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trekkinginpakistan · 4 years ago

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New Post has been published on Trekking in Pakistan

New Post has been published on https://trek.pk/taxila/

Taxila

Taxila (Urdu: ٹيکسلا‎), is a city in Rawalpindi District of the Punjab, Pakistan. Taxila is situated about 32 km (20 mi) north-west of Islamabad and Rawalpindi, along the historic Grand Trunk Road, near the important Sikh pilgrimage centre of Hasan Abdal, and the Mughal-era Wah Gardens.

Ancient Taxila was historically referred to as Takshashila in Sanskrit, and Takkasila in Pali. The earliest settlement at Taxila was founded around 1000 BCE at the Hathial site. The Hindu epic poem Mahābhārata is believed to have been first recited at Taxila, by the sage Vaiśampāyana. By some accounts, Taxila was home to one of the earliest, if not the first, universities in the world.

Taxila’s ruins are internationally renowned, and function as a series of interrelated sites, including a Mesolithic cave, the remains of 4 ancient cities, and Buddhist monasteries and stupas. The ancient ruins of Taxila were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980.

Etymology

Taxila was in ancient times known in Pali as Takkasila, and in Sanskrit as Takshashila (IAST: Takṣaśilā). The city’s Sanskrit name means “City of Cut Stone”. The city’s ancient Sanskrit name alternately means “Rock of Taksha” – in reference to the Ramayana story that states the city was founded by Bharata, younger brother of the central Hindu deity Rama, and named in honour of Bharata’s son, Taksha.

The city’s modern name, however, is derived from the ancient Greek recording of the ancient city’s name, noted in Ptolemy’s Geography. The Greek transcription of Taxila became universally favoured over time, while the Pali and Sanskrit versions fell out of use.

History

Early settlement

The region around Taxila was settled by the neolithic era, with some ruins at Taxila dating to 3360 BCE. Ruins dating from the Early Harappan period around 2900 BCE have also been discovered in the Taxila area, though the area was eventually abandoned after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

The first major settlement at Taxila was established around 1000 BCE. By 900 BCE, the city was already involved in regional commerce, as discovered pottery shards reveal trading ties between the city and Puṣkalāvatī.

Taxila was founded in a strategic location along the ancient “Royal Highway” that connected the capital at Pataliputra in Bihar, with ancient Peshawar, Puṣkalāvatī, and onwards towards Central Asia via Kashmir, Bactria, and Kāpiśa. Taxila thus changed hands many times over the centuries, with many empires vying for its control.

Achaemenid

Archaeological excavations show that the city may have grown significantly during the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BCE. In 516 BCE, Darius I embarked on a campaign to conquer Central Asia, Ariana, and Bactria, before marching onto what is now Afghanistan and northern Pakistan. Emperor Darius spent the winter of 516–515 BCE in the Gandhara region surrounding Taxila and prepared to conquer the Indus Valley, which he did in 515 BCE, after which he appointed Scylax of Caryanda to explore the Indian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to the Suez. Darius then returned to Persia via the Bolan Pass. The region continued under Achaemenid suzerainty under the reign of Xerxes I and continued under the Achaemenid rule for over a century.

Hellenistic and Mauryan

Alexander the Great invaded Taxila in 326 BCE, after the city was surrendered by its ruler, king Omphis. Greek historians accompanying Alexander described Taxila as “wealthy, prosperous, and well governed.” His troops were said to have found a university in Taxila, the like of which had not been seen in Greece.

After Alexander’s departure, Taxila came under the influence of Chandragupta Maurya, who turned Taxila into a regional capital. His advisor, Chanakya, was said to have taught at Taxila’s university. Under the reign of Ashoka, the city was made a great seat of Buddhist learning, though the city was home to a minor rebellion during this time.

Indo-Greek

In the 2nd century BCE, Taxila was annexed by the Indo-Greek kingdom of Bactria. Indo-Greeks build new capital, Sirkap, on the opposite bank of the river from Taxila. During this new period of Bactrian Greek rule, several dynasties (like Antialcidas) likely ruled from the city as their capital. During lulls in Greek rule, the city managed profitably on its own, to independently control several local trade guilds, who also minted most of the city’s autonomous coinage. In about the 1st century BCE or 1st century CE, an Indo-Scythian king named Azilises had three mints, one of which was at Taxila, and struck coins with obverse legends in Greek and Kharoṣṭhī. The last Greek king of Taxila was overthrown by the Indo-Scythian chief Maues around 90 BCE. Gondophares, founder of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom, conquered Taxila around 20 BCE, and made Taxila his capital. According to early Christian legend, Thomas the Apostle visits king Gondophares IV around 46 CE, possibly at Taxila given that that city was Gondophares’ capital city.

Kushan

In the first century CE, the Greek Neopythagorean philosopher Apollonius of Tyana visited Taxila, which his team described as a fortified city laid out on a symmetrical plan, similar in size to Nineveh. Inscriptions dating to 76 CE demonstrate that the city had come under Kushan rule by this time after the city was captured from the Parthians by Kujula Kadphises, founder of the Kushan Empire. The great Kushan ruler Kanishka later founded Sirsukh, the most recent of the ancient settlement at Taxila.

Decline

By the 300s CE, the Sasanian king Shapur II seems to have conquered Taxila, as evidenced by the numerous Sasanian copper coins found there. Taxila’s ancient university remained in existence during the travels of Chinese pilgrim Faxian, who visited Taxila around 400 CE. He wrote that ancient Taxila’s name translated as “the Severed Head”, and was the site of a story in the life of Buddha “where he gave his head to a man”.

The White Huns swept over Gandhāra and Punjab around 470 CE, causing widespread devastation and destruction of Taxila’s famous Buddhist monasteries and stupas, a blow from which the city would never recover. Xuanzang visited Taxila in 630 and 643 CE, and wrote that the city had already fallen into ruin by the time of his arrival.

Modern

The renowned archaeologist Sir Alexander Cunningham rediscovered the ruins of Taxila in the mid-19th century by identifying a local site known as Sarai Kala (or Sarai Khola) with ancient Taxila. Prior to that, the location of the ancient city of Taxila, known from literary texts, was uncertain.

Geography

Taxila is located 32 km (20 mi) north-west of the Pakistani capital Islamabad. The city is located approximately 549 meters (1,801 ft) above sea level.

Climate

Taxila features a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cwa)

Economy

Tourism

Taxila’s ruins, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, date from as early as 1000 BCE, and are a major tourist draw.

Taxila is one of northern Pakistan’s most important tourist destinations, and is home to the Taxila Museum which holds a large number of artifacts from Taxila’s excavations. Though the number of foreign visitors to the site drastically declined following the start of an Islamist insurgency in Pakistan in 2007, visitor numbers began to noticeably improve by 2017, after the law and order situation in the region had greatly improved following the start of the 2014 Zarb-e-Azb campaign launched by the Pakistani Army against radical Islamist militants.

In 2017, the Pakistani government announced its intention to develop Taxila into a site for Buddhist religious pilgrimage. As part of the efforts, it announced that an exhibition on the Buddhist heritage of the region would be held in Thailand, and that the Thai government would assist in conservation efforts at the site. Relics from Taxila were also sent to Sri Lanka for the 2017 Vesak holiday as part of an effort to showcase the region’s Buddhist heritage. The Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation also announced in 2017 that a tour bus service would be launched between the Taxila Museum and Islamabad.

In addition to the ruins of ancient Taxila, relics of Mughal gardens and vestiges of historical Grand Trunk Road are also found in Taxila. Nicholson’s Obelisk, named in honour of Brigadier John Nicholson who died in during the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, is a monument from the British era that welcomes travelers arriving from Rawalpindi/Islamabad.

Industry

Taxila is home to Heavy Industries Taxila, a major Pakistani defence, military contractor, engineering conglomerate. The city’s economy is also closely linked to the large Pakistan Ordnance Factories at nearby Wah Cantt, which employs 27,000 people. Cottage and household industries include stoneware, pottery and footwear.

Transportation

Rail

Taxila is served by the Taxila Cantonment Junction railway station. Taxila Junction is served by the Karachi–Peshawar Railway Line, and is the southern terminus of the Khunjerab Railway, which connects Taxila to the Havelian railway station. A planned extension of the railway will eventually connect Taxila to China’s Southern Xinjiang Railway in Kashgar, as part of the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor.

Road

The M-1 Motorway, pictured near Taxila, links the city to Islamabad and Peshawar.

The ancient Grand Trunk Road is designated as N-5 National Highway, and connects the city to the Afghan border, and northern Punjab. The Karakoram Highway’s southern terminus is in nearby Hasan Abdal, and connects Taxila to the Chinese border near the Hunza Valley.

The city is linked to Peshawar and Islamabad by the M-1 Motorway, which in turn offers wider motorway access to Lahore via the M-2 Motorway, and Faisalabad via the M-4 Motorway.

Air

The nearest airport to Taxila is Islamabad International Airport located 36.5 kilometers away. Peshawar’s Bacha Khan International Airport is 155 kilometers away.

Education

University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila is a local branch of the University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore.

Taxila is home to many secondary educational institutes including CIIT Wah Campus, and HITEC University. The University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila was established in 1975 as a campus of the University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, and offers bachelor, master, and doctoral degrees in engineering.

Ancient ruins

The Ruins of Taxila include four major cities, each belonging to a distinct time period, at three different sites. The earliest settlement at Taxila is found in the Hathial section, which yielded pottery shards that date from as early as the late 2nd millennium BCE to the 6th century BCE. The Bhir Mound ruins at the site date from the 6th century BCE, and are adjacent to Hathial. The ruins of Sirkap date to the 2nd century BCE, and were built by the region’s Greco-Bactrian kings who ruled in the region following Alexander the Great’s invasion of the region in 326 BCE. The third and most recent settlement is that of Sirsukh, which was built by rulers of the Kushan empire, who ruled from nearby Purushapura��(modern Peshawar).

Culture

Modern Taxila is a mix of relatively wealthy urban, and poorer rural environs. Urban residential areas are general in the form of planned housing colonies populated by workers of the heavy mechanical complex & heavy industries, educational institutes and hospitals that are located in the area.

Museums

Taxila Museum has one of the most significant and comprehensive collections of stone Buddhist sculptures from the first to the seventh centuries in Pakistan (known as Gandharan art. The core of the collection comes from excavated sites in the Taxila Valley, particularly the excavations of Sir John Marshall. Other objects come from excavated sites elsewhere in Gandhara, from donations such as the Ram Das Collection, or from material confiscated by the police and customs authorities.

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your-dietician · 2 years ago

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History of Cosmetic Surgery

New Post has been published on https://backtherapyhealth.com/history-of-cosmetic-surgery/

History of Cosmetic Surgery

Today, here, and around the world, many people have considered having Cosmetic Surgery, or Plastic Surgery performed. Many more have had plastic surgery done, some with multiple procedures. Plastic Surgery, by definition, is a broad term for operative manual and instrumental treatment which is performed for functional or aesthetic reasons. Medical treatment for Facial injuries dates back over 4,000 years. The word “plastic” is a derivative of the Greek word plastikos meaning to mould or shape; however, contrary to common belief, the term “plastic surgery” is not related to modern plastics at all.

Cosmetic Surgery was first known to have been performed in Roman times. The Romans had the ability to perform simple procedures such as repairing damaged ears, in modern times referred to as Otoplasty, this is one of the most simple of procedures. One report discusses a patient getting his earlobes repaired after years of wearing heavy earrings. The excess lobes were trimmed and the hole sewn together. One of the more expensive plastic surgeries performed at the time, the removal of branding and scars, was a commonly executed procedure. Freed slaves paid a high price indeed for this type of surgery. It was felt that this common practice reduced the stigma of having been a slave in this ancient times.

In ancient India physicians were able to use skin graft reconstruction techniques as early as 800 B.C. From ancient times to the early nineteenth century, we find a living tradition of plastic operations of the nose, ear and lip. The Kangra (correctly pronounced as ‘Kangada’) district in Himachal Pradesh was most famous for its plastic surgeons. Some scholars are of the opinion that the word ‘Kangada’ is made from ‘Kana + gadha’ (ear repair). The British archaeologist Sir Alexander Cunningham (1814-93) had written about the tradition of Kangra plastic surgery procedures. We also have information that in the reign of Akber ,a Vaidya named Bidha used to carry out plastic operations in Kangra.

The Charaka-Sanhita and the Sushruta-Sanhita are among the oldest known manuscripts on Ayurveda (the Indian science of medicine). Chronologically speaking, the Charaka-Sanhita is believed to be the earliest work, and deals with medicine proper and containing a few passages on surgery. The Sushruta-Sanhita, a work of the early centuries of the Christian era, mainly deals with surgical knowledge rather than medicine. The extant Sushruta-Sanhita is, according to its commentator Dalhanacharya (of twelfth century AD), a amendment by Nagarjuna. The original Sushruta-Sanhita was based on a series of lectures between Kashiraj Divodas (or Dhanvantari) and his disciples, Sushruta and others.

In 15th Century Europe, a man by the name of Heinrich von Pfolspeundt , a German physician and a member of the Teutonic Order of Knights was one of the first known Europeans to have performed cosmetic surgery. Dr. Pfolspeundt was one of the first doctors of the late medieval and early Renaissance period to take medical practices beyond the very crude conditions that had existed through much of the Middle Ages. During his time, a good number of German physicians, especially those in Strasbourg, helped to serve the advancement of the study of medicine. Dr. Pfolspeundt described a procedure to make a new nose for a person who lacks one. He stated that by removing skin from the back of the arm and suturing it into place a new nose could be created.

From Italy we have records that would indicate that in the year 1442, Branca, a surgeon of Catania in Sicily, carried out plastic surgery of the nose, Also known as rhinoplasty, using a skin flap from the face. This procedure was very similar to the one described in the Sushruta-Sanhita, an Ayurvedic compendium composed in the early centuries of the Christian era. His son Antonio continued his work and was the first known to use a skin flap from the arm for reconstructing the nose. The Boinias family carried on with his work. The plastic operations carried out by the Boinia brothers are described in a book published in 1568 by Fioravanti, a doctor of Bologna, Italy.

At the hands of Gasparo Tagliacozzi (1546-99), a professor of surgery and of anatomy at the Bologna University, that plastic surgery attained wide fame in Europe. His book De curtorum chirurgia per insitionem (The surgery of defects by implantation), printed in 1597, was the first scientific composition on plastic surgery. Tagliacozzi had described a method of substitution of the nose by skin from the arm and of replacement of the ears and lips, demonstrating his work throughout his manuscript by way of a large number of illustrations.

The Church dignitaries of the time regarded cosmetic surgery as an interference in the affairs of the Almighty. After his death they not only excommunicated Tagliacozzi, but also had his corpse exhumed from its church grave, and placed it in unconsecrated ground. The great Voltaire (1694-1778) wrote a satirical poem on Tagliacozzi and his operation on the nose, using flap from the buttocks.

However, due to the many dangers of surgery in those times, cosmetic surgery was rarely performed until around the 1900’s. The United States first plastic surgeon was Dr. John Peter Mettauer, born in Virginia in 1787, who in 1827 performed the first cleft palate surgery on record with instruments he himself designed.

There are two very broad fields of aesthetic surgery, Cosmetic Surgery and Reconstructive Surgery. Reconstructive surgery, including microsurgery, focuses on undoing or masking the destructive effects of trauma, previous surgery or disease. Examples of such operations are the rebuilding of amputated or damaged arms or legs; repairing cleft palates or lips, badly formed noses, and ears; and reconstructing a breast after mastectomy. Reconstructive surgery may include moving tissue from other parts of the body to the affected area.

Cosmetic surgery however, is an elective surgery, usually done more for aesthetic reasons rather than to repair an injured area. In many cases, however, there are medical reasons for having some procedures done, such as breast reduction (for back pain relief) and Mastopexy (also known as a “breast lift). Cosmetic Surgery includes, but is not limited to, Abdominoplasty, or “tummy tuck”, Blepharoplasty, or “eyelid surgery”, Augmentation Mammaplasty, or “breast enlargement”, and Rhytidectomy, or “face lift”.

There are many more procedures not listed here that are commonly performed as well. The top five surgical procedures in 2004 Liposuction (325,000), nose reshaping (305,000), breast augmentation (264,000), eyelid surgery (233,000), and facelift (114,000).

As you can see, Plastic Surgery has a longstanding history across the ages. It has helped not only in the reconstructive plastic surgery field but also has allowed people to feel more comfortable with their bodies and more confident about themselves.

Source by Angie Tidwell

#back pain relief medicine

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rdocollections-blog · 4 years ago

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lesliewofford83-blog · 8 years ago

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BOF NEVER GABRIEL AND NEVER WAS MADE A BIRD A NEWBEC OR ANYTHING SHORTER THAN LESLIE AT 5′5 AND 3 QUARTERS INCHES TALL! AND FOR PEOPLE TRYIN TO BE ME AND INVADE ME THESE PEOPLE DIED, EVERY YEAR MORE AND MORE WILL DIE FOR TRYING TO STEAL MY STUFF OR HURT MY FAMILY OR KIDNAP MY KID(S) EVER OR HAVE ME LIVING MORE THAN ONE LIFE.

March 2002[edit source]

1 – David Mann, 85, American songwriter.

1 – Roger Plumpton Wilson, 96, British Anglican prelate.

3 – G. M. C. Balayogi, 61, Indian lawyer and politician.

3 – Calvin Carrière, 80, American fiddler.

3 – Harlan Howard, 74, American country music songwriter.

3 – Al Pollard, 73, NFL player and broadcaster, lymphoma. [1]

3 – Roy Porter, 55, British historian.

6 – Bryan Fogarty, 32, Canadian ice hockey player.

6 – David Jenkins, 89, Welsh librarian.

6 – Donald Wilson, 91, British television writer and producer.

7 – Franziska Rochat-Moser, 35, Swiss marathon runner.

8 – Bill Johnson, 85, American football player.

8 – Ellert Sölvason, 84, Icelandic football player.

9 – Jack Baer, 87, American baseball coach.

9 – Irene Worth, 85, American actress.

11 – Al Cowens, 50, American baseball player.

11 – Rudolf Hell, 100, German inventor and manufacturer.

12 – Steve Gromek, 82, American baseball player.

13 – Hans-Georg Gadamer, 102, German philosopher.

14 – Cherry Wilder, 71, New Zealand writer.

14 – Tan Yu, 75, Filipino entrepreneur.

15 – Sylvester Weaver, 93, American advertising executive, father of Sigourney Weaver.

16 – Sir Marcus Fox, 74, British politician.

17 – Rosetta LeNoire, 90, African-American stage and television actress.

17 – Bill Davis, 60, American football coach.

18 – Reginald Covill, 96, British cricketer.

18 – Maude Farris-Luse, 115, supercentenarian and one-time "Oldest Recognized Person in the World".

18 – Gösta Winbergh, 58, Swedish operatic tenor.

20 – John E. Gray, 95, American educational administrator, President of Lamar University.

20 – Ivan Novikoff, 102, Russian premier ballet master.

20 – Richard Robinson, 51, English cricketer.

21 – James F. Blake, 89, American bus driver, antagonist for the Montgomery Bus Boycott.

21 – Thomas Flanagan, 78, American novelist and academic.

22 – Sir Kingsford Dibela, 70, Governor-General of Papua New Guinea.

22 – Hugh R. Stephen, 88, Canadian politician.

23 – Ben Hollioake, 24, English cricketer.

24 – Dorothy DeLay, 84, American violin instructor.

24 – César Milstein, 74, Argentinian biochemist.

24 – Frank G. White, 92, American army general.

25 – Ken Traill, 75, British rugby league player.

25 – Kenneth Wolstenholme, 81, British football commentator.

26 – Roy Calvert, 88, New Zealand World War II air force officer.

27 – Milton Berle, 93, American comedian dubbed "Mr. Television".

27 – Sir Louis Matheson, 90, British university administrator, Vice Chancellor of Monash University.

27 – Dudley Moore, 66, British actor and writer.

27 – Billy Wilder, 95, Austrian-born American film director (Double Indemnity).

28 – Tikka Khan, 86, Pakistani army general.

29 – Rico Yan, 27, Filipino movie & TV actor.

30 – Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, 101, British consort of King George VI.

31 – Lady Anne Brewis, 91, English botanist.

31 – Barry Took, 73, British comedian and writer.

April 2002[edit source]

1 – Umer Rashid, 26, English cricketer, drowning.

1 – John S. Samuel, 88, American Air Force general.

2 – John R. Pierce, 92, American engineer and author.

2 – Robert Lawson Vaught, 75, American mathematician.

3 – Frank Tovey, aka Fad Gadget, 45, English singer-songwriter.

4 – Don Allard, 66, American football player (New York Titans, New England Patriots) and coach.

5 – Arthur Ponsonby, 11th Earl of Bessborough, 89, British aristocrat.

5 – Layne Staley, 34, former Alice in Chains lead singer.

6 – Nobu McCarthy, 67, Canadian actress.

6 – William Patterson, 71, British Anglican priest, Dean of Ely.

6 – Margaret Wingfield, 90, British political activist.

7 – John Agar, 82, American actor.

8 – Sir Nigel Bagnell, 75, British field marshal.

8 – María Félix, 88, Mexican film star.

8 – Helen Gilbert, 80 American artist.

8 – Giacomo Mancini, 85, Italian politician.

9 – Leopold Vietoris, 110, Austrian mathematician.

10 – Géza Hofi, 75 Hungarian humorist.

11 – J. William Stanton, 78, American politician.

14 – Buck Baker, 83, American member of the NASCAR Hall of Fame

14 – John Boda, 79, American composer and music professor.

14 – Sir Michael Kerr, 81, British jurist.

15 – Will Reed, 91, British composer.

15 – Byron White, 84, United States Supreme Court justice.

16 – Billy Ayre, 49, English footballer.

16 – Franz Krienbühl, 73, Swiss speed skater.

16 – Robert Urich, 55, American TV actor.

18 – Thor Heyerdahl, 87, Norwegian anthropologist.

18 – Cy Laurie, 75, British musician.

18 – Sir Peter Proby, 90, British landowner, Lord-Lieutenant of Cambridgeshire.

20 – Vlastimil Brodský, 81, Czech actor.

21 – Sebastian Menke, 91, American Roman Catholic priest.

21 – Red O'Quinn, 76, American football player.

21 – Terry Walsh, 62, British stuntman.

22 – Albrecht Becker, 95, German production designer and actor.

22 – Allen Morris, 92, American historian.

23 – Linda Lovelace, 53, former porn star turned political activist, car crash.

23 – Ted Kroll, 82, American golfer.

25 – Michael Bryant, 74, British actor.

25 – Indra Devi, 102, Russian "yoga teacher to the stars".

25 – Lisa Lopes, 30, American singer, car crash.

26 – Alton Coleman, 46, convicted spree killer, execution by lethal injection.

27 – Ruth Handler, 85, inventor of the Barbie doll.

27 – Baron Hans Heinrich Thyssen-Bornemisza, 81, German Industrialist and art collector.

28 – Alexander Lebed, Russian general and politician.

28 – Sir Peter Parker, 77, British businessman.

28 – Lou Thesz, American professional wrestler.

28 – John Wilkinson, 82, American sound engineer.

29 – Liam O'Sullivan, Scottish footballer, drugs overdose. [2]

29 – Lor Tok, 88, Thai, comedian and actor Thailand National Artist.

May 2002[edit source]

1 – John Nathan-Turner, 54, British television producer.

2 – William Thomas Tutte, 84, Bletchley Park cryptographer and British, later Canadian, mathematician.

3 – Barbara Castle, Baroness Castle of Blackburn, 91, British Labour politician and female life peer.

3 – Mohamed Haji Ibrahim Egal, 73, president of Somaliland and formerly prime minister of Somalia and British Somaliland.

3 – Mohan Singh Oberoi, 103, Indian hotelier and retailer.

4 – Abu Turab al-Zahiri, 79, Saudi Arabian writer of Arab Indian descent

5 – Sir Clarence Seignoret 83, president of Dominica (1983–1993).

5 – Hugo Banzer Suárez, 75, president of Bolivia, as dictator 1971–1978 and democratic president 1997–2001.

5 – Mike Todd, Jr., 72, American film producer.

6 – Otis Blackwell, 71, American singer-songwriter and pianist.

6 – Harry George Drickamer, 83, American chemical engineer.

6 – Pim Fortuyn, 54, assassinated Dutch politician.

7 – Sir Bernard Burrows, 91, British diplomat.

7 – Sir Ewart Jones, 91, Welsh chemist.

7 – Seattle Slew, 28, last living triple crown winner on 25th anniversary of winning Kentucky Derby.

8 – Sir Edward Jackson, 76, English diplomat.

9 – Robert Layton, 76, Canadian politician.

9 – James Simpson, 90, British explorer.

10 – Lynda Lyon Block, 54, convicted murderer, executed by electric chair in Alabama.

10 – John Cunniff, 57, American hockey player and coach.

10 – Henry W. Hofstetter, 87, American optometrist.

10 – Leslie Dale Martin, 35, convicted murderer, executed by lethal injection in Louisiana.

10 – Tom Moore, 88, American athletics promoter.

11 – Joseph Bonanno, 97, Sicilian former Mafia boss.

12 – Richard Chorley, 74, English geographer.

13 – Morihiro Saito, 74, a teacher of the Japanese martial art of aikido.

13 – Ruth Cracknell, 76, redoubtable Australian actress most famous for the long-running role of Maggie Beare in the series "Mother and Son".

13 – Valery Lobanovsky, 63, former Ukrainian coach.

14 – Sir Derek Birley, 75, British educationist and writer.

15 – Bernard Benjamin, 92, British statistician.

15 – Bryan Pringle, 67, British actor.

15 – Nellie Shabalala, 49, South African singer and wife of leader/founder of Ladysmith Black Mambazo, Joseph Shabalala.

15 – Esko Tie, 73, Finnish ice hockey player.

16 – Edwin Alonzo Boyd, 88, Canadian bank-robber and prison escapee of the 1950s.

16 – Alec Campbell, 103, Australia's last surviving ANZAC died in a nursing home.

16 – Dorothy Van, 74, American actress.

17 – Peter Beck, 92, British schoolmaster.

17 – Joe Black, 78, American first Black baseball pitcher to win a World Series game.

17 – Earl Hammond, 80, American voice actor best known for voicing Mumm Ra and Jaga in the television series Thundercats.

17 – Bobby Robinson, 98, American baseball player.

17 – Little Johnny Taylor, 59, American singer.

18 – Davey Boy Smith, 39, 'British Bulldog' professional wrestler.

18 – Gordon Wharmby, 68, British actor (Last of the Summer Wine)

19 – John Gorton, 90, 19th Prime Minister of Australia.

19 – Otar Lordkipanidze, 72, Georgian archaeologist.

20 – Stephen Jay Gould, 60, paleontologist and popular science author.

21 – Niki de Saint Phalle, 71, French artist.

21 – Roy Paul, 82, Welsh footballer.

22 – Paul Giel, 69, American football player.

22 – Dick Hern, 81, British racehorse trainer.

22 – (remains discovered; actual death probably took place on or around May 1, 2001), Chandra Levy, 24, U.S. Congressional intern.

22 – Creighton Miller, 79, American football player and attorney.

23 – Sam Snead, 89, golfer.

25 – Pat Coombs, 75, English actress.

25 – Jack Pollard, 75, Australian sports journalist.

26 – John Alexander Moore, 86, American biologist.

26 – Mamo Wolde, 69, Ethiopian marathon runner.

28 – Napoleon Beazley, 25, convicted juvenile offender, executed by lethal injection in Texas.

28 – Mildred Benson, 96, American children's author.

June 2002[edit source]

1 – Hansie Cronje, 32, South African cricketer, air crash.

4 – Fernando Belaúnde Terry, 89, democratic president of Peru, 1963–1968 and 1980–1985.

4 – John W. Cunningham, 86, American author.

4 – Caroline Knapp, 42, author of Drinking: A Love Story.

5 – Dee Dee Ramone, 50, founding member of The Ramones.

5 – Alex Watson, 70, Australian rugby league player.

6 – Peter Cowan, 87, Australian writer.

6 – Hans Janmaat, 67, controversial far-right politician in the Netherlands.

7 – Rodney Hilton, 85, British historian.

7 – Lilian, Princess of Réthy, 85, British-born Belgian royal.

8 – George Mudie, 86, Jamaican cricketer.

9 – Paul Chubb, 53, Australian actor.

9 – Bryan Martyn, 71, Australian rules footballer.

10 – John Gotti, 61, imprisoned mobster.

11 – Robbin Crosby, 42, American guitarist of rock band Ratt.

11 – Margaret E. Lynn, 78, American theater director.

11 – Robert Roswell Palmer, 93, American historian and writer.

11 – Peter John Stephens, 89, British children's author.

12 – Bill Blass, 79, American fashion designer.

12 – George Shevelov, 93, Ukrainian scholar.

13 – John Hope, 83, American meteorologist.

14 – Jose Bonilla, 34, boxing former world champion, of asthma.

14 – June Jordan, 65, American writer and teacher, of breast cancer.

15 – Said Belqola, 45, Moroccan referee of the 1998 FIFA World Cup final.

17 – Willie Davenport, 59, American gold medal-winning Olympic hurdler.

17 – John C. Davies II, 82, American politician.

17 – Fritz Walter, 81, German football player, captain of 1954 World Cup winners.

18 – Nancy Addison, 54, soap actress, cancer.

18 – Jack Buck, 77, Major League Baseball announcer.

18 – Michael Coulson, 74, British lawyer and politician.

19 – Count Flemming Valdemar of Rosenborg, 80, Danish prince.

20 – Enrique Regüeiferos, 53, Cuban Olympic boxer.

21 – Henry Keith, Baron Keith of Kinkel, 80, British jurist.

21 – Patrick Kelly, 73, English cricketer.

22 – David O. Cooke, 81, American Department of Defense official.

22 – Darryl Kile, 33, Major League Baseball player.

22 – Ann Landers, 83, author & syndicated newspaper columnist.

23 – Pedro "El Rockero" Alcazar, 26, Panamanian boxer; died after losing his world Flyweight championship to Fernando Montiel in Las Vegas the night before.

23 – Arnold Weinstock, 77, British businessman.

24 – Lorna Lloyd-Green, 92, Australian gynaecologist.

24 – Miles Francis Stapleton Fitzalan-Howard, 86, 17th Duke of Norfolk.

24 – Pierre Werner, 88, former Prime Minister of Luxembourg, "father of the Euro".

25 – Gordon Park Baker, 64, Anglo-American philosopher.

25 – Jean Corbeil, 68, Canadian politician.

26 – Barbara G. Adams, 57, British Egyptologist.

26 – Clarence D. Bell, 88, American politician, member of the Pennsylvania State Senate.

26 – Jay Berwanger, 88, college football player, first winner of the Heisman Trophy.

26 – Arnold Brown, 88, British General of the Salvation Army.

26 – James Morgan, 63, British journalist.

27 – Sir Charles Carter, 82, British economist and academic administrator.

27 – John Entwistle, 57, English bassist (The Who), heart attack.

27 – Russ Freeman, 76, American pianist.

27 – Robert L. J. Long, 82, American admiral.

27 – Jack Webster, 78, Canadian police officer.

28 – Arthur "Spud" Melin, responsible for marketing hula-hoop and frisbee.

29 – Rosemary Clooney, 74, singer.

29 – Jan Tomasz Zamoyski, 90, Polish politician.

30 – Pete Gray, 87, American one-armed baseball player.

30 – Dave Wilson, 70, American television director.

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memolands · 5 years ago

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The death place of Buddha in Kushinagar

Parinirvana Stupa is a Buddhist temple which is said to be the death place of the founder of Buddhism. The British army engineer, archaeologist Alexander Cunningham gains the most attention for his work in the area, because he conclusively proved that Gautama Buddha had died in the area.

Cunningham noted the existence of a huge vaulted chamber which he dated no later than 637 AD with the…

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#Buddha #Gautama Buddha

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iramuthusamy · 6 years ago

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மதுரா அரசு அருங்காட்சியகம் (Mathura Government Museum) மதுரா கலைமரபைச் (Mathura School of Arts) சேர்ந்த பண்டைய சிற்பங்களுக்குப் புகழ்பெற்றது. இஃது உத்தரப் பிரதேச மாநிலத்தின் முக்கிய அருங்காட்சியகம் ஆகும். குஷான வம்சத்தவர்களின் (Kushan Dynasty) (கி.பி. 1 – 2 ஆம் நூற்றாண்டு) மதுரா கலை மரபைச் சேர்ந்த தொல்பொருட்கள், மிகப்பெரிய அளவில், இங்கு காட்சிப்படுத்தப்பட்டுள்ளன. செம்பு, தங்கம் மற்றும் வெள்ளி நாணயங்களும் இந்த அருங்காட்சியகத்தின் அரிய சேகரிப்புகள் ஆகும். சுடுமண் பொம்மைகள் (Terracota Images), பண்டைய மண்பாண்டங்கள் (Ancient Pottery), களிமண் முத்திரைகள் (Clay Seals), ஓவியங்கள் மற்றும் பல பொருட்களை இங்கு காணலாம்.

கி.பி. முதல் நூற்றாண்டைச் சேர்ந்த ஏகமுக சிவலிங்கம், புத்தரின் தலை, கனிஷ்கரின் தலையற்ற உருவம், விருக்ஷா தேவி, யக்ஷி போன்ற குஷானர் காலத்துச் சிலைகள் இந்த அருங்காட்சியகத்தின் விலைமதிப்பற்ற காட்சிப் பொருளாகக் கருதப்படுகிறன. தொன்மைமிக்கத் தாய் தெய்வத்தின் சிற்பமும் (Archaic Mother Goddess), சுங்க வம்சத்தினர் (Sunga Dynasty) காலத்தைச் சேர்ந்த தட்டுகளும் (Plaques of the Sunga period) இந்த அருங்காட்சியகத்தின் சிறப்புக் காட்சிப் பொருட்கள் ஆகும். எனவே இந்த அரசு அருங்காட்சிகம் மதுராவில் கண்டிப்பாகக் காண வேண்டிய சுற்றுலாத் தலம் ஆகும்.

மதுரா அரசு அருங்காட்சியகம் உத்தரப்பிரதேச மாநிலத்தின் மதுரா மாவட்டம், மதுரா நகர் பின் கோடு 281001, டாம்பிர் நகர் (Dampier Nagar), சௌபே பாரா, மியூசியம் சாலையில் அமைந்துள்ளது. மொத்த அருங்காட்சியகமும், பெரிய அளவில், எண்கோண வடிவில் மணற்கற்களால் கட்டப்பட்டுள்ளது. அருங்காட்சியகங்களின் இரத்தினம் (Gem of Museums) என்று கருதத்தக்க இந்த அருங்காட்சியகம் பொதுமக்களால் அதிகம் அறியப்படாத ஒன்று எனலாம். நீங்கள் இதைத் தவறவிட வாய்ப்பே இல்லை. என்றாலும் மதுராவில் நீங்கள் இந்த அருங்காட்சியகம் பற்றிப் பொதுமக்களைக் கேட்டால், பெரும்பாலும், தெரியாது என்றுதான் சொல்லுவார்கள். ஒருவேளை சில வரலாற்றுத்துறை மாணவர்களுக்கு இது தெரிந்திருக்கக் கூடும். மதுரா சுற்றுலாப் பயண நிரலில், இப்பகுதியின் மிக பழமையான பொக்கிஷங்களைப் போற்றிப் பாதுகாக்கும், இந்த இடம் பெரும்பாலும் இடம்பெறுவதில்லை.

அமைவிடம்

மதுரா அரசு அருங்காட்சியகம் PC: விக்கிபீடியா

மதுரா நகரைச் சுற்றியுள்ள இடங்களிலில் அகழ்வாய்வு நிகழ்ந்தபோது கண்டறியப்பட்ட (சேகரிக்கப்பட்ட) தொல்பொருட்களைப் பாதுகாத்துக் காட்சிப்படுத்துவதற்காக மதுரா அரசு அருங்காட்சியகம் 1874 ஆம் ஆண்டில், அப்போதைய மாவட்ட ஆட்சியர் மற்றும் நீதிபதியாகப் பணியாற்றிய சர். எஃப். எஸ். கிரௌஸ் (Sir F.S Growse) என்பவரால் நிறுவப்பட்டது. ஆர்வமிக்க தொல்பொருள் நிபுணரான இவர் மதுராவைச் சுற்றிலும் உள்ள பல்வேறு மேடுகளை (Mounds) ஆராய்ந்து பண்டைக்காலப் புத்தர் சிலைகள் உள்ளிட்ட பல்வேறு தொல்பொருட்களைக் கண்டறிந்தார்.

இந்த அருங்காட்சியகம் ராஜிய சங்ரஹாலயா (Rajiya Sangrahalaya), கர்சன் தொல்லியல் அருங்காட்சியகம் (Curzon Museum of Archaeology) ஆகிய பெயர்களிலும் அறியப்பட்டது. இந்திய அரசு (Government of India) 1947 ஆம் ஆண்டில் ஒரு தபால் தலையை வெளியிட்டு இதன் தொடக்க நாளை கொண்டாடியது.

மதுரா அரசு அருங்காட்சியகம் காட்சிக் கூடம் PC: விக்கிபீடியா

பண்டைய நகரான மதுரா முக்தி தரும் ஏழு நகரங்களில் ஒன்றாகக் கருதப்படுகிறது. இதன் அமைவிடம் 27°27′N அட்சரேகை 77°43′E தீர்க்கரேகை ஆகும். கடல் மட்டத்திலிருந்து 177 மீ. உயரத்தில் அமைந்துள்ளது. இந்த நகரம் ஆக்ராவிற்கு வடக்கே 50 கிமீ தொலைவிலும், டில்லியிலிருந்து தென்கிழக்கே 145 கிமீ தொலைவிலும் அமைந்துள்ளது. இவ்வூரிலிருந்து பிருந்தாவனம் 11 கி.மீ தொலைவிலும், கோவர்த்தனம் 22 கிமீ தொலைவிலும் அமைந்துள்ளது. மதுரா சந்திப்பு இரயில் நிலையம் இந்நகருக்கு அருகில் உள்ளது.

மதுரா கலை மரபு (Mathura School of Art)

புள்ளிகளுடன் கூடிய சிவப்புநிற மணற்கற்களைப் பயன்படுத்தியது மதுரா கலைமரபின் சிறப்பியல்புகளின் ஒன்று எனலாம். இந்துக் கடவுளர்கள், சமணத் தீர்த்தங்கரர்கள், புத்தர் ஆகியோரின் மணற்கல் சிற்பங்களும் சிற்பத் தொகுப்புகளும் இந்த சிவப்புநிற மணற்கற்களாலேயே செதுக்கப்பட்டன.

யக்ஷி PC: 10 Year ITCH

பண்டைய வழிபாடுகளில் இடம்பெற்றிருந்�� யக்ஷன் (Yaksha), யக்ஷி (Yakshi) போன்ற தெய்வங்களின் மிகப்பெரிய சிலைகள் இப்பகுதியில் வடிக்கப்பட்டன. இந்தச் சிலைகள் மிகப்பெரிய அளவிலோ (Giant size) அல்லது மனித வடிவளவிலோ (Life size) செதுக்கப்பட்டன. அதிக எடைகொண்ட இந்த உருவங்களை மக்கள் தொழுது பணிந்தார்கள். இங்கு கி.பி. முதல் நூற்றாண்டைச் சேர்ந்த குஷான மன்னர் கனிஷ்கரின் தலையின்றிக் காணப்படும் உடல் முண்டப்பகுதிச் சிற்பமும் (Headless Torso of Kushan king), கனிஷ்கர் காலத்திய புத்தரின் தலைப்பகுதிச் சிற்பமும், விரிக்ஷா தேவியின் (வனப்பெண்) சிற்பத் துண்டும், விஷ்ணுவின் சிலையும், தலையைச் சுற்றி ஒளிவட்டம் பொருந்திய புத்தரின் கி.பி. 5 ஆம் நூற்றாண்டுச் சிற்பமும் புகழ்பெற்ற மதுரா கலை மரபின் படைப்புகளாகும்.

பண்டைய அரசுகளின் கலை மரபுகள் (School of Art of Ancient Dynasties)

இந்த அருங்காட்சியகம், மௌரியர், சுங்கர், குஷானர் மற்றும் குப்த பேரரசர்களின் ஆட்சி காலங்களான கி.மு. 3 ஆம் நூற்றாண்டு முதல் கி.பி. 12 நூற்றாண்டு காலங்களுக்கு உட்பட்டதும், மதுரா கலை மரபைச் சேர்ந்ததும், வளமிக்கதும், மிக முக்கியமான தொல்பொருட்களின் தொகுப்பாகும்.

காலவரிசை (Chronology)

புத்தர்: கி.மு. 563 to கி.மு. 483 மகாவீரா: கி.மு. 599 to கி.மு. 527 மௌரியா: கி.மு. 325 to கி.மு. 184 சுங்கா: கி.மு. 184 to கி.மு. 72 க்ஷஹரதா சாட்ராப்ஸ் (Kshaharata Satraps): C. கி.மு. 100 to கி.மு. 57 சுங்கர்களின் மறுமலர்ச்சி காலம் (Revival of the Sungas): கி.மு. 57 to C. கி.மு. 20 குஷானர்கள்: கி.பி. முதல் நூற்றாண்டு கி.பி. 300 வரை . குப்தர்கள்: கி.பி. 320 to கி.பி. 600 முன் இடைக்காலம் (Early Mediaval) C. கி.பி. 600 to கி.பி. 900 பின் இடைக்காலம் (Late Mediaval): C. கி.பி. 900 to lகி.பி. 200

சர். எஃப். எஸ். கிரௌஸ் (Sir F.S Growse), அலெக்சாண்டர் கன்னிங்ஹாம் (Alexander Cunningham) மற்றும் ஃப்யூரர் (Fuhrer) போன்ற புகழ்பெற்ற பிரிட்டிஷ் காலனித்துவத் தொல்பொருள் ஆராய்ச்சியாளர்கள் (British Colonial Archaeologists) கண்டறிந்த சிற்பங்கள், புடைப்புச் சிற்பங்கள், கட்டடக்கலை துண்டுகள், பொறிக்கப்பட்ட செங்கற்கள், மண்பாண்டங்கள், களிமண் முத்திரைகள் (Clay Seals), ஓவியங்கள், பழைய நாணயங்கள், கல்வெட்டுகள், மற்றும் பல தொல்பொருட்களும் பெரிய அளவில் இங்கு காட்சிப் படுத்தப்பட்டுள்ளன. இந்த அருங்காட்சியகத்தில் 6000 கற்சிலைகள், 400 ஓவியங்கள், 3000 சுடுமண் சிலைகள் (Terracotta Figures), 350 உலோகச் சிலைகள் காட்சிப் படுத்தப்பட்டுள்ளன. இவை பல்வேறு மதங்களையும் மத நம்பிக்கைகளையும் சார்ந்தவைகளாகும்.

சுபர்சுவநாதர் மற்றும் மூன்று தீர்த்தங்கரர்களின் சிற்பம், கிபி 1ம் நூற்றாண்டு PC: விக்கிபீடியா

தியான நிலையில் நான்கு கைகளுடன் கூடிய விஷ்ணுவின் சிற்பம் PC: விக்கிபீடியா

சாஞ்சி ஸ்தூபியின் துல்லியமான பிரதிகளை (Exact Replicas) இங்கு காணலாம். புத்தரின் வாழ்வில் இடம்பெற்ற பல கதைகள் சிற்பத் தொகுப்புகளாக (Sculptural Panels) ஆகச் செதுக்கப்பட்டுள்ளன. இந்த சிற்பங்களில் புத்தரை மனித வடிவளவுகளில் (Anthropomorphic Representation of Buddha) காட்டாமல் குறியீட்டு வடிவிலேயே பிரதிநிதித்துவப்படுத்தியுள்ளனர் (Symbolic Representation). ஜதகா கதையில் இடம்பெற்ற புத்தருக்கு முந்தைய வடிவங்களையும் சில சிற்பத் தொகுப்புகள் சித்தரிக்கின்றன. சமணத் துறவிகள் தவக்கோலத்தில் சிதரிக்கப்பட்டுள்ளனர். சிவனுடன் பார்வதி, கணேசன், கார்த்திகேயன், விஷ்ணுவின் அவதாரங்கள் ஆகிய இந்துக் கடவுளர் வடிவங்களும் காணப்படுகின்றன. சூரியனின் பல்வேறு உருவமைப்புகள் ஒரு தொகுப்பில் காட்சிப்படுத்தியுள்ளார்கள். மற்றொரு தொகுப்பில் பல்வேறு தோற்றங்களில் பெண்கள் பல்வேறு புராணக் கதைகளைச் சித்தரிக்கிறார்கள். பெரிய கற்பாத்திரங்கள் இங்கு உள்ளன.

புத்தர் வெண்கலம் PC: 10 Year ITCH

இங்குள்ள சிற்பங்களில் விரிவான தலையலங்காரங்கள் மற்றும் வசீகரமான உடைகள் போன்ற தனித்துவங்கள் உற்றுக் கவனிக்கத்தக்கன. அந்தக் காலத்தில் பயன்படுத்தப்பட்ட பல்வேறு அலங்காரங்கள் சிந்திக்க வைக்கின்றன. தற்காலத்தில் இவை எல்லாவற்றையும் சிறிது சிறிதாக இழந்துவிட்டோம்.

சிவப்புநிற மணற்கல்லில் செதுக்கப்பட்ட சிற்பங்கள் மதுரா அருங்காட்சியகத்தில் காட்சிப்படுத்தப்பட்டுள்ளன. வட்டவடிவ மைய முற்றத்தைச் சுற்றி அமைக்கப்பட்டுள்ள நடைக்கூடத்தில் சில சிதிலமடைந்த சிலைகளும் காட்சிப் படுத்தப்பட்டுள்ளன. வெளியே அமைந்துள்ள புல்வெளியில் வேறு சில சிவப்பு நிறச் சிலைகள் புல்லின் பச்சை நிறத்திற்கு முரணாகக் காணப்படுகின்றன.

ஒரே பகு��ியில் கண்டறியப்பட்ட, பல்வேறுவகைப்பட்ட சிறப்புகளுடைய, தொல்பொருட்களின் சேகரிப்பு மையமாக இந்த அருங்காட்சியகம் திகழ்கிறது. இப்பகுதியின் சிறப்புப் பற்றி ஆய்வு நடத்துவதற்கு உகந்த ஆதார மையமாகவும் இது திகழ்கிறது.

இருப்பிடம்: அருங்காட்சியகம் சாலை, டாம்பிர் பார்க் (Dampier Park), டாம்பிர் நகர் (Dampier Nagar), சௌபே பாரா, மதுரா, உத்தரப் பிரதேசம், 281001, தொலைபேசி: 0565 2500847 சுற்றிப்பார்க்கும் நேரம்: காலை 10:30 மணி முதல் மாலை 4:30 மணி வரை (திங்கள் விடுமுறை) கட்டணம்: பெரியவர் ரூ. 5/- சிறியவர் ரூ. 2/- அயல்நாட்டினர் ரூ. 25/- புகைப்படம் எடுக்க ரூ. 20/-

குறிப்புநூற்பட்டி

அரசு அருங்காட்சியகம், மதுரா விக்கிப்பீடியா

Government Museum Parampara http://www.paramparaproject.org/institution_govt-museum-mathura.html

Museum Mathura Vrindavan http://www.mathura-vrindavan.com/mathura/museum.htm

Museums in Mathura Indian Holiday https://www.indianholiday.com/tourist-attraction/mathura/museums-in-mathura/

Mathura Museum https://10yearitch.com/india-travel-tour/uttar-pradesh/mathura-museum-archaeological/

Priceless artefacts hidden away from tourists’ eyes Shona Adhikari The Tribune https://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020818/spectrum/travel.htm

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மதுரா அரசு அருங்காட்சியகமும் மதுரா கலை மரபும் மதுரா அரசு அருங்காட்சியகம் (Mathura Government Museum) மதுரா கலைமரபைச் (Mathura School of Arts) சேர்ந்த பண்டைய சிற்பங்களுக்குப் புகழ்பெற்றது. இஃது உத்தரப் பிரதேச மாநிலத்தின் முக்கிய அருங்காட்சியகம் ஆகும்.

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