#Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction

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Transforming Learning with Gagné’s Blueprint for Microlearning Excellence

In the realm of educational psychology, Robert Gagné’s work stands out for its profound impact on instructional design. His "Nine Events of Instruction" provide a comprehensive framework for designing effective learning experiences. When combined with the microlearning approach, Gagné’s principles can revolutionize how organizations train and develop their workforce. This article explores Gagné’s instructional blueprint and its application in microlearning to achieve optimal learning outcomes.

Understanding Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction

Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction are a systematic approach to teaching that enhances the learning process. Each event addresses a specific aspect of learning, ensuring that learners are engaged, motivated, and able to retain and apply new knowledge. The nine events are:

Gain Attention: Capture the learner’s interest to prepare them for learning.

Inform Learners of Objectives: Clearly state what learners will achieve by the end of the instruction.

Stimulate Recall of Prior Learning: Help learners connect new information with what they already know.

Present the Content: Deliver the instructional material in an effective and engaging manner.

Provide Learning Guidance: Offer support and strategies to help learners understand and apply the content.

Elicit Performance (Practice): Give learners opportunities to practice what they’ve learned.

Provide Feedback: Offer constructive feedback to reinforce learning and correct mistakes.

Assess Performance: Evaluate learners’ understanding and proficiency.

Enhance Retention and Transfer: Help learners retain information and apply it in different contexts.

Integrating Gagné’s Principles with Microlearning

Microlearning, characterized by its short, focused learning modules, aligns well with Gagné’s events. Here’s how each of Gagné’s events can be effectively integrated into a microlearning framework:

Gain Attention:

Microlearning Application: Use engaging multimedia elements such as animations, videos, or provocative questions to capture learners’ attention quickly.

Example: Start a cybersecurity module with a short, dramatic video showcasing a real-life security breach to highlight the importance of the topic.

Inform Learners of Objectives:

Microlearning Application: Clearly state the learning objectives at the beginning of each microlearning module. This helps learners understand the purpose and expected outcomes.

Example: “By the end of this module, you will be able to identify and respond to phishing attempts.”

Stimulate Recall of Prior Learning:

Microlearning Application: Incorporate brief reviews or questions that prompt learners to recall relevant prior knowledge before introducing new content.

Example: Before introducing advanced sales techniques, ask learners to recall and list basic sales principles covered in previous modules.

Present the Content:

Microlearning Application: Deliver content in small, manageable chunks using various formats such as videos, infographics, and interactive slides to maintain engagement.

Example: A microlearning module on project management could include short videos explaining each phase of a project lifecycle, supplemented with infographics summarizing key points.

Provide Learning Guidance:

Microlearning Application: Offer tips, examples, and strategies within the module to help learners understand and apply the content.

Example: During a module on customer service, provide scenarios and suggested responses to common customer queries.

Elicit Performance (Practice):

Microlearning Application: Include interactive elements such as quizzes, simulations, and drag-and-drop activities that allow learners to practice new skills.

Example: In a module on data analysis, include a simulation where learners interpret data sets and make decisions based on their analysis.

Provide Feedback:

Microlearning Application: Offer immediate, specific feedback on practice activities to reinforce correct responses and guide learners in correcting mistakes.

Example: After a quiz on compliance regulations, provide explanations for each answer, highlighting why certain responses are correct or incorrect.

Assess Performance:

Microlearning Application: Use assessments such as quizzes, scenario-based questions, or mini-projects to evaluate learners’ understanding and proficiency.

Example: At the end of a module on financial literacy, include a quiz that tests learners’ ability to balance a budget or interpret financial statements.

Enhance Retention and Transfer:

Microlearning Application: Include activities and resources that encourage learners to apply what they’ve learned in real-world contexts. Follow-up modules and refresher activities can reinforce retention.

Example: After completing a module on leadership skills, encourage learners to implement a leadership strategy in their workplace and report back on their experiences in a follow-up discussion.

Benefits of Applying Gagné’s Blueprint to Microlearning

Enhanced Engagement: By capturing attention and clearly outlining objectives, learners are more motivated and focused. The varied presentation of content keeps the learning experience fresh and engaging.

Improved Retention: Gagné’s emphasis on recall, practice, and feedback helps reinforce learning and improve retention. Microlearning’s short modules also aid in better retention by preventing cognitive overload.

Immediate Application: Microlearning’s focus on practical application aligns with Gagné’s principles of practice and performance assessment, enabling learners to apply new skills and knowledge immediately.

Flexible and Accessible: The on-demand nature of microlearning allows learners to access content anytime, anywhere, fitting training into their busy schedules.

Continuous Improvement: Regular assessment and feedback ensure that learners continuously improve and refine their skills, leading to better overall performance and productivity.

Tips for Implementing Gagné’s Blueprint in Microlearning

Start with Clear Objectives: Ensure that each microlearning module has clearly defined objectives that align with Gagné’s framework. This provides direction and purpose for the learners.

Incorporate Diverse Media: Use a mix of videos, infographics, interactive quizzes, and simulations to present content engagingly and effectively.

Provide Immediate Feedback: Incorporate mechanisms for immediate feedback to help learners correct mistakes and reinforce learning in real-time.

Encourage Real-World Application: Design activities that encourage learners to apply their knowledge in practical, real-world scenarios to enhance retention and transfer.

Monitor and Iterate: Continuously monitor the effectiveness of the microlearning modules and make iterative improvements based on learner feedback and performance data.

Conclusion

Integrating Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction with microlearning offers a powerful approach to designing effective and engaging training programs. By following Gagné’s blueprint, organizations can enhance the learning experience, improve knowledge retention, and ensure that learners can apply new skills in their work. This combination of structured instructional design and flexible, accessible learning modules sets the stage for microlearning success and drives organizational growth and development.

[gcsolutions]

A plethora of methods can be followed in e-learning, and developers need to choose the one that best fits their requirements as well as aligns well with a technology-aided platform.

[stylusolutions]

Gagne’s Nine Events

We are well aware of Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction procedure. It was published as a part of ‘The Conditions of Learning’, back in 1965, but is still used and is applicable in today’s context. Almost all elearning companies in Mumbai and worldwide follow most of the events presented by this technique.

The events in this procedure are based on internal and external cognitive factors that lead to learning. The learners’ prior knowledge forms internal factors, whereas the external factors are the stimuli from the outside.

Let us list the nine events:

Gain attention

Inform learners of objectives

Recall of prior learning

Present the content

Provide learning guidance

Elicit performance (practice)

Provide feedback

Assess performance

Retention and transfer to the job

The Nine-Events by Gagne are usually used in face-to-face learning; so, how do we use them while developing the content?

While creating content, these events must be modified to suit the needs of your target audience as well as your mode of instruction (text-based or online). All kind of elearning development Mumbai and globally takes into account the nine principals while developing a course.

Let us try and understand how these modifications can take place.

The first step would be to gain attention. Since the instructor is not present, create a compelling introduction that will grab immediate attention and get them hooked right from the beginning. For this step, a story that is heart-touching or a question that surprises or shocks them would be a winner. This will even get the attention of learners who are not motivated for the course or who are easily distracted.

Be it online or text-based course, the learners needs to know what they will be seeing, learning and doing. This will allow them to pre-organise their thoughts. You need to tell the learners the goal of the designed course. This will enlighten them as to why they need to be an active participant of the course. The objectives need to be stated very clearly, connecting the course to its application in the real-world. Using Bloom’s Taxonomy, will ease the process. This will increase the likelihood of them engaging in the learning process.

The third step is to recall any prior knowledge or skills that will be required for the current course. Scaffolding is the task to be achieved in this step. Give them exercises that will not only recall what they have learnt previously, but will also bring to their attention why that knowledge or skill is important. It will form a connection between previous and new knowledge.

The fourth step is to introduce the current topic. Ensure that the topic is presented in a manner that will directly connect it to the stated goals and objectives. The content has to be chunked and sequenced in such a way that there are no chances of cognitive overload. In case of online learning, giving feedback on individual tasks will correct any problems related to learning.

Even the most advanced learners need support in terms of learning new skills and gaining new knowledge. This is the step wherein you coach the learners on how to learn the new skill. If proper guidance is not provided, the learners may get frustrated thereby losing interest in the course. For test-based content, information such as rubrics for assigned projects and activities can be given. Also, provide them with the expectations, instructions, and timelines of the outcome. For online learners, activities within the learning management system can be created that allows greater cooperation amongst students. This will also ensure that incorrect information is not committed to their long term memory.

‘Practice makes it perfect’ is what the next step is about. Let the learner do something with the newly acquired behaviour, skills, or knowledge. This becomes the key to absorbing and retaining the new knowledge and skills. Provide activities that can be tried in the real world. Online learners can be given scenarios and simulations that will let them see what their decisions lead to, as well as the rewards and consequences involved in the outcome of their actions.

Learners require constructive feedback to overcome problems and inconsistencies. This can be done on individual level rather than a general praise or criticism for the entire audience, in online learning environment. Every learner should be made aware of the steps that they can take to achieve their goals.

The progress level of the learners needs to be gauged in a timely manner. This will help you identify the weak spots, not only in the learners but also in your strategy. Assessments in the online learning environment, will allow you to identify the knowledge gap, between what they already know and what they still need to acquire for achieving the learning objectives. Your assessment tools could be exams, quizzes, written assignments, projects, etc.

The final step in this instructional procedure is to aid in the transfer of knowledge by connecting it to real world situations. Make your learners aware how they can apply what they have learnt in the real-world.

No matter what the learning goals are or who your target audience is, Gagné’s 9 Events of Instruction can be used to create effective and engaging contents for your learners.

[rianclaytonneal]

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— Instructional Design (@instdesign_rr) July 31, 2017

[tmiller-mastery-blog]

Project 6.3.1 Mastery: Instructional Design and Evaluation

Reflect 

Last month’s course was one that I anticipated to be one of the most difficult ones, simply because I come from a design background, not a pedagogical one, and its subject matter dealt more with teaching and learning models than previous ones had. At the same time, I did get to use my design skills throughout the course. We designed four posters, and two interactive infographics. Finally, we designed a plan for educating the students of Hoover High School in Canton, Ohio on how to safely and effectively use the new lighting system that they had acquired for their theater program. So, ultimately, it was a very challenging class.

Usually, if I am expecting an extremely difficult course, then I am ready for it, and I am prepared to buckle down and do what it takes to make a good grade. This one was no different. I knew from the beginning that I would have to put an extra measure of effort into this course, so I was prepared to do what I had to do. And, yes, it paid off. I made a good grade in the class, and I found myself to be more interested in the psychological foundations and models of learning than I had expected to be.

Inquire 

As stated earlier, the longer I was in the class, the more interesting I became in the psychological foundations of learning, particularly Robert Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction, as well as the Situated Learning Theory, particularly since that theory fits within the community of practice paradigm. Given that we have been encouraged from the beginning to form a community of practice within our classes, I have become a serious proponent of that style of learning.

I would also like to further explore the different evaluation models of instruction. We used Stufflebeam’s CIPP model for our project (Context, Input, Process, Product), mainly because it was the most straightforward of the evaluation models. When you have only one month to complete a class, and just two weeks for the main project, it helps to use the least complicated model. However, I can see how some of the others could contain elements that could also prove to be helpful in the future.

Visual design of February 2017′s final project was by Heather Delagardelle

Suggest 

With more time, I think that it would have been interesting to have seen how the project plan we devised would have looked if we had been able to carry it to completion. In fact, I could see how it might be beneficial if, from the beginning of the course of study, we had one basic project on which to concentrate; we still would do the same types of assignments throughout the course of study, but, at the end of the program, we would have a completed instructional design project. Of course, I am sure that such an idea has been discussed before, so I will not question the wisdom of why we do things the way we do them now.

The advice I would give to future students is to start questioning your instructor early in the course about the project. In my opinion, it is difficult to turn out a quality product in just two weeks. I am not saying it is impossible, but it is very difficult. I would imagine, though, that the assignment being difficult is part of the learning process.

Elevate 

In his weekly feedback e-mails, Dr. Deason would ask questions about the assignment, often asking me to relate what I had just done to yet another learning/instruction model, and what the differences or similarities might be. Of course, at the time it drove me crazy, because here I was trying to work on the next week’s assignments, and I was having to answer questions about last week’s work. However, at the same time, it was a way of introducing me to other models that were less familiar, and that we simply did not have time to study.

I liked the way that Dr. Deason would go over each person’s work in the weekly feedback video, pointing out what he did or did not like about each one. Yes, sometimes it can be a blow to one’s ego to have his or her shortcomings pointed out for everyone to see, but it does have the effect of helping everyone to learn from each other’s mistakes. Those feedback videos were not really fun, but they were instructive.

I think, more than anything, those weekly feedback sessions that we all hated so much were helpful toward future work. In the corporate world, you rarely have the luxury of private critiques when you are trying to design something – anything – for somebody. In many, if not most cases, the critique will take place in a conference room, with each person giving feedback. As a designer, I know firsthand what it is like to have put a tremendous amount of heart, soul, and effort into a project, just to be sent back to the drawing board because what they had in their minds was different than what I had in mine. Those video feedback sessions of Dr. Deason’s go a long way toward helping one get used to public feedback.

Finally, I can say with confidence that the last class reminded me of what a pleasure it is to work on a team where everyone pulled his or her own weight. I have worked on group projects before, and in too many cases, 80 percent of the work was done by 20 percent of the people. That was not the case on last month’s project. We had a team of four people, each of whom had a specific job for which they were well suited. Consequently, everyone pitched in and did what was necessary to make the project a success. The result was a 100 on the final project.

[edutechkey-blog]

REFLECTION ONE

I walked into the session with a vague understanding of educational technology, but I was quickly enlightened. This week, I was made aware of two separate learning theory foundations – namely objectivism and constructivism - which are crucial to the integration of technology into education. Objectivism, or directed integration, is based around the concept that all forms of knowledge exist outside of the mind, and must thus be transferred into an individual for learning to occur. Constructivism, on the other hand, is based on the idea that learners construct knowledge from their own mind. In the class, we discussed theories that could be categorised as either objectivist or constructivist.

One of the directed integration models is the Behaviourist theory, popularised by B.F. Skinner. This theory states that learning is shown in changes in the behaviour of an individual, which can be shaped by constant reinforcements. Another objectivist theory is the Information-Processing Theory. In this theory, learning is perceived as the process of encoding knowledge into the long-term memory, where it will stay permanently. This can be seen in educational technology where knowledge is drilled into a learner through repetition. For example, quiz applications that repeat the same questions until the individual is able to answer them correctly. Robert Gagné’s Cognitive-Behavioural theory also falls under directed integration. It requires a form of hierarchical learning, through Nine Events of Instruction, as seen below.

(CourseArc, 2015)

This theory explains that different levels of learning require different types of instructions in order to achieve optimum success. Gagne’s theory has been used in military training to ensure the learner has the prerequisite intellectual skills gained through these different levels of learning.

An example of a constructivist integration model is the Social Activism theory by John Dewey. Dewey believed that learning requires real-world, hand’s-on experience. This means that an individual must participate in the activity instead of just learning it theoretically. For example, in a Home Economics class, practical workshops would be used instead of textbooks .Another constructivist theory is Piaget’s Child Development theory, which states that learning is a form of cognitive growth through maturity. All children will go through four stages of cognitive development - sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational – and educational technology should cater to the stage a child is currently at. A learner at a sensorimotor level would be learning about their world through senses during the first two years of their life. Providing the learner with simple toys that rely on the child’s senses would be an optimum way of using Piaget’s theory. Next is Discovery Learning by Jerome Bruner. Bruner theorizes that a child must discover concepts by themselves in order to learn. This implies that a learner constructs their own knowledge by themselves instead of simply having the information fed to them. In a classroom, a student could be presented with materials that will allow them to form their ideas on the subject. Vygotsky’s Social Development theory states social interaction plays a large role in development of a learner. Learning must occur once at a social level and again at a personal level. This theory can be seen when a teacher collaborates with students and allows for group discussions to occur. This facilitates social interaction and thus learning.

I, personally, would like to apply these theories on my own acquisition of knowledge. As certain theories function better in specific circumstances, I believe I can use different learning models for various subjects that I wish to learn. As an example, the Information-Processing theory can be useful when I want to learn a new language, especially when I have no prior knowledge of that particular language. I can use applications such as Duolingo to repeatedly practice words and phrases until I have memorized them. When revising for my university courses, on the other hand, I tend to take a more constructivist point of view to learning. I typically use the Internet to explore and discover various points of view and to accumulate more information without any guidelines. I have realized that in order to teach an individual via technology, a blend of objectivist and constructivist theories should be used. As a future educator, I will use an objectivist foundation when delivering information to an individual that has no prerequisite knowledge on the subject – such as when teaching a small child to spell. Constructivist integration models are better suited to more subjective topics, as well as to older learners who have some experience. I would simply present an older learner with the means to discover information and to shape their own personal ideas on the knowledge they acquire. For example, if I were teaching them about Philosophy, I would present them with certain concepts for the students to conduct internet research on. I would alert them to ideas such as the problem of evil. Then, I would allow them to gather their own database of knowledge regarding this subject. Only later will all the different ideas and definitions be discussed, allowing the student to obtain more concrete knowledge on these concepts. However, as each learner is different, I will never be truly sure how effective this will be. I will endeavor to seek more information on this fascinating subject, and to continually learn more from our Educational Technology classes.

References: CourseArc (2014). Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction. [image] Available at: https://coursearc.com/gagnes-nine-events-of-instruction [Accessed 17 February 2017].

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Applying Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction to Microlearning: A Comprehensive Guide

Introduction:

Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction is a widely recognized instructional design framework that outlines the essential steps for effective learning experiences. As the landscape of education and training evolves, the integration of Gagné’s principles into microlearning has become increasingly relevant. This post explores how Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction can be applied to microlearning, enhancing learning outcomes and driving engagement.

Gain Attention:

The first event in Gagné’s framework is to capture learners’ attention and stimulate their interest in the topic. In microlearning, this can be achieved through attention-grabbing titles, intriguing visuals, or interactive elements. By presenting learners with a compelling hook, microlearning modules can pique their curiosity and encourage active engagement from the outset.

Inform Learners of the Objective:

Once attention is gained, learners need to understand the learning objectives and what they are expected to achieve. In microlearning, clear and concise objectives are essential to guide learners’ focus and inform their expectations. By stating the learning objectives upfront, microlearning modules establish a clear direction for learners and align their efforts with desired outcomes.

Stimulate Recall of Prior Learning:

Building on learners’ existing knowledge and experiences is crucial for effective learning. In microlearning, brief review exercises or quizzes can help stimulate recall of prior learning and activate relevant mental schemas. By connecting new information to what learners already know, microlearning fosters deeper understanding and facilitates knowledge retention.

Present the Content:

The core of microlearning involves delivering the instructional content in bite-sized chunks. Each microlearning module should focus on a specific concept or skill, presented in a concise and accessible format. Whether through videos, infographics, or interactive scenarios, microlearning content should be engaging, relevant, and easy to digest.

Provide Guidance:

In microlearning, learners may require guidance on how to apply the newly acquired knowledge or skills. This event involves providing learners with clear instructions, examples, or demonstrations to facilitate understanding and application. By offering guidance within microlearning modules, learners can bridge the gap between theory and practice, enhancing their ability to transfer learning to real-world situations.

Elicit Performance:

The next step is to provide learners with opportunities to practice and apply what they have learned. In microlearning, interactive exercises, simulations, or case studies can be used to elicit performance and assess mastery of the content. By engaging in hands-on activities within microlearning modules, learners can reinforce their learning and develop proficiency in targeted skills.

Provide Feedback:

Feedback is essential for guiding learners’ progress and reinforcing desired behaviors. In microlearning, immediate and personalized feedback can be delivered through interactive assessments or branching scenarios. By providing constructive feedback within microlearning modules, learners can identify areas for improvement and make necessary adjustments to their learning approach.

Assess Performance:

Assessing learners’ performance allows for ongoing evaluation and adjustment of the learning process. In microlearning, formative assessments or knowledge checks can be embedded throughout the content to gauge learners’ understanding and retention. By assessing performance within microlearning modules, instructors can identify learning gaps and tailor subsequent instruction to meet learners’ needs.

Enhance Retention and Transfer:

The final event focuses on promoting long-term retention and transfer of learning to real-world contexts. In microlearning, spaced repetition techniques or summary modules can be used to reinforce key concepts and facilitate transfer of learning. By revisiting and reinforcing key ideas within microlearning modules, learners can solidify their understanding and apply their knowledge in diverse settings.

Conclusion:

By applying Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction to microlearning, organizations can create highly effective and engaging learning experiences. Whether capturing learners’ attention, presenting content, or providing feedback, each event plays a crucial role in shaping the overall learning journey. By leveraging microlearning as a vehicle for instructional design, organizations can maximize learning outcomes and empower learners to achieve their full potential.

[cameronlindner-blog]

IDT520 Strategies for Learner Engagement 2.1.1 Week 1 Discussion

Engaging the Learner

Which of the examples make use of the behavioral learning theory?

In someway or another all of the examples use Behavioral Learning Theory in their educational tools. The first example I noticed when watching the video of how to change a tire was to positivity that was demonstrated by the instructor. Her positive words of encouragement from the beginning, that the task was simple and anyone could do it, are great examples of positive reinforcement of adding something nice (D.Peters). Now granted the fact that this is a video and the instructor can’t see the expression on our faces or interact with the viewer in anyway, it is apparent that the designer of the video provided training as to when she should give the viewers/students these queues. Not only does the instructor use positive reinforcement examples, but she also uses examples of positive punishment, adding something bad (D. Peters). In video format she does this by reminding us how bad a flat is on its own, but how much worse it is if your spare tire is flat so make to check it for air once in awhile. She is doing this to reinforce a behavior she clearly wants us to learn. She also points out the obvious that a flat foot is worse than a flat tire, instilling an image in all our minds that we would certainly recall when it comes time to remove the jack.

2) Of the examples, which ones make use the Schema Theory and the Cognitive Load Theory?

The interactive infographic, interactive body, is drawing on the student's existing schema of the human body. This is a well made instructional tool that helps reduce the students cognitive load in many ways so they are more likely to longterm memories of the information provided. One of the styles described Reiser and Dempsey used in the interactive body is by providing examples and partially completed problems (R. Reiser, J. Dempsey 38). The interactive body provides the learner with lots of graphics of the human body while asking the question. This frees up the learner's ability to not struggle with envisioning the part of the body or the human outline of a body itself when trying to solve the question at hand. The infographic also takes providing examples and partially completed problems to another level by giving the students the option of asking for a hint to help them reduce their cognitive load. Reiser and Dempsey also discuss the importance of placing learning tasks in a sequence to help learners reduce their cognitive load (R. Reiser, J. Dempsey 38). The developers of the interactive body seemed to take this into consideration when developing their infographic. They did so by allowing the students to choose from which of the body systems the student would like to learn about. It also allows students to choose the order in which they learn them, for some learns it may make more sense to work the organs then put the skeleton around it, others may prefer another style. Either way it provides the learner with the ability to choose, and choice to design their own learning sequence will only increase the learner's ability to create long term memories.

3) How does the eLearning module—The Infinite Life of Pi—address Gagné’s Nine Events

of Instruction and Mayer’s Principles of Multimedia Learning?

The Infinite Life of Pi does a decent job of following the revised flow chart of Blooms taxonomy as provided in Interface Design for Learning. It allows students to analyze evaluate and create their understanding of Pi through the video. Next the eLearning module asks the student to apply their knowledge through a short assessment. The guided discussions provides the students a chance to display their understanding to the instructor as well. As far as remembering is concerned I think the student could display this to the teacher in future assessments.

The eLearning module could improve on Gagne’s events of instruction “Informing the learner of the objective— a statement or demonstration to form an expectancy in the learner as to the goals of instruction.” (R. Reiser, J. Dempsey 40). The Infinite Life of Pi covers all eight other events well, but from the beginning the student is unsure what knowledge they are trying to obtain from the video from the start. Students need to know what is to be expected of them, for a short video there is ton of information provided. Understanding that this is being presented to students that are in the 8 to 12 year old range, they don’t yet have the skill set to pick out, on their own, what are the important pieces of material without proper guidance from their instructor or the video at the start of the lesson.

References:

British Broadcasting Corporation, (n.d.) Interactive Body [Multimedia]. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/interactives/3djigsaw_02/index.shtml?skeleton

Lopes, R. (n.d.) The infinite life of pi. Retrieved April 07, 2016, from http://ed.ted.com/lessons/the-infinite-life-of-pi-reynaldo-lopes#watch

Peters, D. (2013). Interface design for learning: Design strategies for learning experiences. Retrieved from http://ce.safaribooksonline.com/book/web-design-anddevelopment/9780133365481

Reiser A. & Dempsey J. (2012). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (3rd Ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Saab (2009). How to change a tire. [Video File]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FrFec321V10&noredirect=1.

The infinite life of pi - Reynaldo Lopes. (n.d.). Retrieved January 04, 2017, from http://ed.ted.com/lessons/the-infinite-life-of-pi-reynaldo-lopes#watch​