salem-project2023

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Chadwick Hansen- Witchcraft at Salem (1988)

Chadwick Hansen, author of Witchcraft at Salem presents a theory that is simple in its logic yet due to its simplicity it fully encompasses Salem’s events and the hysteria many believe had taken the community by storm. He essentially makes the assertion that the fear of witchcraft and the belief of witchcraft in society as a whole is directly the cause of the Salem Witch Trials themselves. Hansen points out that not only was witchcraft believed and prosecuted historically in Europe, those beliefs followed the settlers inhabiting a new England. Norton also examines the instances of witch accusations that existed in New England prior to the Salem Trials and though he asserts the afflicted in those instances to be mentally I’ll or hysterical, he does acquiesce that there’s documentation proving the widespread belief of witchcraft in New England. He also makes a point to elaborate of the original Salem victims and their diagnoses of being under and evil influence as not an uncommon diagnosis by a physician at the time. He paints the New England settlers as deeply religious and superstitious and argues that those of the common people readily believed in witchcraft. It was common belief that witchcraft caused illnesses at the time and many accused witches were named simply for deemed strange or erratic behavior and bodily changes or differences such as in the instances of witch marks. In his reexamination of Salem its cause is simply that the common people believed in witchcraft and when strange things began happening many were swept up into their beliefs regardless of reality. Hansen insists Salem believed it was being plagued by witches, leading to many coming forward with supposed spectral evidence, potions, images containing pins, devils marks and magic books to be collected and taken as fact. All of which the jury believed without question and as such the trials were spurred forward by this collective belief. Hansen makes the point that western civilization stopped prosecuting witchcraft as more people became literate and states that the power of witchcraft as practice comes from society's belief in it. Overall Hansen’s beliefs concerning Salem and it’s cause can be summed up an a quote near the end of his book, “they epitomize those crisis of belief which are the ultimate test both of leadership and the body politic of a democratic society.” Through Chadwick Hansen’s eyes the Salem witch hysteria can be attributed to the simple idea that it was the belief in witchcraft itself that spurred the whole event forward.

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Mary Beth Norton- In the Devil’s Snare : the Salem Witchcraft Crisis of 1692 (2003)

The second theory which is never heard before but which does indeed have grounds to stand on is that of historian Mary Beth Norton and her belief that Salem's witch trials occurred due to the stress and aftereffects of the Indian wars. In her novel In the Devil's Snare she actually begins by admitting she’s initially meant to write, like John Demos, about misogyny and the trials. But through her research she found a different story and theory emerging to her that became the focus of her novel, that of the Indian wars and their direct cause to the Salem Witch trials. Norton instead focuses on placing the events in the specific context of the 1690’s and puts forth her interpretation of why the events occurred in relation to the politics and military affairs which had taken place just before the trials began. She begins by pointing out how close Salem was to the front lines of the war conflict in the Indian Wars and as stated in earlier posts it is known that these wars are some of the most violent events of the 17th century in America. Norton explores the Indian war's impact with communities wiped from the maps, generations of settlers killed or forced to relocate with the loss of three generations of work. Not only did these battles happen in quick succession but in the second war, around the 1690’s New England had been taking massive losses leaving the frontier to be abandoned in places, so much so that northern Maine would take decades to rebuild. 

Now where she begins connecting the Indian Wars as a cause of the Salem trials is in the following:

- Men of Salem and near it were essentially drafted into service through pressure 

- Salem saw and influx of those injured and relocated by the conflict

- Salem was close to the conflict and front lines 

- Many of those involved in the trials themselves had close ties to involvement in the wars

- Those living in Salem at the time right before the tries still lived in fear of Indian raids and attack

Norton also follows the popular portrayal of Tituba, the slave woman first accused of witchcraft, as an Indian woman linking her perceived guilt and accusations as directly influenced by leftover fear of Indian attack and evil doing. Norton overall links her hypothesis to the idea that Puritans were convinced they were being punished by god on two fronts, the Indian wars and at the time directly with witchcraft practice in the community. Norton also links the Indian wars in anti Indian sentiment and with the Salem citizens constant depiction of dark, black or Indian esc shapes or figures appearing during the trials. It should also be mentioned that many of the afflictions mentioned in the trials have similarities to what the Indians had been portrayed as doing during the wars. Finally with Indians during those wars being directly seen as “devilish” as well as the Wakanabis being referred to as “Satan’s emissaries'' it's definitely not an unusual theory given the history of racism in colonial times and our treatment of the Native Americans.

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John Demos- Entertaining Satan: Witchcraft and the Culture of Early New England (1983)

The first theory that seems likely is one that’s become more and more explored as time has passed and that’s that patriarchal oppression and misogyny played a massive role in the Salem trials. Historian John Demos further explores this point in his novel Entertaining Satan. Demos essentially re-examines the Salem witch trials whilst also making a pretty convincing argument whether consciously or not, that gender and misogynistic ideologies had a huge hand in the events. Although he does go through the whole of recorded information we have he really excels in his first section where he looks at the demographics of victims and accused and explores the societal reasons for who was targeted in the trials and why. Demos looks and gender, economic status, marriage and childbirth and the early life of those involved in connection to the trials and in doing so manages to well establish the grounds of his hypothesis. In regard to sex and gender when looking at the known numbers involved in the New England trials we can see women were accused and a ratio of 4:1 in comparison to men, many of whom were only tried in connection to female accused witches or family members. He mentions that these numbers are probably underrepresented as well as that of Salem’s documented numbers 38 were male and 103 female. Demos connects these findings to the predominance of female accusations to what can be seen in the European trials and states that “the rule in early New England was that witches were women” (page 62). His theory not only covers the above but also touches on the internalized misogyny exhibited by the Salem women that took up arms against other women during the trials, recognizing that if the trials were in part to impress women, those involved seemed oblivious to that fact. Another bit of evidence he presents is in his examination of the ages of those accused and what it went in the context of society at the time. When looking at the numbers it appears that the majority of the women accused were 40-50yrs of age, which at the time was identified as middle aged or midlife. This is particularly important in the context of his hypothesis as not only was the time of middle age for women not mentioned in society, it also was believed to be when a woman held the most power. Middle aged women of the time were believed to be socially respected and revered, having gained control over their household and holding position within church society and in her control over her children. Middle age could also mark the beginning of menopause and so the woman would gain her peak power and also lose her reproductive value in the eyes of society at around the same time. Another point towards his theory comes in his connection with this perceived gain of power over others in the community and its similarities to witchcraft, which relies on the power over others although through evil means.

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Theories for the trials

There’s a variety of reasons historians believe the Salem Witch Trials of 1692 occurred. Though in my opinion three in particular stand out, they hypothesize that the witch trials are a result of: 

- Patriarchal oppression and ideology

- After effects and stress leftover from the Indian Wars

- The fear of witchcraft itself which permeated people in the 17th century

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Salem's Victims (Executed or Accused)

Arrested For Witchcraft:

Arthur Abbott

Nehemiah Abbott Jr

John Alden Jr

Abigail Barker

Mary Barker

William Barker, Sr

William Barker, Jr

Sarah Bassett

Sarah Bibber

Bridget Bishop

Sarah Bishop

Mary Black

Mary Bradbury

Mary Bridges, Sr

Mary Bridges, Jr

Sarah Bridges

Hannah Bromage

Sarah Buckley

George Burroughs

Martha Carrier

Richard Carrier

Sarah Carrier

Thomas Carrier Jr

Bethia Carter, Sr

Elizabeth Cary

Sarah Churchill

Mary Clarke

Rachel Clinton

Sarah Cloyce

Sarah Cole (of Lynn)

Sarah Cole (of Salem)

Elizabeth Colson

Giles Corey

Martha Corey

Deliverance Dane

Mary De Rich

Elizabeth Dicer

Ann Dolliver

Lydia Dustin

Sarah Dustin

Daniell Eames

Rebecca Eames

Mary Easty

Esther Elwell

Martha Emerson

Joseph Emons

Phillip English

Thomas Farrer

Edward Farrington

Abigail Faulkner, Sr

Dorothy Faulkner

Elizabeth Fosdick

Ann Foster

Nicholas Frost

Eunice Fry

Dorcas Good

Sarah Good

Mary Green

Elizabeth Hart

Margaret Hawkes

Sarah Hawkes

Dorcas Hoar

Abigail Hobbs

Deliverance Hobbs

William Hobbs

Elizabeth Howe

Elizabeth Hubbard

Frances Hutchins

Mary Ireson

John Jackson, Sr

John Jackson, Jr

George Jacobs, Sr

George Jacobs, Jr

Margaret Jacobs

Rebecca Jacobs

Elizabeth Johnson, Sr

Elizabeth Johnson, Jr

Rebecca Johnson

Stephen Johnson

Mary Lacey, Sr

Mary Lacey, Jr

John Lee

Mercy Lewis

Jane Lilly

Mary Marston

Susannah Martin

Sarah Morey

Rebecca Nurse

Sarah Osborne

Mary Osgood

Alice Parker

Mary Parker

Sarah Pease

Joan Penney

Hannah Post

Mary Post

Susannah Post

Margaret Prince

Benjamin Proctor

Elizabeth Proctor

John Proctor

Sarah Proctor

William Proctor

Ann Pudeator

Wilmot Redd

Sarah Rice

Susannah Roots

Henry Salter

John Sawdy

Margaret Scott

Ann Sears

Susanna Sheldon

Abigail Somes

Martha Sparks

Mary Taylor

Tituba

Job Tookey

Mary Toothaker

Roger Toothaker

Johanna Tyler

Martha Tyler

Mercy Wardwell

Samuel Wardwell

Sarah Wardwell

Mary Warren

Sarah Wilds

John Willard

Sarah Wilson, Sr.

Mary Witheridge

Executed:

Bridget Bishop

Sarah Good

Rebecca Nurse 

Elizabeth Howe

Susannah Martin

Sarah Wildes

Rev. George Burroughs 

George Jacobs Sr. 

Martha Carrier 

John Proctor 

John Willard 

Martha Corey 

Mary Eastey 

Mary Parker 

Alice Parker 

Ann Pudeator 

Wilmot Redd 

Margaret Scott 

Samuel Wardwell Sr. 

Giles Corey (Pressed to Death)

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The Trial of George Jacobs, Sr. for Witchcraft.

By Tompkins Harrison Matteson, 1855. Oil on canvas. Gift of R. W. Ropes, 1859. 1246.

Found at the Peabody Essex Museum.

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Salem Witch Trials 1692-1693

A brief summery of the events:

In early January of 1692 The daughter and niece of Salem's Reverend Samuel Paris began to experience strange fits of behavior. The girls, Betty Paris and Abigail Williams were diagnosed by a doctor as having been afflicted by evil and in turn would accuse three women in the village as the source of the attacks.

The first two women Sarah Good and Sarah Osborne denied the accusations but as the third women, the slave of the Reverend, Tituba was examined and interrogated, she confessed to being a witch and named not only both Sarah's as witches, but also confessed many more lurked within the village.

This beginning incident would then over the course of the year spread within Salem and its surrounding villages leading over 100 people to be accused and 19 people to be executed, with one man being pressed to death as well. Many died in prison as well but those are not accounted for as being due to the trials in some cases of documentation.

It should also be noted that though Betty and Abigail were the first, many more young girls would begin to exhibit "attacks" or "fits" and village folk would seemingly come forward as being afflicted by evil and in turn accuse their neighbors as witches or the source of their affliction.

Finally when examining the court documents, accusations were seemingly made for a variety of things, unexplained livestock death, mumbling or verbal altercations that lead to a persons bad luck afterward, attacking or afflicting another, having seen the shape of the accused being used by evil, Spectral evidence and much more.

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Map of Salem from 1692

URL:Maps of Salem Village 1692 (virginia.edu)

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Salem's Background (Pre Witch Trials)

A brief summery of various important factors and facts concerning the settlements establishment:

Before Settlers arrived in North America the land that would become Salem was known as "The Fishing Place" or Naumkeag by the Algonquian Native Americans living in villages that overlooked the Massachusetts Bay. Settlers would arrive and rename it Salem, the settlement itself stands as the second oldest settlement to be established in the New England area. The first of those settlers were lead by Rogar Conant in 1626.

The Great Puritan Migration of 1620-1642 would lead the English Puritans fleeing religious persecution to resettle in the New England, West Indies and Chesapeake Area. Puritans didn't agree with or follow the English Church and its doctrine leading them to flee to the new world.

From 1675-76 the settlement was at war with the displaced Native Americans, the event was known as the 1st Indian War and is considered the deadliest event in North America's 17th century. The war, though giving colonists control over the land they'd stolen from the Native Americans, killed 5% of New England's population and 10% of the population of Native Americans by its end.

Overall the stress before the events for 1692-1693 can be attributed to disease, war and its aftershocks, political stress (concerning the loss of the original charter), and crop failure.