IBK [8].

There are a lot of contributing factors involved with the disease IBK. These include environmental factors like bright UV sunlight, conditions in the paddock like long stalky grass, dust and overhead hay feeders. Nutritional deficiencies also play a role with vitamin A, and the minerals copper and selenium. A high concentration of face flies, breeds of cattle lacking eye pigment and young cattle as well as compromised immunity from other viruses such as Bovine Virus Diarrhea (BVD) [9].

Therefore, the objectives of this paper are

a. To give an overview on infectious bovine keratoconjunctivis cause, occurrence, predisposing factors, method of spread and treatment and as well as its control and prevention.

b. To highlight the economic impacts of the disease (IBK) in cattle producers.

Overview on Infectious Bovine keratoconjunctivitis

Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis is a bacterial eye disease of cattle. The disease is perceived to be of economic importance due to poor thrift in affected animals. The financial loss is due to decreased weight gain, increased treatment costs, and market discounts due to eye disfigurement and blindness. Certain strains of M. bovis can produce pit‐like depressions in conjunctival and corneal epithelial cells causing impaired vision in affected animals. This disease is the most common condition affecting beef and dairy heifers, and the second most common disease of nursing calves greater than three weeks old [10].

Etiology

The gram-negative rod bacterium M. bovis is the most primary organism incriminated to cause IBK in cattle and the most frequently isolated. The bacterium adheres to the cells via its fimbriae and pili proteins and produces β–hemolysin toxins which lyse the corneal epithelial cells [11]. Apart from the etiologic agent M. bovis, many factors including exposure to UV light, accumulation of dust and trauma at ocular region etc., predisposes the infection. The ability of M. bovis to cause the disease is influenced by host (the cattle) and environmental factors [10].

There are also several pathogens associated with IBK in cattle, such as Bovine Herpes Virus 1 (BHV 1) which is the causative agent of Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR). However, M. bovis has thus far been the only organism demonstrated to cause IBK in cattle [12]. There are other organisms which can result in severe conjunctivitis and edema of the cornea but they are not known to cause central corneal ulceration [13].

Moraxella bovoculi is a recently described bacterial species that associates with outbreaks of IBK [14]. This new species of Moraxella can be distinguished from two other Moraxella species, M. bovis and M. bovis, since phenylalanine deaminizes activity, as well as divergence at 6 housekeeping genes, and genetic variation within a large ribosomal RNA (rRNA) encoding locus [15]. Moraxella bovoculi has not been reported to cause IBK. However, M. bovoculi isolates do contain known pathogenesis factors including a Repeats in-Toxin (RTX) class operon which encodes a cytotoxin that lyses and kills neutrophils and corneal epithelial cells [16], and a pili (fimbriae) gene which is required for adherence to the corneal epithelium by M. bovis [17]. The extent of host range, niche specialization, and genetic diversity of M. bovoculi is unknown. In addition to IBK cases, M. bovoculi has been detected in ocular secretions from horse and reindeer conjunctivitis cases [18], IBK asymptomatic cattle [19], as well as human respiratory tracts [20] and dog teeth [21]. Other causes like M. bovis, M. catarrhalis, Neisseria ovis, and Aspergillus flavus were also isolated from IBK in cattle and other ruminants [22].

Epidemiology

Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis is seen worldwide but mainly in areas with high temperature climates and thus is widespread in Asia, Africa and all-American continents. It is also seen in parts of Europe and UK. In seasonal countries, this disease is most prevalent in the summer months and it usually seen in young animals. During the warmer months, fly numbers are higher and intense sunlight and dust predispose the eye to infection [23].

Occurrence

Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis is a highly contagious and infectious bacterial eye disease in cattle which occurs worldwide [4]. It is mainly a disease of young cattle commonly occurring in their first summer. Calves are more susceptible to infection than adults but immunologically naïve cattle can be severely affected when the herd has not been previously exposed [24,25]. Severe outbreaks may occur in older cattle if they have never been exposed to the disease. After infection, cattle develop a temporary immunity which lasts up to a year. Exposure to the causative agents in following years gives further immunity, usually without eye changes being obvious [26]. Natural outbreaks usually peak in the third or fourth week, when as much as 80% of a herd may be infected [27]. Variations, among cattle in breeds, the susceptibility to IBK have been demonstrated Hereford cattle were found to be more susceptible compared with all other purebreds such as Angus and Bos Indicus breeds [5].

Infection can occasionally persist in a few animals and these are a source of infection in the following summer. The infection rate increases to a peak about 3-4 weeks after the first cases appear, and then gradually decreases. The prevalence of IBK in districts and on individual farms varies from year to year, depending on seasons and weather, the fly population and whether cattle are grazing long grass. On some farms there may be only occasional cases while on others 60-80% of cattle may be affected in very severe outbreaks [26].

Predisposing (Risk) factors

The bacteria M. bovis reportedly causes IBK. However, numerous physical factors have been shown to influence the appearance of the ocular disease such as breed and age of the animal, UV light exposure, wind and pollen conditions, and pasture conditions. The presence of other infectious organisms in the tissues surrounding the eye, as well as concurrent upper respiratory infections, can cause the disease problem to be much more severe [28].

Like many diseases, IBK can be considered a complex of organisms and predisposing factors, which result in ocular changes that favor bacterial colonization of the eye. Predisposing factors are a largely variable component in initiation of disease and may be a more important component of the IBK ocular disease complex when dealing with less virulent strains of Moraxella. Other gram-negative bacterial cocci related to M. bovis, Moraxella ovis (formerly Branhamella ovis), and M. bovoculi have been isolated from clinical cases of IBK. A newly isolated strain of bacteria known as M. bovoculi may play an important role in IBK but research has not confirmed this. Other problems such as physical trauma or trauma due to squamous cell carcinoma may also predispose the eye to secondary bacterial infection [29].

And, Mycoplasma, Chlamydia spp., bovine herpes virus-1 and bovine adenovirus, are among the microbial agents suspected to predispose cattle to Moraxella colonization [30] or to add to the severity of IBK [31]. Mycoplasma bovis can cause eye infections resembling those seen with Moraxella bovis as well [32].

Method of Spread (Transmission)

Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis is transmitted by direct contact, aerosols and fomites. Flies may serve as mechanical vectors of the bacteria M. bovis [5]. The face fly Musca autumnalis is the important species in transmission of M. bovis. Moreover, the ocular and nasal discharges of infected animals can carry the pathogens, hence direct transmission from animal-to-animal contact, contaminated equipment and animal handlers can also transmit the disease [33]. Transmission occurs when a non- infected animal meets secretions infected with M. bovis. Secretions from the eye, nose, or vagina can be infected. Carrier animals can shed the organism for long periods of time so they are an important factor in the spread of the disease and its survival over winter. When the eyes of a carrier animal are irritated, its tear production increases and promoting the shedding of M. bovis [34]. And, eye irritation from dust, bright sunlight, thistles and long grass can cause lacrimation which attracts flies. The flies feed on the infected secretions and move from animal to animal, this spreading the bacteria within the herd of cattle [9].

Pathogenic Mechanisms of M. bovis

The pathogenic strains of M. bovis are piliated strains that initially bind through their pili to receptors on the surfaces of corneal epithelial cells [35]. The bacterium adheres to the cells via its fimbriae and pili proteins and produces β-haemolysin toxins which lyse the corneal epithelial cells [11]. Moraxella bovis also secretes cytotoxic toxin and pathogenic fibrinolysis, phosphatase, hyaluronidase and aminopeptidases. The bacterial membrane proteins and lipopolysaccharide are also pathogenic [36]. Moraxella bovis invades the lacrimal and tarsal glands of the eye, causing keratitis, opacity, uveitis, aqueous flare and corneal ulcers. Non-pathogenic strains of M. bovis exist, strains that do not produce pili or cytotoxins are much less capable of producing clinical disease [30]. And, the hemolytic and cytolytic activity from culture filtrates of M. bovis isolated from cattle with IBK has been reported recently and this suggests a possible role for gram-negative cocci in the pathogenesis of IBK [37].

Clinical Signs

Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis is ocular disease of cattle, which is clinically characterized by corneal ulceration, edema, blepharospasm, photophobia, ocular pain, lacrimation, corneal perforation and permanent blindness in severe cases [38,39]. Blepharospasm and photophobia suggest IBK is painful and pain mitigation therapies may be useful adjuncts to antibiotic therapy by improving animal welfare and reducing weight loss [40]. Since blepharospasm, photophobia and ocular discharge are the earliest indications of IBK, suggesting that detection occurs only once the condition is quite advanced [25]. There are four stages of IBK. The disease may resolve at any of these stages while, without treatment, the most severe cases will progress through all four stages [34].

a. Stage I: This stage is indicated when cattle’s have excessive tearing and increased sensitivity to light. They will blink frequently and there is redness along the eyelids. Cattle will often seek shade, which will decrease their grazing time. Pain associated with IBK also decreases their feed intake. Stage I will progress to a small ulcer in the center of the cornea which appears as a small white spot (Figure 1). The cornea develops a slightly cloudy grey appearance due to inflammation [34].

b. Stage II: The clinical signs described in Stage I continue, but this stage is indicated when the ulcer spreads across the cornea. As more inflammation occurs, the cornea becomes increasingly cloudy. At this point, some of the dark color of the iris can still be seen. Blood vessels from the outside portion of the cornea begin to grow across the cornea to help with healing (Figure 2). These blood vessels make the cornea appear pink, which is how the disease received its name [34].

c. Stage III: This is indicated when the ulcer covers most of the cornea and the inflammation continues to spread into the inner parts of the eye. When this occurs, the inside of the eye fills with fibrin, which is a plus-like substance that gives the eye a yellow appearance versus the typical brown appearance (Figure 3) [34]. The hemolytic M. bovis strains produce a pore forming cytotoxin [41] that promotes the development of corneal ulcers by lysis (death) of corneal epithelial cells [42].

d. Stage IV: Some animals recover spontaneously in three to five weeks, the ulcer heals and reduces, leaving a scar. In some cases, the process becomes chronic, and the opacity takes 1–2 months to resolve. In other cases, depending on the severity of the disease, a white scar may be present even after full resolution of the disease. Occasionally, perforation of the corneal ulcer results in iris prolapse, in which case, blindness may result. This stage becomes obvious when the ulcer extends completely through the cornea, and the iris may protrude through the ulcer (Figure 4). The iris will become stuck in the cornea even after healing [34].

Diagnosis

The clinical examination of IBK revealed mild to severe swelling surrounding affected eyes, and profuse lacrimation. Lesions typically affected either one or both of eyes, and involved the eyelid skin, conjunctiva and corneal opacity [33]. And season and history of infection and presence of flies will raise suspicion of IBK before an animal is examined. Pathology remains confined to the eye and does not reach the bloodstream [23]. On clinical examination, early disease is detectable as a raised area of cloudiness in the cornea indicating keratitis [43].

Ocular secretion specimens were collected by inserting a separate sterile swab into the inferior conjunctival fornix, and then directly inoculating the secretions on blood agar plates. And inoculated plates were subsequently streaked for isolation and incubated aerobically for 24 hrs. at 37°C and then examined for bacterial colonies morphologically characteristic of M. bovis. The colonies typical of M. bovis were subculture and identified, by using described morphologic and biochemical criteria [44].

The causative organism is identified based on cultural, morphological and biochemical characteristics [45]. Characteristic hemolytic colonies are observed on blood agar where it forms small, round, shiny, friable colonies but no colonies were developed on MacConkey agar plate. The pattern of hemolysis was very peculiar 1–2 mm diameter with corrosion of the agar at the edges of colony. Further, some of the colonies were found to be surface spreading. The organism is gram negative diplococci resembling tumbles, non-motile, catalase and oxidase positive. Gelatin agar is liquefied by the organism within in 24hrs of stab culture and able to auto agglutinate normal saline in sugar tubes [23].

Bacteriological examination revealed the production of virulent factors such as hemolysin and proteolytic enzyme production which could have caused opacity or cloudiness of the affected eye [46]. However, fimbriae also help in colonization of the organism in cornea along with capsule, the main virulence factor of M. bovis and the spreading nature of the hemolysis may be due to the presence of fimbriae which is also responsible for the auto agglutination of normal saline [47]. Further the laboratory results are correlated with clinical evidence such as blepharospasm, epiphora, photophobia, chemosis, corneal edema, corneal ulceration and blindness.

Fluorescent antibody testing (FAT) is available for identification and the bacterium may be visible on smears of lacrimal secretions. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has become an important tool for research and clinical diagnosis of infectious diseases. Multiplex real-time PCR assay was developed for the detection and differentiation of M. bovis, M. bovoculi and M. bovis [48,49].

Differential Diagnosis

Differential diagnosis includes traumatic conjunctivitis is usually easily differentiated because of the presence of foreign matter (e.g. grass awns) within conjunctival sac of the eye or evidence of a physical injury [50]. Unlike IBK, cases of bovine iritis rarely develop corneal ulceration or prulent ocular discharge, as the pathology is limited to the uveal structures. And, IBR causes conjunctivitis within rare blepharospasm and there is normally no corneal involvement [51]. Mycoplasma bovis has been isolated from the eyes of steers with an outbreak of severe conjunctivitis with corneal opacity, ulceration, and involvement of the eyelids with marked swelling was prominent. Conjunctivitis is prominent in other mycoplasmal infections that produce keratoconjunctivitis [52]. Moreover, chlamydial keratoconjunctivitis presents with identical clinical findings but has a protracted course despite treatment and a higher morbidity [53].

Treatment

Effective treatment of IBK can be done by use of a specific antimicrobial therapy along with proper manage approach. Early treatment of cattle with IBK is important, first for a successful outcome for the affected individual animal and then to stop the shedding of the bacteria, decreasing the risk of transmission to other cattle [54]. Appropriate antimicrobial selection requires knowledge of antimicrobial sensitivities and distribution in ocular tissues and tears. While therapeutic efficacy is affected by the frequency and mode of drug delivery, variations between intensive and extensive enterprises dictate the practical method of antimicrobial delivery. Specific recommendations for antimicrobial therapies targeting Australian IBK outbreaks are dependent upon antimicrobial pharmacokinetics, drug regulations and associated costs [55]. Generally, effective treatment of IBK is very important, as in untreated cases the corneal opacity may lead to corneal ulceration and blindness in turn it finally leads to production loss of animals. Drugs may be delivered to the eye in several ways: subconjunctival injection, topical application and systemic administration and in severe cases surgical treatment options are indicated.

Subconjunctival injection: Subconjunctival administration of antimicrobials [56] aims to reduce treatment costs and total dosages of drug while achieving higher ocular drug concentrations [57]. This probably led to some direct diffusion across the sclera and choroid; alternatively, the drug may gradually leak from the injection site, entering the tear film and eventually the eye via the cornea as if it were applied topically [58]. It also provides pharmacological advantages over deep muscle administration. Most importantly, lower dosages may be used which yield higher ocular concentrations. Difficulty of subconjunctival administration is a drawback which must be considered. Penicillin and aminoglycosides are the most commonly used subconjunctival preparations [59]. Although these drugs result in high ocular concentration, healing rates are not markedly different from deep muscle parenteral oxytetracycline [57].

Topical application: Topical administration of antimicrobial formulations has been recommended as a potentially cost-effective and less labor-intensive method for treatment of IBK [57]. Showing much promise for topical administration is oil- based formulations of benzathine cloxacillin which reduces the shedding of M. bovis and hasten the resolution of corneal ulcers [60]. Topical instillation of silver nitrate (1%) and zinc sulphate (0.4%) eye drops along with oxytetracycline parenterally, twice daily for 7–15 days to all the infected animals, which also exhibited corneal opacity were found to be more effective and led to cure within fortnight. Zinc sulphate is antiseptic, immunostimulant and astringent. It is reported that in catarrhal conditions of conjunctiva, application of zinc sulphate lotion had a proven recovery in later stage of acute infection [61]. It is also reported that zinc sulphate act as integral part of several enzymes important for wound healing and ophthalmic solution is used as mild astringent for relief of eye irritation [62].

Systemic administration: Systemic antimicrobial therapy has been recommended as to target M. bovis located within lacrimal glands and nasal passages. Drugs administered systemically may enter the eye via the tear film or through the perilimbal or intraocular circulation. Generally, lipophilic drugs achieve higher intracorneal and intraocular concentrations and are more effective at penetrating the blood-tear barrier than hydrophilic drugs. Elimination of M. bovis in calves with IBK has been demonstrated following parenteral treatment with oxytetracycline [63] or florfenicol [64].

Surgical treatment options: Surgical treatment options that have been used in treating cattle with IBK include third eyelid flaps and tarsorrhaphy. In cases where globe rupture has occurred or where severe scar formation and globe protrusion represents a potential liability to the animal, exenteration may be indicated.

Controls and Prevention

Management practices that reduce the risk factors associated with IBK are the most effective tools in decreasing the incidence of the disease. Topping pastures can be a good way to reduce seed heads, and thistles which can irritate the eye. Good quality nutrition and minerals available always, will improve the overall condition of the cattle and decrease the incidence of this disease. The pre-corneal tear film is essential in eye defense mechanisms as tears wash away pathogens and tear proteins are an important part of protecting the eye. With a lower incidence rate of the disease, the overall concentration of the bacteria on the farm will be lowered, reducing the risk of a large outbreak. Shaded areas need to be provided to so cattle can get out of bright UV light when it is most intense.

Prevention of IBK is difficult because of the different types of M. bovis, its ability to change from one type to another, and the predisposing environmental conditions. Fly control is one of the most important factors. Insecticide impregnated ear tags in both ears has been shown to decrease the spread of disease. Alternatively, or additionally, insecticide sprays, pour-on, dusters, and back oilers can be used.

Vaccination can be done using bacterin such as pilli from the organism M. bovis. Cellular vaccine comprises of vaccines developed to prevent IBK include live, killed, whole cell or subunit vaccines [65]. Efforts to develop an efficacious vaccine have primarily focused upon the use of surface pili or cytolysin to stimulate host immunity; however, M. bovis possesses other virulence determinants that include proteases, fibrinolysins, phospholipases and other cell surface components such as outer membrane proteins. These potentially conserved antigens provide additional possibilities for vaccine development. Examination of appropriate antigen presentation is necessary to attain an adequate immune response. Further, the potential for antigenic diversity as well as epitope conversion requires continuous epidemiological surveillance of isolates recovered from outbreaks. Current work targeting conserved immunogens provides hope for efficacious vaccines that when used in tandem with proper management may control, if not prevent, IBK.

Most of these vaccines require a booster dose to be effective during the first year of use, then require a yearly booster thereafter. It is important to note that there are several different strains of M. bovis, many of which are not covered by vaccines. The disease symptoms can also be linked to another bacterium known as M. bovoculi, which is related to M. bovis. Incidentally, M. bovoculi is not included in any commercial IBK vaccine. Moraxella bovoculi appears to be associated with more severe IBK symptoms as well as cases that occur sporadically or outside the normal IBK season. In general, vaccination will help limit the number of outbreaks in a herd but may not eliminate the occurrence of disease. However, vaccination combined with careful management for the predisposing factors provides the best chance for preventing disease [66].

The Economic Impacts of the Disease in Cattle

Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis cause a significant economic loss throughout the world, due to a very painful condition affecting beef and dairy cattle worldwide. In Ethiopia, the disease causes economic losses arising from decreased weight gain in beef breeds, loss of milk production, short-term disruption of breeding programs, and treatment costs [67]. The bacterium, M. bovis is known to be responsible for this condition. It has been estimated that annual losses associated with only decreased weight gain from infected cattle exceeds 150 million dollars [68]. Major economic losses are the result of in appetence and poor weight gain in affected animals suffering from ocular pain and visual impairment.

Although IBK is rarely fatal, the associated impaired vision results in adverse economic impact of decreased weight gain, low calf growth rate, increased treatment costs, and market discounts due to eye disfigurement and blindness. It has been estimated that IBK costs cattle producers 150 million US$ in the United States and 22million AUD$ in Australia per annum as a result of in appetence and poor weight gain in affected animals suffering from ocular pain and visual impairment [69]. The largest economic loss is incurred through decreased growth as affected calves are on average 35-40 pounds lighter at weaning compared to healthy calves. Lower performance in post-weaning cattle also has also been documented with reduced average daily gain, 365th day weight, and final weight. Additionally, the drug cost for treatment, decreased market value due to corneal scarring, the loss of value of show and breeding stock, and reduced milk production from dairy animals also make this disease a significant economic consideration [29].

Conclusion and Recommendations

Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK) is infectious and a highly contagious eye disease of cattle, causes a great economic impact in both beef and dairy cattle farms worldwide. In cattle, the gram-negative bacterium Moraxella bovis is regarded as the main cause of the disease. This bacterium has several pathogenic mechanisms; however, only two, pili and the secretion of a β-hemolytic cytotoxin, have been determined to cause clinical disease. Environmental factors include UV light exposure, face fly populations, climate and pasture conditions and host factors include genetics, breed, age, nutrition, immune status and current infections influence the virulence of M. bovis. Carrier animals are asymptomatic but they shed the organism. M. bovis may be harbored in the nasal, ocular, and vaginal secretions; and it may be transmitted by direct contact, aerosol, or fomites. Cattles are the primary natural reservoir for M. bovis and there is a high nasal carrier state. The face fly, Musca autumnal is, is a primary mechanical vector for IBK and serves as an irritant. Though IBK is rarely fatal, it causes considerable economic losses to the cattle and dairy industries because of decreased weight gain, decreased milk production, devaluation because of eye disfigurement, and because of the high cost of treatment.

Based on the above conclusions, the following recommendations are forwarded:

a. Any cattle herd producer who has experienced IBK outbreak aware of the discomfort and loss of performance that can occur.

b. Early detection, segregation and treatment of infected stock.

c. Reduce the incidence of flies and subsequent spreading of bacteria with the application of pesticide self-application devices or ear tags and pour-on treatments.

d. Development of a breeding program that selects for pigmented eyelids and hair surrounding the eye.

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Review on Blackleg in Cattle- Juniper Publishers

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Abstract

Blackleg is an endogenous acute infection that principally affects cattle. Blackleg is generally fatal bacterial diseases of young cattle or sheep of any age. The disease is caused by Clostridium chauvoei, an anaerobic spore forming bacterium seen as an acute, localized inflammation of muscle tissue due to growth of the blackleg organisms. This followed by generalized toxemia or poisoning of the animal causing rapid death. The disease is widely distributed in the world. Blackleg can occur at any time of the year; more loss of cattle is seen during warm months of the year. Blackleg has been found in cattle as young as two-month-old, most loss occur in cattle, the best conditioned animals, where there is an abundance of feed. It is prevented by vaccination when out breaks occur; in early stage of the disease it is treated by antibiotic mostly penicillin is effective treatment to the disease. Control of this disease is based on stringent husbandry measures and scheduled vaccination plan. In recent years, the major virulence factors of C. chauvoei have been discovered and described. However, the pathogenesis of blackleg in cattle and, circulation of the pathogen from point of entry to target tissues is yet not fully elucidated. Therefore, the objectives of this paper are to summarizes the latest review of literature that significantly contributed for understanding the disease in cattle and provides a foundation to preventive strategies.

Keywords: Blackleg; Cattle; Clostridium chauvoei; Soil; Vaccination

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Introduction

Ethiopia is one of the countries with the largest number of livestock in Africa and livestock production plays a major role in the development of Ethiopia’s agriculture. Ethiopian livestock population is estimated to be 59.49 million cattle, 30.697 million sheep, 30.200 million goats, 8 million donkey, 2.16 million horse, 1.20 million camels, 0.4 million mules and 59.495 million poultry [1]. Nevertheless, the development of livestock sector in Ethiopia is hindered by widespread endemic health problems including bacterial diseases, viral diseases, and parasitic infestation [2].

Animal diseases such as blackleg which is also called quarter ill or black quarter cause the major limitation to the livestock agriculture of the country and affect livelihood through their effect on animal health and impact on the production. Blackleg also called quarter ill or black quarter is an acute specific infectious disease of cattle, sometimes of sheep and pigs characterized by the presence of rapidly increasing swellings containing gas, and occurring in the region of the shoulder, neck, thigh, quarter, and sometimes in the diaphragm. Young cattle between the ages of 6 months and 2 years are also susceptible [3]. The disease is an acute myositis caused by the activation of latent intramuscular Clostridium chauvoei spores. It commonly kills unvaccinated cattle between 3 months and two years of age especially in higher rainfall areas such as the coast of north southwest. It is an endogenous acute infection that principally affects cattle. The disease is caused by Clostridium chauvoei (C. chauvoei), an anaerobic spore forming bacterium. Blackleg usually commences in skele tal muscles but occasionally the heart or diaphragm is affected. The primary site of infection of blackleg was myocardium [4].

Blackleg is caused by the spore forming, rod shaped, gas producing bacteria Clostridum chauvoei. The spores of the organisms can live in the soil for many years. The bacteria enter to the host by ingestion and then gains entrance to the body through small punctures in the mucous membrane of the digestive tract. Cattle that are on a high plane of nutrition, rapidly gaining weight and between 6 months and 2 years of age are most susceptible to the disease. The disease is not transmitting directly from sick animal to healthy animals by contact [3].

Bacterial spores are eaten in contaminated feed or soil. The spores then eater the bloodstream and lodge in various organs and issues, including muscles. The injury reduces load flow to the area, thereby reducing the supply of oxygen to tissues. In the absence of oxygen, the spores germinate and multiply. As they grow, the bacteria produce toxin which destroy surrounding tissues. The toxins are absorbed in to the animals’ blood stream which makes the animal acutely sick and causes rapid death [5]. The first signs observed are usually lameness; loss of appetite, rapid breathing and the animal is usually depressed and has a high fever, characteristic swellings develop in the hip, shoulder, chest, back, neck or elsewhere. First the swelling is small, hot and painful. As the disease progresses, the swelling enlarges and becomes spongy and gaseous. If the swelling is pressed, gas can be felt under the skin. The animal usually this within 12 to 48 hours. In most cases the animal is found dead without being previously observed sick.

Pathological changes associated which blackleg are the carcass bloats and putrefies quickly after death, body cavity often contain excess fluid, often reddish in color, infected muscle masses are swollen, discolored and have a foul odor, in some cases a small muscle mass will be affected and lesions may be hard to find. Sporulated gram positive rods can be demonstrated in smears of infected tissues and identified by immune florescent reagent. ground muscle in saline is cultured on blood agar plates, which are incubated anaerobically, because of the possible presence of swarming Cl, septicum, early subcultures should be attempted from some plates, which others last for 48 hours most the organism will appear as gram positive rods when examined immediately following death of the animal [6].

Treatment of affected animas with penicillin is logical if the animal is not moribund but results are generally any fair because of the lesion. Large doses should be administered commencing with crystalline penicillin intravenously and followed by longer acting preparation, some of which should be given in to the affected issue if it is accessible. The most effective means of prevention is proper vaccination program. Multivalent vaccine is suggested. The first dose should be given at two months of age and a second injection at either four weeks before preweaning or at the time of weaning. If animals are in an endemic area, another booster should be given [7].

In the event of an outbreak, individuals between 6 months and 2 years should be vaccinated or revaccinated. A two-week period post vaccination exists during which antibody levels are not high enough to our resistance and animals may continue to be loss. Moving animals away from the site of contamination is desired but even this is not always effective. Carcasses of animals known to have died from blackleg should be not opened. Opening the carcass can liberate bacteria which with form sports that with contaminate the ground and subsequently infect other cattle [8]. Blackleg is a cause of severe financial loss to cattle raisers in many parts f the world. Outbreaks still occur occasionally in vaccinated herds but more frequently in herds where vaccination has been neglected [6].

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Literature Reviews

Etiology

Clostridium chauvoei the causative agent for blackleg is an anaerobic, highly pathogenic, endospore forming and gram-positive bacterium, which produces lemon-shaped endospores and requires enriched media for growth [9]. The spores are highly resistant to environmental changes and disinfectant and persist in soil for many years and the organisms are typically pleomorphic. False blackleg may be caused by Cl. Septicum and Cl. novyi but this disease is more accurately classified as malignant edema. In 2013, the first draft genome sequence of a virulent C. chauvoei strain became known, consisting of 2.8 million base-pairs [10]. The relatively small genome of C. chauvoei as compared to other Clostridium species, such as C. difficile i.e. 4.2 million base pairs [11], reflects its adaptation to a restricted host range (bovine, caprine and ovine), where C. chauvoei can replicate and to cause disease [12].

C1.chauvoeiis motile and have peritrichaous flagella spores which are formed on solid media and in broth are oval, occurring central or sub terminal positions and distort the shape of the sell. They are resistant to the effects of boiling in water as well as to phenolic and quaternary disinfectants C1. chauvoei has high requirements regarding culture media and culture conditions under an aerobic conditions irregular vine leave stepped translucent or opaque the optimal in cubation temperature is 37°C.

Epidemiology

Source of infection

Blackleg is a soil born infection but the portal by which the organisms enter the body is through the alimentary mucosa after ingestion of contaminated feed. The bacteria may be found in the spleen liver and alimentary tract of the last soil and pasture may occur from infected feeds or decomposition of carcasses of animal dying of the disease. True black leg develops when spores which are lodged in normal tissue and proliferate by mechanism such as trauma or toxemia [6].

Mode of transmission: In sheep the disease is almost always wound infection. Infection of such wounds at hearing and docking and of the novel of birth may cause the development of local lesson. Infections of the vulvas and vagina of the ewe and rams up to year old, usually as a result of infection of skin would case by fighting. Occasional out breaks have occurred in sheep after vaccination against enterotoxaemia. Ewes exposed to infection at shearing develop typical lesion but ewes traded with penicilling are un affected except that the present ewe in the letter group shown distended abdomens, weakness and recumbence due to edema and gas formation in cattle mainly transmitted through ingestion of spores [6].

Occurrence of blackleg: Blackleg is primarily a disease of pastured cattle, although sheep may also be affected. It preferentially affects animals under two years of age, with most cases occurring in cattle from four to 24 months of age [13]. Occurrence of the disease is worldwide, although it tends to be localized, even to certain farms or to certain pastures. Because of this localization, it is assumed that C. chauvoei is soil borne, but likely does not grow in soil. The bacteria grow readily in the intestinal tract of cattle and may be recycled through fecal contamination of the soil. Once exposed to the environment, C. chauvoei readily forms spores, which may survive for long periods (many years) in the soil [14]. The disease occurs usual for a number animal to be affected within the space of a few days. The disease is endemic areas, especially when they are subject to flooding such as area may vary in size form group of forms to on individual field are created late in black leg approaches 100% [6].

Risk Factor

Animal risk factor: True blackleg is usually thought as disease of cattle and occasionally sheep but out breaks of the disease has been recorded in deer and in one case in a horse. In cattle the disease is largely confined to young stock between the age of 6 month and 2 years. In the field the disease appears to occur most frequently in rapidly growing cattle on a high plane of nutrition. Elevation of the nutritional status of sheep by increased protein feeding increases their susceptibility to blackleg. In sheep there is no restriction to age group [15].

Environmental risk factor: Typical blackleg of cattle has seasonal incidence with most cases occurring in the warm month of the year. The highest incidence may vary from spring to autumn, depending probably on when calves reach the susceptible age group some outbreak of blackleg in cattle have occurred following excavation of soil which suggests that disturbance in soil may expose and activate latent spores [8].

Pathogenesis

The detailed pathogenesis of blackleg is still somewhat uncertain, but many of the critical points in the following proposed sequence of events have been confirmed in the natural disease and in experimental infections in cattle [16]. The spores are ingested from soil, enter the gastrointestinal tract and, by hematogenous route, reach the muscle where the spores remain latent in cells of the mononuclear phagocytic system. The spores may remain latent in the muscle for years [4,17,18]. Transient trauma or ischemia of the muscle favors the germination of the spores and secretion of cytolytic toxins that cause necrosis of vascular endothelia (edema, hemorrhage) and myofibers. The toxins are absorbed into the animal’s bloodstream which makes the animal acutely sick and causes rapid death. Clostridial proliferation yield gas which appears as bubbles between the muscle’s bundles [19] (Figure 1).

Clinical presentations

Clinical signs of blackleg have been well-documented, but due to the sudden onset and often per acute nature of the disease, are not often observed in field cases [20]. The disease runs on acute, usually fatal course, and affected animals are often found dead before signs of illness have been observed. In some cases, there may be lameness or visible swelling of muscle groups. Any striated muscle may be affected, including the tongue diaphragm, and myocardium, but are shoulder and pectoral muscles are most often involved [21]. It should be suspected if an animal affected between 6 months and two years become lame with swelling of muscle, stops grazing appear sick a quietly goes down. How, these signs are usually of such short duration that they may be missed more frequently; unthrifty calf or yearling is simply found dead. Gas is detectable under the skin and his produces a crackling sensation when the skin is rubbed with the hand [8].

The rapid accumulation of gas under the skin and in the body, cavity gives the carcass a bloated appearance, with the limbs spread apart and pointing up words. There may be frothy, blood stained discharge from the mouth and nostrils. In Cattle, incubation period is 1-5 day. Sudden onset, Lameness, common. Marked depression, temperature normal when animal signs are evident. Edematous, crepitate, subcutaneous swellings over hips, shoulder, chest or back, Swelling, hot and painful initially later enlarge; become creping with cold, insensitive skin, tremors, prostration, the course of clinical disease is rapid, and most animals die within 12 to 36 hours of the onset of clinical signs [13].

In sheep, like cattle, but swelling usually occurs at wound site, Lameness primary symptom, swelling in perineum to pelvis following parturition [8]. In cattle the most obvious sign is crepitate swelling particularly in the hip or hindquarter which oracles when rubbed with the fingers as a result of large quantity of gas produced subcutaneously by the organism. In sheep an acute febrile condition develops within 1-2 days following an injury and atypical black quarter lesion can be observed near the site [22].

Postmortem findings

Cattle found dead of blackleg are often in characteristic position, lying on the side with the affected hind limb stands out stiffly. Bloating and putrefaction occur quickly and blood-stained froth exudates from the nostrils and anus. Clotting of the blood occurs rapidly. Lesions resulting from C. chauvoei infection are typically within the larger muscle groups of the limbs. The affected area is dark red, within which small areas of necrosis may be observed [23]. The muscle is typically dry and spongy, with small gas bubbles separating muscle bundles, with little edema centrally. Incision of the affected muscle mass reveals the presence of dark, discolored, swollen tissue with rancid odor on the cut surface and an excess of serosanguineous containing bubbles of gas. In some cases, the myocardial muscle and diaphragm may be the only tissues offered [24].

The following are some pathological changes associated with blacklegs in cattle; the carcass bloats and putrefies quickly after death, body cavities often contain excess fluid, often reddish in color, infected muscle masses are swollen, discolored and have a foul odor, in some cases a small muscle mass will be affected and lesions may be hard to find [25]. In locations such as the tongue, myocardium, and diaphragm, the lesion may be small and escape detection during postmortem examination, but still producing enough bacterial toxins to be lethal to the animal. All skeletal muscle of the body those of the lumbar region must be examined for evidence of the lesion, which may be small and escape carefully examination. All body cavities contain excess fluid which contain variable amount of fibrin and is usually blood stained. The solid organs show some degree of degeneration, and post mortem decomposition with the production of gas in the liver occurs rapidly.

Gross lesion

The gross appearance of the muscle varies with the age of the lesion. In the early stages the periphery of the lesion the muscle is dark red and markedly distended by serous or seroheamorrhagic exudates, which separates the fiber the cut surface is wet, and exudates may drip out. In the advanced stage, the center of the lesion is dry reddish black, and porous because of gas bubbles. In the control part of the lesion there is usually well-defined area of muscle which is dark red in color, dry, necrotic and filled with small gas bubbles which give a swollen appearance of the muscle. The lesion has characters rancid dour like that produced by culture of a chauvoei growing in cooked meat broth medium. Surrounding central area, the muscle becomes pinker ad there is variable amount of either yellow or blood-stained edematous fluid which is particularly obvious in the local connective tissue. Perineum lesion is ewes which have recently lambed includes neurosis of the vaginal mucous and skin, and extensive edema often involving the hind limbs and thigh muscles which are swollen and dark in color [22].

Gross changes elsewhere in the body are directly referable to either toxemia or proliferation of bacilli. Because of the pyrexia cadavers bloat rapidity and undergo rapid postmortem decomposition. Yellow subcutaneous fluid with or without gas bubbles may be associated with affected muscle. Pelvic, pectoral girdle, glutei, femoral, and hummer’s scapular muscle are frequently involved, but lesion can be presenting any striated muscle inducing hear trauma of the diaphragm, tongue and masticators muscle. Lesions may be very small and may be detected only if muscles are incised of not more than one cm interval. When the disease has resulted from infection of skin wounds the lesions are more obvious superficially, with subcutaneous edema and swelling, and involvement of the underlying musculature. When invasion of the genital tract occurs, typical lesions are found in the perinea tissues and in the walls of the vagina and occasionally the uterus. in the special case of pregnant ewes’ typical legions may involve the entire fetus and cause abdominal distension in the ewe [6].

Microscopic lesion

Heart muscle showed severe suppurative and necrotizing myocarditis with extensive necrosis. In addition, multifocal areas of suppurative inflammation were noted in the thymus, and mild colitis was observed. The essential are found in the skeleton musculature. Gas bubbles in the fixed tissue are indicated by spherical spaces separating fixed tissues are indicated by spherical spaces separating muscle bundles and facial. There are irregular areas of necrosis and collections of neutrophils and lymphocytes along the muscle speta, Edema are uncommon. Histopathologic examination of tissues from animals affected by blackleg revealed severe suppurative and necrotizing pneumonia and suppurative and fibrinous pleuritis [26].

Diagnosis

Clinical: The history of the disease and the symptoms may be strongly suggestive of blackleg but the final diagnosis must depend up on the selection of the causal organisms. CL. chauvoeican be readily demonstrated on films prepared from the lesion and from the edematous fluid [22]. In typical cases of blackleg in cattle a definite diagnosis can be made on the clinical signs and the necropsy findings. However, in many cases the diagnosis may be in doubt because may be confused with other acute clostridia infection with lighting strike and with anthrax though in the latter the characteristic splenic lesion is usually present in establishing diagnosis. When several animals are found dead kept under close observation one must depend on one’s knowledge of local disease incidence season of the year age group affected and pasture conditions and on a close inspection of the environment in which the animals have been maintained. Necropsy findings are most availed the carcasses are still fresh but, on many occasions, post mortem delay position is so advanced that little information can be obtained.

Lameness, depression, loss of appetite and a hot painful swelling on a limb which crackles when pressed may indicate blackleg. Later the skins over the swelling will be cold, dry and leathery. In areas where blackleg is known problem it should be suspected in cases of sudden death. Post mortem examination usually reveals, somewhere in the body an area of dark red dry muscle confirms by veterinarian, prefer by laboratory examination of tissues from affected animals. Presumptive diagnosis can be made by the characteristic gross legions and by demonstration of numerous single or, possibly, paired bacilli with rounded ends and occasional spores’ ear but not at the end of the occasional spores near but not at the end of the cell. As typical of clostridia, the spore is somewhat greater in diameter than the bacillus in which it forms the lesion must be differentiated from other clostridia infections of muscle particularly L. Septicum therefore, the diagnose should be confirmed by culture of use of specified immunological staining techniques [21].

Laboratory diagnosis: Sporulated gram positive rods can be demonstrated in smears of infected tissues and identified with immunofluorescent. Ground muscle in soil is cultured on blood agar plates which are incubated anaerobically. Because of the possible presence of swarming a septicemia early subcultures should be attempted from some plates with others last for 48hr identification by immunofluorescence or biochemical [27]. Mostly the organism will appear as gram positive rods when examined immediately following death of the animal, but after several hours the lesion will contain greater percentage spores and pleomorphic forms. Cl, chauvoei is a strict anaerobe and grows at high as 500c though the optimum is 37 °C. It will grow on the usual laboratory media but is best cultivated in meat or brain medium. These are never discolored nor digested by pure cultures, but they may be slightly softened. Muscle necrosis is extensive and associated with gas bubbles hemorrhages [28].

Isolation and culture: The organisms may in cases be isolated in pure culture directly from the tissues infected. Growth in culture Medias quite dependent up on the presence on carbohydrates for the best growth soda content beyond neutrality is advisable. Body fluids or tissues except as they may act as reducing agents or contain carbohydrate don’t increase suitability of media containing the. The colonies are spherical or somewhat irregular, which microscopic radiator. In all cases of suspected black leg smears of affected tissue should be made and material collected for bacteriological examination. Pasteur pipettes from muscle tissue and heart blood, and secretion of muscle removed aseptically are suitable simmers for laboratory examination. The isolation and identification of the causal organisms from muscle lesion is difficult because of the rapidity with clostridia invade the tissues from gestor intestinal tract after death and of certain bacteriological species such as Cl, chauvoei and CI. Novyi [6].

Differential diagnosis

Anthrax: Anthrax is a hemorrhagic per acute disease and the clinical sign is sudden death. Dark tarry discharge from body orifices, absence of rigor mortis, enlarged spleen, degeneration of the liver and kidneys are characteristic postmortem findings in anthrax.

Malignant edema: This disease, commonly called stable blackleg, is very similar to blackleg. In fact, the similarity is so close that often a diagnosis can be made only when the specific bacteria are identified in the laboratory. Furthermore, both organisms may be present in the same outbreak, or even in the same animal. Malignant edema does differ from blackleg in some respects. It is caused by bacteria called Clostridium septicum. It is more common in older animals and is more likely to occur during the winter months than blackleg.

Heart water: Caused by Ehlrichiarumminantum the suddenness of death and the presence of hydro pericardium in sub-acute cases the disease however, demonstration or ehrlichia bodies in the endothelium cells of blood capillaries in the brain and Jugular vein, demonstrated presence of the Amblyomma ticks. Snakebites was also one of the diseases we should have to differentiate from blackleg, since it’s a sudden death with lack of clinical signs and occasional per pharyngeal and brisket oedema, can be confused with sub-acute disease. Bites on the muzzle, head and neck are more likely acute systemic sign and death. It is possible to see the marks from the bite and often local swelling tissue discoloration and hemorrhae at the sight or the bite are suggestive of snake bite poisoning [29].

Treatment

Treatment of affected animals with penicillin and surgical debridement of the lesion, including fasciotomy, is indicated if the animal is not moribund. Recovery rates are low because of the extensive nature of the lesions. Large doses (44,000 IU/kg BW) should be administered, commencing with crystalline penicillin intravenously and followed by longer-acting preparations. Blackleg antiserum is unlikely to be of much value in treatment unless very large doses are given [30]. According to [31]; treatment of clostridial myositis is rarely successful due to the rapid course. Antimicrobials (drug of choice procaine penicillin) around affected tissues, aggressive surgical debridement to allow aeration along with supportive treatment can be of value. Majority of cases show poor prognosis. Treatment of affected animals with penicillin is logical if animal not moribund but results are generally any fair because of the extensive nature of the lesion. Large dose should be administered, commencing with crystallin penicillin intravenous and followed by longer acting preparations, some of which should be given in to the affected tissue if it is aquesible. Blackleg antiserum is unlikely to be of much value in treatment unless very large does are giver [6].

The speed which blackleg kills usually make individual treatment useless in some cases, however, animals treated early with antibiotics may survive, although they often suffer permanent deformity due to partial or complete destruction of muscle. Usually of little practical application after symptoms are observed, remove necrotic tissue, administer adequate dosage of penicillin and formalized toxoid [8]. Treatment is often disappointing penicillin should be given intravenously at first followed by repository form intramuscularly, if possible, in to the affected muscle. Antibiotic treatment of affected animals is likely to be effective only if commenced early large doses of penicillin should be administered intravenously followed by longer acting preparation, some of which should be given in to the affected tissue. However, because of the extensive tissue involvement, even if the infection is eliminated the subsequent muscle loss is great economic value [6].

Controls and preventions

If the antibiotics are not given new cases of black leg may occur for up to 14 days unit immunity develops, and constant surveillance and the early treatment of cases will be necessary [32]. On farm where the disease is endemic annual vaccination of all cattle between 6month and two years of age should be carried out just prior to the anticipated danger period usually spring and summer. Vaccination of calves at 3 weeks of age has been recommended when the incidence of the disease is very high movement of the cattle from the affected pasture is advisable. Bacteria prepared from C1. Chauvoie is preferred. The improvement to be expected would be greater still if the toxin composition of each isolate where known rather than its identifying antigen city. Cattle are vaccinated at 3 to 6 months of age and annually thereafter. Vaccination should precede exposure by at least 2 weeks. It is not possible to prevent clostridial bacteria from being present in the soil, but it is possible to vaccinate animals to prevent the occurrence of the disease. The most effective means of prevention is proper vaccination program. Multivalent vaccine is suggested he first does should be given at two months of age, and a second infection at either four weeks before pre-weaning or at the time of weaning. If animals are in an endemic area another boaster should be given [33].

Attenuated organism is also used in the preparation of vaccines for use in cattle and some attenuated strain of bovine origin or recently isolated, virulent, ovine strain may be used to prepare vaccine for use in sheep. To administer a polyvalent vaccine highly recommended for the extra protection acquired at very little extra cost. Large number of spores which can spread by wind, rain and scavengers. Blackleg vaccination should be routine procedure on all properties in areas where the disease is known to occur. The vaccine be injected under the skin on the side of the neck ensuring that the infection does not go in to the muscles.

Large number of spores which can spread by wind, rain and scavengers. Black leg vaccination should be routine procedure on all properties in areas where the disease is known to occur. Susceptible cattle which in endemic areas must be vaccinated cattle groped on flood- pains or along water courses also should be regularly immunized because of the risk that infection may be introduced with car cases of dead cattle, which may be deposited during flooding. Beef calves are usually vaccinated when they are branded an ear marked, usually at one or four months of age. A booster vaccination administered a month or so after weaning, is generally enough to protect until age immunity supervenes at approximately 24 months of an age. Calves vaccinated before 3months of age should be revaccinated at four to six months of age and again at weaning [34].

Vaccination techniques and vaccinations break downs

The vaccine should be delivered just under the skin not in to the muscle. Draw pinch of skin and insert the needle between the skin and the muscle. The loose skin of the neck is convenient. Do not save unused parts of bottles or containers of vaccines for future use, as they can become contaminated with undesirable organisms and/or lose their potency. Destroy and vaccine not used within 24 hours of opening [35]. Modern vaccines are produced under conditions of strict quality control by reputable manufactures. Occasionally, reports are received of apparent failure or vaccines. When investigated, most of these vaccination failures due to: In correct dosing, faulty technique, using time- expired vaccine, vaccine having been subjected to high temperature during storage or transportation.

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Disease Status in Ethiopia

Blackleg is endemic disease in Ethiopia, outbreaks occurring in warm season. Most of the time, when outbreaks occur ring vaccination is given to the herd, there is no any research done in the country based on case morbidity and mortality rate. It is highly prevalent in Dega followed by Weinadega and kola [36- 40] (Table 1).

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Conclusion and Recommendations

Blackleg is a disease of young, rapidly growing cattle which may cause the sudden loss of a significant number of animals. Effective vaccines are readily available which should be given routinely in all areas. Blackleg has been found in cattle as young as 2 months old, most losses occur in cattle between 6 months and 2 years of age, man not considered susceptible to this disease, however, extreme caution should be taken when working with dead or blackleg suspected animal. Blackleg is a cause of sever financial loss in many parts of the world. For the most part major out breaks are prevented by vaccination but out breaks still occur, where vaccination has been neglected. Based on the above conclusion the following recommendations are forwarded:

a. Animals must be vaccinated against blackleg to avoid loss.

b. Veterinarians must diagnose the disease clinically or in laboratory and administer appropriate drug to save the life of animals.

c. When outbreaks occur, the society must inform to veterinarian or any authority in the area and veterinarians must go to the area and rule out before giving vaccine whether the outbreak is blackleg or any other disease.

d. The government should distribute enough doses of blackleg vaccine and drugs as well as well-trained veterinarian to the society.

e. The society should be educated to burn or bury body of dead animals without opening or immediately inform to vet officials if possible.

f. Further study should be conducted on the prevalence, of blackleg in cattle in Ethiopia.

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Portosystemic Encephalopathy in a Dog- Juniper Publishers

Abstract

Portosystemic shunt is an abnormal vascular connection between the portal and systemic venous system. Due to this abnormal network of vessels, portal venous blood and its toxic by-products by-pass the liver and directly mix into the systemic circulation. It is a well-known congenital cause of encephalopathy which is characterized by high ammonium levels. Our case; a two-year-old male dog was brought to our clinic with tonic-clonic epileptic seizures and allotriophagia presenting for the last four months.Diagnosis of portosystemic shunt was made, and a surgical operation was planned. After the operation, ammonium levels decreased sharply. However, ammonium levels have started to rise again the month following the procedure and leaded to more severe symptoms. Consequently, the patient was euthanized after three months.

Keywords: Portosystemic shunt; Encephalopathy; Hepatic encephalopathy

Introduction

Portosystemic shunt is an abnormal venous connection between the portal system and systemic circulation; this alternative route causes by-passing of blood and its toxic metabolites through the liver and directly drain into the systemic venous circulation. Many different types of congenital port vascular anomalies have been reported in dogs [1]. The incidence of congenital portosystemic shunt has been reported as 0.18% of in dogs[2]. Extrahepatic portosystemic shunts are usually seen in small-breed dogs. Affected dogs generally show symptoms before the age of two, but some patients do not develop clinical symptoms until they are older[3]. The most common symptoms are anxiety, lethargy and apathy while intrahepatic portosystemic shunts and cirrhosis cause hepatic encephalopathy more commonly[4,5]. Ultrasonography, magnetic resonance imaging and/or computed tomography were used for definitive diagnosis [6].

Case History

Two-year-old, male, mix-breed dog presented with an epileptic seizures and suspicion of foreign body ingestion. Anamnesis revealed that he had abnormal activities such as allotriophagia and increased aggression for the last four months. Body temperature, respiratory and pulse rate were in the normal range but there was abdominal discomfort during palpation. While the CBC’s results were within normal ranges, serum ALT, AST and ALP levels were doubled. The serum ammonium level (SAL) was high (376 mmol/L).Urinalysis revealed proteinuria (2+) and bilirubinuria (2+), significant amount of ammonium biurate crystals were present in the urinary sediment. CT revealed multiple foreign bodies in the stomach stones in the bladder and both kidneys (Figure1). Generalized epileptiform waves were observed in electroencephalography (Figure 2).According to our findings, diagnosis of portosystemic shunt was made, and an operation was planned in order to correct it surgically.

Supporting therapy was begun immediately after the operation. Lactulose (5mls per 2.5 lbs. qid) was used for binding the ammonia present in the intestines. Phenobarbital (2mg/kg Bid) was given to inhibit the tonic-clonic epileptic seizures. After the operation SAL was decreased rapidly to 122 mmol/L. But the patient died three months after the operation. During the post mortem examination; stones of 4 mm diameter were detected in the kidneys and in the urinary bladder. There was also micro hepatica, portal fibrosis, thyroid gland degeneration and chronic interstitial nephritis.

Discussion

Porto-systemic encephalopathy is a reversible, complex neuropsychiatric syndrome characterized by disturbances in consciousness and behavior, personality changes and fluctuating neurological signs and distinctive electroencephalographic changes, which occur secondary to chronic liver disease[7,8]. Operative ligation of portosystemic shunts is effective in controlling chronic portosystemic encephalopathy, but also holds a high mortality rate[9,10]. In our patient presenting with high SAL and tonic-clonic seizures, we suspected presence of a portosystemic shunt. Surgery revealed an extrahepatic portosystemic shunt and it was corrected. However, the results were not satisfying; ammonium levels have started to rise again a month after the procedure and even leaded to more severe symptoms. We believe that there was also intrahepatic microvascular dysplasia. Quality of life was deteriorated day-byday and patient was euthanized in accordance with the request by care-givers three months after the surgery.

Conclusion

Surgical correction of the portosystemic shunt may provide a cure for extra-hepatic portosystemic shunt induced encephalopathy, but success of treatment is low in the presence of portal vein hypoplasia, microvascular intrahepatic shunt or cirrhosis.

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Conjoined Sternophagus Twin Monster: A Cause of Dystocia in Murrah Graded Buffalo- Juniper Publishers

Abstract

A 6 years old murrah graded buffalo in second lactation with the history of 305 days of gestation was presented in the jurisdiction of veterinary hospital Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh. The animal had started showing signs of labor 3 hours prior to its presentation. Per vaginal examination revealed fetus in anterior presentation, dorso-sacral position with two heads and four forelimbs, which confirmed it to be a case of fetal dystocia due to either twin pregnancy or fetal abnormalities. Per vaginal manipulation of fetus was attempted by mutations but proportionately large size of abnormal fetus impeded the process. Adopting caesarian section as means of fetal delivery was opted and a sternophagus twin monster was delivered.

Keywords: Sternophagus; Murrah graded buffalo; Dystocia; Caesarian section

Introduction

Dystocia is a most commonly observed in bovines and the condition is developed when the birth process is hampered by some physical obstacle or functional defects [1]. Any fetal defect such as fetal monster may result in distortion of body configuration and can become a reason of dystocia in bovines [2,3]. An incidence of fetal monstrosities was recorded up to 7.9% [4] to 12.8% [5] in river buffaloes. Most of the monstrosities observed in water buffalo and little data is available for swamp buffaloes. Monstrosities causing dystocia are most likely to be relieved by caesarian section [3,6,7]. It is strenuous for the fetal monster to pass through the birth canal either owing to the altered shape they possess or their relative size. Most usual encountered fetal monsters are Schistosoma reflexus, Perosomus elumbis, conjoined twins and cyclopia [8].

The conjoined twins are two fetuses secured together and arise typically from a single ovum and are monozygotic occurring because of incomplete division of a fertilized ovum and display great discrepancy from incomplete duplication to almost complete separation of two individuals, joined in just a few places [8]. Conjoined twins are non-inherited teratogenic defects [2]. It is believed that some factors are responsible for the failure of twins to separate after the 13th day after fertilization those results in conjoined twins [9]. Conjoined twins monozygotic in origin may be fused medially at different parts of body but the cranial fusion is noted to be commonest of all [8].

Case History

A Murrah graded buffalo aged about 6 years in second parity was presented with the history of 305 days of pregnancy was presented in the jurisdiction of veterinary hospital Hamirpur. Animal was straining for last 3 hours with two visible limbs in the vagina. When the animal was presented, the water bags had already ruptured as the case was manipulation by local para-veterinary staff. The animal was alert and was in good body condition with rectal temperature of 100.9º F. Vaginal mucus membrane was congested and edematous with negligible lubrication. Per vaginal examination revealed complete dilation of cervix with more than two fore limbs and two heads in the birth canal suggestive of the conjoined twin fetus. Both the fetuses were in anterior longitudinal presentation with dorso-sacral position. Per vaginal delivery was attempted to relieve dystocia by mutation, forced extraction after achieving adequate lubrication of birth canal, yet unsuccessful to deliver the fetus. Disproportionate size of the mother and the monster fetus justified caesarian to alleviate the condition.

Result and Discussion

Cesarean was conducted under local anesthesia which was achieved by using 90ml, 2% lignocaine hydrochloride in linear infiltration. Caesarian section was performed in the left lateral recumbancy. An oblique vento-lateral incision was given, and a dead male conjoined twin monster was removed. The surgical wound was sutured in routine fashion by using chromic catgut no. 2. The uterus was sutured by Cushing suturing pattern. The first and second muscle layers were sutured by lock stitch and simple continuous suture pattern, respectively. Skin was sutured with silk by using simple interrupted suture pattern. The buffalo was treated with inj. Strepto-penicillin 5.0gm and inj. Meloxicam 15ml through intramuscular route for 5 days. The supportive therapy was done with inj. Normal saline and Ringer’s lactate 4 liter each through intravenous route only once. Antiseptic dressing of surgical wound was done with povidone iodine and removal of suture was done after 12 days of the surgery.

The fetus was conjoined at sternum region of the thorax and both the heads were opposite to each other. Grossly the fetus possessed two normal heads, with separate nostrils, eyes and ears. According to Camon [10] dicephalic fetus could manifest any of the following feature; Atlodymus (two complete and separate skulls and single neck), Iniodymus (two skulls with fusion at the occipital region) and derodymus (two complete and separate skulls with two separate necks). In accordance with this nomenclature, the present fetus was derodymus dicephalic, distomus, tetraopthalmus, tetraotus, tetrabrachius, tetrapus, and dicaudatus conjoined sternopagus twin monster male buffalo calf (Figure 1). Similar findings in a buffalo conjoined monster were reported by Shukla [2].

Conclusion

A rare case of conjoint twin monster in buffalo manifesting duplication of external body parts was delivered successfully by cesarean section.

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Post-Partum Uterine Eversion and its Management in A Doe: A Case Report- Juniper Publishers

Abstract

A case of uterine prolapse in 3 years old non-descript doe is reported. Assessment of prolapsed mass was done under epidural anesthesia. Uterus was cleaned with potassium permanganate solution and Lignocaine jelly and Soframycin was applied on the mass. Oxytocin and broad-spectrum antibiotics were administered intramuscularly in recommended doses. Aim of present study was to highlight the management of uterine prolapse in doe.

Keywords: Doe; Epidural anesthesia; Lignocaine; Prolapsed mass

Introduction

Uterine prolapse is an eversion of the uterus which turns inside out as it passes through the vagina generally occurs immediately after or few hours of parturition when the cervix is open and lacks tone [1]. Most common post-partum complication observed in cows and ewes and less commonly in does [2]. Uterine prolapse in goats may be complete with both the horns protruding out from vulva or may be limited to the uterine body [3]. Etiology of uterine prolapse is unknown, but many factors have been associated with it [1,4]. These includes poor uterine tone, increased straining caused by pain or discomfort after parturition, by excessive traction at assisted parturition or by the weight of retained fetal membranes, conditions such as tympany and excessive estrogen content in feed leads to increased intra-abdominal pressure leading to uterine prolapse. Prolapse that occur more than 24 hours post-partum is extremely rare and is complicated by partial closure of the cervix, making replacement difficult or even impossible [5]. Immediately after prolapsed occurs the tissues appear almost normal, but with passage of time becomes enlarged and edematous. Some animals may develop hypovolaemic shock secondary to internal blood loss, laceration of the prolapsed organ or incarceration of abdominal viscera [6]. Success of treatment depends on the type of case, duration of case, degree of damage and contamination. Present study envisages the management of uterine prolapse in goat.

Case History

An adult non-descript doe was presented to the Teaching Veterinary Clinical complex Palampur, India with complaint of hanging mass from vulva (Figure 1). Owner reported that doe delivered two female kids at full term of gestation and subsequently about 3hour uterine prolapse occurred. At the time of observation, the animal was dull and depressed. The clinical examination of the animal showed pale visible mucus membranes, body temperature 990F, heart rate 128/min and respiratory rate 22/min. Clinico-gynaecological examination revealed, edematous everted uterine mass soiled with dirt, feces and straw.

Result and Discussion

The goat was administered 2ml of 2% Lignocaine hydrochloride (LOX®, Neon Labs, India) at first coccygeal space to attain epidural anesthesia. Prolapsed uterus was gently washed and disinfected with potassium permanganate solution (1:1000 dilution) followed by application of icepacks to reduce edema and volume of the mass. Cervical lacerations were sutured using simple interrupted suture (Chromic catgut no.2). Prolapsed mass was washed with cold water and lubricated with Lignocaine jelly (Lignox®, Neon Labs, India) and Soframycin ointment (Soframycin®, Sanofi, India). By applying adequate palm pressure, prolapsed mass was pushed inside the vulva slowly with alternate pushing of upper and lower surfaces and simultaneously elevating the hindquarters of the animal.

Further, pressure was applied to push the organ forward to abdominal cavity ensuring the proper repositioning of the uterus into its original position. No vulval retention suture was applied. The animal was administered Inj. Calcium borogluconate (100 ml, slow i/v), Inj. DNS (400 ml, i/v), Inj Haemaccel (100ml, i/v), Ceftriaxone (200 mg, i/m), Inj. Oxytocin (10 I.U, i/m), Inj Texableed (5ml, i/m), Inj. Flunixin meglumine (1.5ml, i/m), Inj. Belamyl (2ml, i.m). Antibiotics and Anti-inflammatory was continued for three days. Haematinic mixture @1.5g once a day was given orally. The treatment was continued for three days and doe recovered uneventfully.

Prolapse of uterus normally occurs during third stage of labor[3] and in small animals, complete prolapse of both the uterine horns is usual [4]. Prolapse is reported to occur due to poor body condition, lack of uterine tone, retension of placenta and irritation in birth canal during parturition [1]. The common complications of uterine prolapse may be haemorrhages, shock, septic metritis, suckling problems, infertility and death. Uterine prolapse is an emergency, which needs immediate proper treatment, otherwise interference in the blood supply of prolapsed mass may resulted into edema, cyanosis and later may develop into gangrene [7]. Sometimes in delayed cases, partial contraction of cervix interferes with repositioning, resulting in reoccurrence of prolapse [8].

Prompt treatment of the condition is essential to prevent toxemia and death of the animal. Possible cause of death of animal even after treatment could be hypovolaemic shock as a result of blood loss due to lacerations in prolapsed uterus. Animals with uterine prolapse treated promptly recovers without complication while delay in treatment could result in death of the animal in a matter of hour or so from internal hemorrhage caused by the weight of the organ which tears the mesovarium and artery [3]. Since the animals suffering from the uterine prolapse are hypocalcaemic [5], therefore calcium borogluconate should be administered. Broad spectrum antibiotics after replacement of the prolapsed mass prevent secondary bacterial infection [9]. Shock, hemorrhage and thrombo-embolism are potential sequel of prolonged prolapsed [3]. However, animal can conceive again without problem if managed properly [10].

Conclusion

Successful management of post-partum uterine prolapse was done in doe.

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juniperpublishers-jdvs · 5 years

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Dairy Cow Welfare, Heat Stress and Climate Change- Juniper Publishers

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Abstract

There has been widespread concern in the media regarding the impact that livestock have on global warming, particularly with methane from ruminants noted as a potent greenhouse gas. Less public debate has occurred however, on the potentially negative impact that global warming will have, indeed is having, on livestock welfare. Here we will first briefly discuss the effect of livestock husbandry on climate change before moving to a more detailed discussion of the effect that a warmer climate is likely to have, again is currently having, on the physiology and welfare of cattle across the world. Finally, we will briefly discuss measures that can be taken to reduce the impact of temperature increase on dairy cattle.

Introduction

Recent research has estimated that while cattle provide just 18% of the world’s dietary calories and 37% of protein, they use a huge proportion (83%) of agricultural land and produce 60% of agricultural greenhouse gas emissions [1]. Understandably, given these figures, most public concern regarding cattle and climate change has focussed on the animals as an important causative agent with broadcast media highlighting the problem [2]. Public understanding of the impact of global warming on cattle welfare is significantly less, although some newspapers have noted the problem [3]. The effects of heat stress on beef and dairy cattle have been recognised by the farming industry for some time but the link with increasing ambient temperature is only recently being highlighted. Here we look at the effects of heat stress on cattle and the impact that global warming will have, indeed is already having, on cattle welfare.

Heat Stress and the Lactating Cow

The lactating dairy cow already has an increased internal temperature through her milk production (Figure 1). Heat production through metabolic functions is estimated to account for around a third of the energy intake of a 600kg cow producing 40kg of milk daily with a far level of 4% [4]. A study comparing cows that were non-lactating, or at low (18.5kg/d) or high (31.6 kg/d) milk yield showed that low and high yielding cows generated 27 and 48% more heat than nonlactating cows even though they had a lower body weight [5]. Whilst in cold environments dissipation of such body heat is not a problem, during periods of elevated ambient temperature, heat loss can be a significant problem for dairy cattle. The limiting factor for cattle at peak lactation is energy intake and a common management practice is to increase energy density of the diet by decreasing forage and giving a mixed ration with a high energy density. A side effect of feeding such a high energy ration is that of increased heat production; Reynolds and colleagues showed that heat production for heifers ingesting 4 and 7kg dry matter per day was around 40 and 56MJ/d respectively [6].

The irony, if we are aiming to increase dietary intake in cattle living on the metabolic knife edge of maximum productivity, is that heat stress leads to reduced feed intake, decreased activity and increase in peripheral blood flow to aid perspiration [7] while decreasing portal blood flow taking nutrients from the intestines to the liver [8]. Lough’s 1990 paper also showed a reduced vascular supply to the mammary gland in times of heat stress, reducing milk production. Other effects of heat stress on lactation include a decline in plasma somatotrophin and triiodothyronine and thyroxine [9]. Heat stress alters blood acid-base balance, since panting animals lose carbon dioxide and thus have a respiratory alkalosis [10]. Compensation for this involves increased renal excretion of bicarbonate in times of heat stress, leading to a paradoxical metabolic acidosis during the cooler hours of nighttime. This in turn leads to a loss of bicarbonate buffering capacity which can be critical if cattle are being fed high grain rations. To add to the cow’s electrolyte compromise, potassium loss through increased sweating can lead to hypokalaemia [11].

What impact do these metabolic changes in heat stress have on the affective status of the animal? As far back as 1968 Collins and Weiner suggested that acute heat stress had emotional effects on dairy cattle [12] and subsequent work confirmed that heatstressed cattle have higher cortisol levels than animals kept in cooler environments [13]. Animals with a reduce dry matter intake during heat stress are not only physiological stressed, losing body weight, but also emotionally affected by hunger [14]. We know that cattle given a limited grazing period have higher plasma levels of ghrelin, the ‘hunger hormone’ [15] and it is reasonable to assume that cattle reducing their dietary intake through heat stress will experience the same endocrinologic and affective state. Thirst too is a classic response to heat stress and providing adequate water is essential [16] with chilled drinking water alleviating both thermal issues and thirst [17,18]. Stermer’s research [17] was undertaken more than thirty years ago and yet it must be asked how many farms are providing chilled water for their dairy cattle in times of heat stress. Such information is difficult to access, but this author’s impression is that few are.

What influence does heat stress have on lameness and pain in dairy cattle? Heat-stressed cattle increase their standing time to allow greater body surface area to be exposed to the air for heat loss by convection. Lying time is reduced by 30% with higher ambient temperatures [19] and increased periods of standing have been suggested as a significant risk factor for lameness which is already a substantial cause of pain in a sizeable proportion of dairy cattle [20]. It has been suggested that the conflict between whether to stand up and increase cooling or to lie and relieve pain form lameness might be a significant factor in frustration in dairy cattle, a potentially important affective influence on their welfare [21]. Leg stomping, weight repositioning and butting, potential behavioural indicators of frustration, have been noted in cattle deprived of the opportunity to lie [22] and it would be a valuable exercise to assess the prevalence of such behaviours in heat stressed cattle as compared with the same animals in cooler environments.

Heat stress also reduces fertility in cattle. While results of research on the effect of heat stress on reproductive endocrine status have been varied, plasma luteinising hormone pulses have been shown to be of lower amplitude and frequency in periods of high ambient temperature [23] and plasma oestradiol concentrations are lowered by heat stress in dairy cows. Plasma progesterone levels are influenced by food intake and hepatic metabolism as well as luteal function, so the influence of heat stress on progesterone production is complex, but effects of heat stress on this hormone will affect the survival of an implanting fetus in the uterine wall as well as oocyte formation with deleterious effects on oocyte maturation and embryonic death.

Opportunities to Alleviate These Issues

Ambient temperature increases are to be expected in the future, so one must ask what measures can be put in place to manage heat stress in cattle. A personal experience might be worth noting here. On a visit to the Department of Veterinary Medicine in the University of Khartoum, Sudan I was at first horrified to see Holstein Friesian cattle, imported from Holland, kept in the elevated temperatures of this African country. Inspection of the farms however showed the use of large water misting fans to cool the cattle (Figure 2). This together with adequate provision of shade allowed the cattle to live comfortably. Indeed, the human inhabitants of Khartoum have borrowed that technology and now use water-cooling fans in up-market restaurants in the city! It is not only equatorial Africa which is using such technology in the livestock industry. American and Australian dairy farms are now also using fan assisted cooling and sprinklers more and more [24]. With an estimated reduction in lactation of up to 35% in midlactating heat-stressed cows it has been suggested that the US dairy industry is losing between $900 and $1500 million annually [25]. Clearly reducing heat stress is not only a welfare issue, but also a commercial imperative.

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