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quebec-abanaki-history · 2 years ago

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Here it is, it is with a heavy heart that I present Chapter 1 of the first of the 3 part history of the Abanakis. This section is concerned mostly with who the Abanakis were at the time and which territory they occupied; setting the scene, in a sense, for what is to follow. It is tough going because this is so personal and because it so casually speaks of the English resolve to exterminate all Indigenous people they encountered, save those that allied themselves to their cause. According to Abbot Maurault, there was never an intention to peacefully share the land, the goal was to cleanse the land of the First People, a goal that the Americans gladly continued after their revolution. Abbot Maurault admits that he has not included all the different nations that are part of the Abanakis Confederacy because there were so many, he just lists the most prominent in the records kept by the Jesuits.

History of the Abanakis First Era 1605-1680 Chapter 1

The Savages of New England and Acadia

When the British started colonizing New England and the French Acadia, they found, in those counties, a large number of savages, divided into different tribes, this is a list of the principle ones:

1- The ”Massojosets”, those from the great mountain. They occupied the Massachusetts Bay area and were therefore the masters of the area where the city of Boston is located. This tribe lent its name to the State of Massachusetts. These savages were called “those of the great mountain” because they resided near Massachusetts’ big mountain, which could be seen from the sea. This is what John Smith, who explored that country in 1614, taught us (1).

(1) John Smith. A description of New England

2-The “Pek8anokets”, those from the land where the tree bark is easy lift. They inhabited South-Eastern Massachusetts, the Plymouth area was theirs,

3- The “Naragansets, those who have no fear. They also inhabited Massachusetts, near Rhode-Island.

These three tribes were British allies for a few years.

4- The “Nibenets”, People of the Summer. They occupied Rhode-Island. The mild temperatures of that country, year round, and the magnificent prairies prompted the Savages to say it was the country of Summer. That’s why those who inhabited that area were called “People of the Summer”.

A few English authors called these savages “Wabanoaks”, People of the Dawn. That’s why a few called them the “Abanakis”. They were given that name because they were on the side of the sun rise in relation to the Naragansets.

5- The “Mahiganiaks”, the wolves. They resided on the Island of Monhigin, near the coasts of Maine, and on the river Thames in Conncenticut. We could also see a few families on the sea coast, between the Penobscot and Kénébec rivers. They were called “Mohicans” by the English, and have been known by that name ever since. We called them wolves because they were as dangerous as those animals. They were considered them thieves because they incessantly pillaged and visited all sorts of ravages on the land of their brethren.

Although their numbers were few, these savages were well known for their thieving and being allied with the English. They never broke off that alliance, and always fought their brethren, alongside the English. Their great skill in war craft and their remarkable courage, always being revived by the help they received from their allies, made them look formidable to the other tribes.

6- The “Pek8atsaks,” those who have backed away on the land. They settled on the Connecticut river, a fair distance from the sea. That is where their name comes from. They were called the “Pequots” and were known by that name. This unfortunate tribe were the first attacked by the English in 1636; they were almost entirely destroyed in a single day.

7- The “Kinnipiaks”, those from the great water, so called because they were closer to the great ocean than the other savages. They occupied New Haven. These savages, being very few in numbers, never dared to fight the English in a war. They retreated and submitted to the demands of the invaders, and agreed to sell their land. A minister, named Devonport, who concluded this transaction in 1638. Payment for the land, gave them a dozen trade blanket coats, a dozen axes, an equal number of spoons and bowls, 2 dozen knives and 4 boxes of small French knives and scissors (1). And so it was for these trifles that the English acquired the territory of New Haven!

The savages did reserve their right to hunt and fish on these lands; but, to avoid persecution by the new land owners, they were forced to renounce their right and flee westward.

The seven great tribes, and a large number of other smaller ones, were the savages, proper, of New England. They are the tribes that the Jesuits called the “these great burgs of Naraghenses” (2). Each of these tribes had 3000 to 6000 warriors.

The Abanakis called the land of the savages “Alem8siski”, the land of the little dogs, because there were many small dogs in the prairies of that territory. From there, the French those savages “Almouchiquois” (3), which means: those from the land of the little dogs.

Bancroft, Hist. of the U.S. Vol 1, 302 S.G. Goodrich. Pictorial Hist of the U.S. 71.

Relations des Jésuites, 1660, 27.

Relations du P. Niard, 1611. I4 Father J. Aubery. Vocabulaire abénakis.

8- The Abanakis, those from the land of the sunrise. They inhabited Maine and spread down to New Hampshire, Mew Brunswick up to the coast of Nova Scotia. This tribe was divided in =to several others, the principal ones are listed here.

The “Kanibesinnoaks”, those who live near the lakes. The French called them the “Canibas”, dropping the “innaoks” particle in their name.

The “Patsuikets”, those from the land of the fraud, so named because, among them, many New England savages had followed the Abanakis and established themselves in that area fraudulently. This tribe resided on the Merrimack (1), au New Hampshire, and spread all the way to the Connecticut river, they were just a division of the Sokokis.

The “Sokwakiaks”, those of the midday sun because they were on the noon side in relation to the Canibas. They occupied the south-west region of Maine and in New Hamshire. The French called them “Sokoquiois”, and later, the Sokokis.

The “Nurhântsuaks”, those who travel by the water, so called because they resided on the upper Kénébec river and on the shores of the lake, on which they would travel.

The “Pentagoëts”(2). They were also called “Pena8ôbskets”, those from the land covered in stone. They resided on the Penobscot river, an area which was covered with stone, in certain parts.

The “Etemânkiaks”, those who live in the land where we get hide for snowshoes. They resided on the Saint-Croix river and the St-John river in New Brunswick. The Abanakis called their territory “Etemânki”, the land where we get hide for snowshoes because there were a lot of moose and cariboo in that area, and their hides make very good snowshoes. From there, the French called these savages “Eteminquois”, and later “Etchemins”. They were known by that name from then on (2).

The “8arasteg8iaks”, those from the river whose bed contains tinsel. They resided on the Saint-John river, whose bed indeed contains, in certain parts, tiny little gold blades. Later on the Abanakis called them “M8sk8asoaks”, water rats, because they lived on the river’s edge. The rest of this tribe and that of the Etchemins are, these days, called Maliseets (3). These days these savages reside in New Brunswick (4)

The Abanakis call the St-Croix river “Peskatami8kânji”, the difficult river to see and that we see as if through the darkness. That is where the name Passamoquoddy” comes from.

Bancroft: Gave the Etchemins the name of “Canoes-men (Hist. of the US). We could, with good reason, given all the Abanakis that name, because these savages always travelled the waterways.

From Ma8idit to Mal8idit, those who come from Saint-Mâlo. It was the name the Abanakis gave the Metis among them because, in most cases, their father came from Saint-Mâlo. From there, they called wheat, brought by the French, “Mal8menal”, seeds from Saint-Mâlo.

There were also the “Micmacs” or “Souriquois”, located in Northern New Brunswick and Gaspé areas. Their languages was quite different from that of the Abanakis.

These seven tribes were the Abanakis. The Jesuits considered them as such, as we see in their relations of 1660 that the Abanakis mission spread from the Saint-John river all the way down to the country of the Patsuikets, New Hamshire (1). But later on, the name Abanakis specifically designated the savages from the Kénébec river; the other tribes retained the names we mentioned. Today, our Abanakis from Canada still call “Pena8ôbskets” their brothers from the Penobscot river and, “M8sk8asiaks” those who live in New Brunswick.

Some might not be satisfied with the classification of the Abanakis tribes that we provide, because it does not seem to conform with what has been written by remarkable authors. However, some authors think, as we do, that all these savages are Abanakis.

We will be particularly amazed to find, among these tribes, the Etchemins.

Let’s first make note that the word “Abanaki” means “people from the sunrise”, and that, if we stick to the to this definition, it designates, in general, all the savages from the sunrise, without exception.

If we have classified all the savages, except the Micmacs, as Abanakis, it’s because they all spoke the abanaki language, which is what lead us to conclude that they are all part of the same nation.

It is certain that the Pena8ôbskets and others spoke the same language as the Canibas. We, ourselves, had the opportunity to meet some of these savages, because there are still some in existence today in Penobscot and in New Brunswick, and we were able to observe them for ourselves. The Malécites and the Pena8ôbskets do not have the same pronunciation as the Abanakis in Canada, but they get along well with them like the Têtes-de-Boules from the Saint-Maurice river get along with the Algonquins.

Relations des Jésuites, 1660. 27.

The Etchemins, it is certain, that they also spoke the language of the Canibas.

Father Drouillettes, during a trip to the Abanakis, in 1651, he was accompanied by the an Etchemin, with whom he communicated with in the Abanaki language (1). Once at the Abanakis community, that savage was reprimanded by the Abanaki chief because he had mistreated the Father during the journey; so he went into a long harangue in abanaki, to publicly show his remorse and ask the missionary for forgiveness for his error (2).

We might say that this Etchemin was adopted by the Abanakis and learned their language. But we don’t think that is so in this case, because, the Chief told him that, in this case, he "could not chastise him “for this fault, because he has no authority over him since he is not from his nation”(3). This Etchemin was therefore considered a stranger by the Abanakis.

Relations des Jésuites, 1652. 23, 24.

Relations des Jésuites 1652. 24.

Idem. 1652. 24. The speaker used the word “nation” here instead of “tribe”. That was often the custom among the Abanakis. On an other occasion, the Abanakis told F. Drouillettem referring to a small Canibas community, located at the mouth of the Kénébec river, that “they had been on the brink of declaring war against that nation” (Jesuit Relations, 1652. 30.). This custom is still in use with these savages. They still refer to small communities, consisting of only a few families, as nations.

When Father Biard went to the Kénébec river, in 1611, he was escorted by two Etchemins, who served as interpreters for these savages from that river (1). So these two Etchemins spoke abanaki.

In the Jesuit Relations documents, we read that Canibas, Etchemins and other savages from other tribes lived together in the same community (2); In Canada, the Etchemins and Abanakis live together on the Etchemin river. This clearly indicates that these savages spoke the same language.

And so, it it is certainly apparent that all the tribes that we present as all belonging to the Abanaki nation spoke the language of the Canibas.

All the savages from Acadia to New England followed the same customs, the same uses and lived the same way. They all had the same attitude towards war and fought in the same way; battle strategies or ruses, the same weapons, the war cries and songs were the same for all.

But the most noteworthy is that they all spoke the same language except the Micmacs. This is undeniable. The Celebrated Minister Eliot, who spent many years amongst the savages of New England, Bancroft, Hildreth and many others has the same opinion (3). Generally, anyone who has studied the history of these savages, at all, agree.

Relations du P. Biard. 1611. 37.

Relations des Jésuites , 1647. 53.

Bancroft, History of the US H. Thrumbull. History of the Indian Wars, 117.

Eliot’s opinion, above all others, carries a great deal of weight in this discourse. He was very well versed in this language, and, during his stay in New England, he certainly had the opportunity to meet savages from Acadia and to certify this fact himself.

Father Druillettes, during his two trips to New England, from 1650 to 1651, conversed with the savages, from that vcountry,using the abanaki language.

In his « Vocabulary of the abanakis, Father Aubéry, for the word “Mahigan” wolf adds: “Mahiganiak”, the wolves, nation of savages, who reside in New England and speak the same languages as the “Abanakis.”

In the Jesuit Relations, we read “that many great nations of New England spoke Abanakis” (1)

Throughout the American histories, we see that each time the English went to attack a tribe of savages., at the moment they came upon the enemy, they invariably heard the cry: “A8anuts”, here come the English (3). It was the alarm raised by the savage sentinel stationed, sometimes at the top of a tall tree, other times on a promontory, and charged with the task of warning the tribe of the enemy’s approach. All the tribes used the same cry as alarm.

Relations des Jésuites, 1660. 27.

The abanakis expression ” A8anuts” is formed merging 2 words “:A8ani”, meaning who and “uji” from. When the savages saw an English ship, for the first time, they saw a European disembark, they would exclaim: “A8aiuji” where does this one come from? From there, the word “A8amuts” was the word they used to designate an Englishman. The Abanakis in Canada use the same word to designate Canadians.

II. Thumbull. History of the Indian Wars. 55.

From this, it is apparent to us, that all these savages belonged to the same nation. We won’t say that they were all Abanalis; but we will say, and we think, that the Abanakis were part of a great nations of savages, who inhabited Acadia and New England.

These savages were, for a long time, a significant obstacle to the colonization of New England. This was, for the most part, what engaged the English to declare a war of extermination against them, in 1636. The English were always amazed by the vigor, courage and skill shown by the savages. This war lasted 43 years. However, there were intervals of peace during this long period of war. This fight finally ended in 1679 by the destruction of these brave and courageous savages.

Only the Mohicans we not destroyed because they were allies of the English. These savages were to the English what the Abanakis, Hurons and Algonquians were to the French.

This alliance was quite advantageous for the English. The Mohicans guided them through the forest and taught them all their enemy’s battle strategies. In this way, the English were able to avoid attacks by the savages and were able to penetrate the most remote areas of the forest, to go spread death and destruction to the communities, improvised attacks, destroying and exterminating any and all they got their hands on.

This is an arduous journey, if you can support this project please follow this link to our GoFundMe campaign.

Wolalin

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quebec-abanaki-history · 3 years ago

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Introduction

TRIGGER WARNING: The language and tone of the original works have been maintained in this translation. The goal is to make this original work available to people who don’t read French for academic research or general interest in Indigenous history. There will be no editorializing or changes to the original work. What I have read so far, reflects the attitudes of the day. I apologize for the pain this may cause people, it is painful to see my ancestors spoken about in this way but that is the truth and we all need to face it.

N.B. All citations are in italics for easier identification.

Some people might think that our Abanakis are indigenous to Canada. That is not the case. These savages are descendants of a great tribe: the Canibas, who resided on the Kenebec river.

The Abanakis occupied Maine and spread out to include New Hampshire, New Brunswick right to the edge of Nova Scotia. They started to immigrate to Canada in 1680, to escape the persecution of the British, as we will see later on.

Until that then, from time to time, small groups of them would come to Canada; but they were considered foreigners. They would go to Quebec, either as escorts for missionaries or or to purchase pelts or to make treaties with Canadian savages. We will talk about a few of these trips.

In 1637, a small group of Abanakis came to Quebec to buy beaver pelts, and expressed the desire to go further into that territory. One Montagnais chief forbade it. Despite not having permission, they travelled further into Quebec to Three Rivers to trade with the Algonquins there. The Montagnais chief filed a formal complaint with the then governor, M. de Montmagny, he offered his services to shut down the river route, these foreigners would use to return to their territory, down. He told the governor these savages were in Canada to beaver pelts for the British. As a result, the Abanakis’ wigwams were visited and all the items that they had traded for their wampum were confiscated; then they were ordered to return to their country immediately (1).

In 1640, an Englishman arrived in Canada, accompanied by 20 Abanakis. The governor, having been advised of this fact, did not permit this Englishman to make his way to Quebec city; he sent someone to make him aware of the order to return to his country immediately; but the Englishman could not do that because the rivers which he used to get here were nearly dried out, so he had to surrender himself to the French authorities. M. de Montmagny had him taken to Tadoussac, where he was put on a boat leaving for Europe. A few days later, the Abanakis were sent back to their own country (2).

As such, it is clear that the Abanakis were considered strangers in Canada and that they were not permitted to settle here. That privilege was extended to very few, who had converted, resided at Sillery (site of a Jesuite order house) for the purpose of continuing their religious education.

It continued in this way until 1680. The reason for this apparent severity towards the Abanakis was the fear that the English would establish commercial fur trading outposts in Canada through their Abanaki intermediaries.

1) Relations of the Jesuites, 1637. 85,86.

2)Relations of the Jesuites. 1640. 35, 36.

The very name “Abanaki” stands as clear proof that these savages do not originate in Canada. The word Abanaki, meaning the land of the rising sun, was given to the homeland of the Canibas and other savages from Acadia, by the Algonquins. From there, the French called the savages “Abenaquinois”; meaning people from the land of the rising sun.

That name was, initially, used to describe all the savages living in Acadia; but, later, was used exclusively to those residing near the river of Kenebec because it was the territory of the Canibas, ancestors of the Abanikis of Canada. As we will see, each of the different villages, scattered throughout Maine and New Brunswick, had their own names.

Looking at the map of Maine a significant number of place names from the Abanakis language; more proof that these savages come from that area.

We also know that the English were in the habit of giving Indigenous names, from the area languages, to new settlements and structures. Consistently, the word “Massachusetts” comes from a local tribe: the “Massajosets”, those from the big mountain, a name they were given because of the large mountain, the Massachusetts, nearby (1). The word Connecticut, is also from a local Indigenous language. The Canibas called the Connecticut river, “Kunateku ”. the long river; they would would say , that is the long river. Hence the work Connecticut.

The United States’ map is full of savage words, that come from the language of the local inhabitants.

1) John Smith. Description of New England.

All the Maine place names, with roots in savage languages, are from Abanaki. The savage expressions are normally disfigured (I think he means anglicized); but, never the less are easily recognized. We will quote a few words here, giving the true Abanaki pronunciation and its meaning here.

Kenebec-Kanibesek, that leads to the lake. Each year, during the great winter hunt, large numbers of Canibas would travel, to “Moose lake” by following the Kenebec river (1). Hence the name “path that leads to the lake” (2).

Penobscot-Pena8ôbskets. This is the name of an Abanaki tribe, that lives on that river. The name means: Those from the land covered with stones. The area around the Penobscot river does, indeed, has so many stones that certain areas look like they are completely covered in stones.

Arostook-8aresteku, the riverbed contains tinsel. That was the Abanaki name for the St-John river.

Woolastook-8lasteku , the river that has impetuous currants and has consistent water levels, it never rises.

Masquacook-Mask8ateku , bark river.

Pemadumcook-Pemh8damteku , the river that continues the other. Pemadumcook is part of the Penobscot river.

Mattawamkeag-Metta8akik, quarrel river, which arose because of scarcity of food.

Umbagog-Nidôbakik, my comrade's land. This is the beginning of the Pasuiket territory, brothers of the Abanakis.

1) The Canibas called this lake moose lake, which the English adapted to Moosehead Lake.

1) Relations des Jesuites. 1647. 54.

2) Some might mistakenly think that the word Kenebec comes from the Algonquin Kenibik, meaning snake. Although the resemblance is striking and that generally, it is accepted that the Abanakis and Algonquins used to speak the same language, seem to support that opinion. However, we do not share that opinion; because, it is evident that when Europeans became established in America, these two nations of savages no longer used the same idioms. Many of the facts related in chapter 9 of the first part of this work clearly prove this. During this period, the Abanakis did not call snakes “Kinebik” but used “Skoku”. Consistently, they called the land of the serpent: Skok8aki”, an area near Boston. Today, this area is known as “Cooksakee”, a name that is no doubt a corruption of the name given by the Abanakis. As such, the Abanakis certainly did not use the Algonquin word “Kinebik” to refer to the Kenebec river.

Skouegan-Sk8aigen, meaning pointy. In this area the Kenebek river makes a detour, which creates a point in the shoreline.

Sagadahock-Sakkadag8k, the place where the land is flat and even

Saco-Sok8ai The Abanakis called this area the land of the mid-day sun, and they called the savages that lived there “Sok8akiak” those from the land of the mid-day sun. The French called them “Sokoquiois” and later Sokokis.

Narraguagus-Nar8ikag8s, meaning unclear or confused. In this area there are so many islands and bays that it’s difficult to find the Narraguagus river.

Ossipee-Osibi, Lake formed by the widening of a river. Baskanegan-P8skenigan, grave. This is probably where the savages made a few graves.

Passadumkeag-Passarumskik,land where there are rushes.

Damapscota-Pamapskota, where there are houses. This area is at the mouth of the Kenebek river, no doubt the savages called it that because of Fort Georges, built by the English in 1607.

Pemaquid-Pemhakik, the continuous land. From the Kenebec river to Pemaquid, the seashore is repeatedly interrupted by rivers and deep bays. From Pemaquid on these interruptions are far less frequent. That’s why the savages called that area the continuous land.

Mohigin-Mahigan, wolf. Then Mahiganiaks, the wolves, savages that lived on that island and in Connecticut.

On the other hand, we see only 3 Abanakis words on the map of Canada: “Coaticook, Memphremagog and Megantik”. Coaticook is from “Koakiteku “, Pine land river; Memphremagog, from “Mamhrobagak”, large body of water, and Megantik, from “Namesokânjik” the place where the fish are.

However the Abanakis, after their migration into Canada, gave names to the different places they frequented; but these words were for their use exclusively, and were known to only a few Frenchmen, which is why they were not preserved.

Here are a few of these words.

Sillery- Mew8amki, land where there is tuff

The Saint-Lawrence river- 8sôgenaisibô, the Algonquin’s river

The Etchemin river-Akig8iteku , the seal’s river

Cap Rouge-Psigask8wis, small plank because, seen from a distance the cape looks like a small plank

Trois Rivieres- Madôbalodenik, from the Algonquian “Metapelodin”, wind discharge. This expression was abanakisized means: the place where the winds are always contrary.

Getilly-Namasak, fish, because Gentilly point was an excellent fishing spot.

Becancourt-8ôlinak, river that takes many detours

Nicolet-Bidigan, entrance, because it is the way into Lac St-Pierre.

La Baie du Febvre-Podebaguk, to the Bay

Saint-Francis-Alsigânteku , Medicine plant river

Yamaska-8ig8amadenik, where there are many houses.

The significant number of English words adopted by the Abanakis, is proof positive that these savages had long term relationships with the English. Here are a few of these words:

Pelajemôn from Frenchman Français

Iglismôn Englishman Anglais

Ka8s Cow Vache

Akson Ox(en) Boeuf

Piks Pig Cochon

Azip Sheep Mouton

Padatesak Potato Patates

Tsannaps Turnips Navet

Kabits Cabbage Chou

Ases Horse Cheval

Spônioliases Spanish-horse Ane

Silôn Shilling Chelin

Tlaps Trap Piège

Môni Money Une piastre

Timli Chimney Cheminée

Sogal Sugar Sucre

Pizal Pease Pois

Sanda Sunday Dimanche

Ti Tea Thé

Melases Molasses Melasse

Manistel Minister Ministre

Sidel Cider Cidre

8itnes Witness Témoin

In general, the Abanakis adopted English words to name items and uses that the Europeans introduced them to. These words have been so well Abanakisized that it is impossible to distinguish them from Abanaki words in normal conversation unless you are well versed in the Abanakis language.

It is certain that certain savages were using these words in the 1700s, because we can find all of the ones we have listed in an Abanaki lexicon written in 1712 by Father Joseph Aubery, a missionary in Saint-Francis; therefore we must conclude that the relationship with the English occurred before this date, consequently these savages were not from Canada because prior to this date, it would have been impossible for them to have enough contact to introduce these words into their language.

It is, quite certain that the ancestors of our Abanakis in Canada had contact with the English at the beginning of the 17th century. One word alone makes this evident: that is “kinzames”, the word for king. This word derives from ‘King James”(1). The first British colonials in Maine told the savages that their king was called “King James”, from these two words they formed “kinzames”, their word for king. This word is so well Abanakisized that not one savage has any doubt that the mean “King James”.

1) James I, king of England, 1603-1625

The introduction of the word “Boston” in the language of our Abanakis is again proof that these savages come from Maine. With the province of Sag adahock having been reunited in Massachusetts, all business of any importance, concerning that province, was conducted in Boston. The Abanakis often travelled there to meet with the governor. And, since this city was at the heart of New England, the savages designated that country with the word “Baston” (1). Thus in their home the word “Batontik” meant the territory of New England. Our Abanakis conserved this word but gave it a broader meaning: it now signifies the United States. Here are a few examples of its use:

Literal translation Actual meaning

Bastonki..........The land of Boston.................................................USA

Bantoniak........Those from Boston.................................................Americans

Bastonuji..........Thing that come fromBoston ..............Thing that comes from US

Bastonkik........To Boston...............................................................To the USA

Bastonja.........Thing that is from Boston..............................Thing that is from US

In addition, these savages have retained certain words from the English from New England. And so they count money using the term “piastres and demi-piastres; their “Silôn”, chelin, is York Shiling”.

(1) Instead os saying Boston, we used to say “Baston”. The Abanakis retained this old prononciation.

Therefore we conclude that:

1) The Abanakis are not Indigenous people of Canada.

2) Until 1680, they were considered foreigners in this country.

3) They immigrated from Acadia to Canada.

Although the goal of this work is not to write the history of the Abanakis, we thought we should add an abbreviated account of the savages from New England, because we have noticed such a significant resemblance between these savages that we consider them as being part of the same nation. This brief summary of the rest will help people know where the deep hatred the Canibas have for the English comes from.

The history of the Abanakis is divided into 3 eras. The first, includes a history of the savages in New England and that of the Abanakis from 1605 to 1680, during their migration to Canada; The second contains the history of the Abanakis in Canada, from 1680 to 1760,during Montreal’s capitulation; the third continues the history of the Abanakis in Canada until the current era (1866, when this book was written)

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