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Introduction to my Journey

Accompany me, Marco Polo, born in 1254 in Venice, Italy, on my legendary journey along the Silk Road during the reign of the Mongol Empire in the late 13th century. Walk beside me as I trace the footsteps of history, venturing into the heart of trade and exploration, discovering the marvels that awaited along this ancient path.

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Who Influenced Me to Travel?

My family played a pivotal role in shaping my journey. my father, Niccolo, and my uncle, Maffeo, were jewel merchants whose ventures took them across the globe.

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How the Journey Started?

In 1271, my father and uncle embarked on a journey back to China, and I, Marco Polo, was fortunate enough to accompany them. Our mission was diplomatic as we made our way to the illustrious court of Kublai Khan, the formidable Mongol leader whose grandfather, Genghis Khan, had once conquered vast territories in Northeast Asia (Masefield, 2011, p.10).

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About Kublai Khan

Kublai Khan was born when the Mongol empire expanded at the beginning and spread to the north and west. Kublai and his grandfather Chinggis were the most renowned Mongols in this glorious period of Eurasian history. The history in Europe begins with the Mongols. "Within a few decades in the thirteenth century, they had carved out the most sizable empire in world history, stretching from Korea to Western Russia in the north and Burma to Iraq in the south"(Rossabi, 2009, pp. 1-21).

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Let me take you through the itinerary of my remarkable journey along the Silk Road, from Venice to the far reaches of the Mongol Empire and back again, where eventually I returned to Venice, my final resting place.

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Follow along as I trace the path of trade and exploration on this map.

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My Journey from the Lesser Armenia to the Court of the Great Khan.

Based on Masefield (2011). Marco Polo's journey spanned approximately three years, during which his father and uncle encountered countless wonders on the way to the court of the Great Kublai Khan. They began our expedition in Lesser Armenia, a land offering all necessities for a decent life, where valiant soldiers were held in low regard. Layas, a bustling sea-level trade, was notable among its cities. Continuing our travels, we entered the province of Turcomania, habited by three distinct peoples: the rugged Turcomanians, the Armenians, and the Greeks. It is essential to note the distinction between Lesser Armenia and Greater Armenia. The Greater Armenia had breathtaking natural springs, and the fabled Ark of Noah was on top of a mountain. Their journey unfolded through a tapestry of lands and provinces, including Georgiana, the kingdom of Mausul, the city of Baudas, Tabriz, the revered monastery of St. Barsama, and Persia. They passed through Yasdi, the Kingdom of Kerman, and the ruins of Camadi, descending to the city of Hormuz and traversing desert roads. They encountered the cities of Sapurgan, Balc, and Taican, as well as the mountain of salt. Their route led me through the provinces of Casem, Badakhshan, Pashai, and Keshimur, alongside the great river of Badakhshan, and into the kingdom of Cascar. They arrived at the grand city of Samarkand, journeyed through the provinces of Yarcan, Cotan, Pein, and Charchan, and reached the city of Lop after crossing the Great Desert. Continuing, they ventured through Tangut, Camul, Chingintalas, and Sukchur provinces. They passed through the cities of Campichu, Etzina, and Caracoran. Their journey led them to the Kingdom of Erguiul, the province of Sinju, the Kingdom of Egrigaia, and the province of Tandac. Finally, in 1275, They arrived at their ultimate destination: the magnificent city of Shangdu, the place of the Khan's palace.

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My Journey to the West and Southwest of Cathay

"I was destined to have many adventures and see other peoples, as strange and interesting as those I had already visited. It was not long after our unsuccessful attempt to get away that the Khan sent me on a longer and more interesting expedition than I had before undertaken" (Towle, 1880). According to Masefield (2011). Marco Polo arrived in Cathay, setting forth on a journey that led him through the rivers of Polishnghin, the city of Juju, the kingdom of Taianfu, the fortress of Caichu, and the mighty river Caramoran. Continuing onward, He traversed the cities of Cachanfu and Kenjanfu, the provinces of Cuncun, Acbalec Manzi, Sindafu, Tibet, Caindu, Carajan, and Zardandan, before reaching the kingdom of Mien and the provinces of Bangala, Caugigu, Anin, Coloman, and Cuiju.

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Journey Southward through the Eastern Provinces of Cathay and Manzi

According to Masefield, 2011. During this journey, Marco Polo encountered the busy cities of Cacanfu and Changlu, the vibrant city of Chinangli, and the historic city of Sinjumatu. I traversed through the lively streets of Linju and Piju. He ventured to the enchanting city of Siju, situated along the banks of the great river Caramoran. This path led him to the thriving city of Coiganju, where the energy of trade filled the air, and to the bustling markets of Paukin and Cayu. Continuing Marco Polo's voyage, He passed through the cities of Tiju, Tinju, and Yanju, each offering its unique charm and allure. He explored the ancient city of Nanghin, steeped in history and tradition. He marveled at the majesty of Saianfu and the splendor of Caiju. Venturing further, He was captivated by the bustling cities of Chinghianfu, Chinginju, Suju, and Kinsay, each pulsating with life and activity. His journey also took him through the cities of Tanpiju and Fuju, leading him to the majestic kingdom of Fuju and the bustling haven of Zayton, where the sights and sounds of trade filled the bustling streets.

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Journey to Venice and Last Days

Based on Cartwright (2019). After spending seventeen years with the Kublai Khan, Marco Polo, Niccolo, and Maffeo left China in 1292 CE. The Khan provided them with passports of safe conduct through his empire. The passports allowed them to cross the lands safely. They also got gifts and embarked on their last journey. They sailed via Vietnam, Sumatra, Sri Lanka, and the Persian Gulf. They eventually returned home to Venice in 1295 CE. However, Marco Polo's loyalty to Venice caused him to fight in the war against Genoa. He was captured and imprisoned in Genoa. In prison, they allowed Marco Polo to write about his adventures. Once he was released from prison, he lived a quiet life. He got married and had a family. Marco Polo died on January 8, 1324.

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My Travels took me across the vast Mongol Empire, along the ancient Silk Road. Here you can see all the sites. However, I want to focus on five significant sites from that era that played a crucial role in my journey.

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1. Shangdu (Xanadu)

According to Cartwright (2019). In Mongolia, to the north of China, lies Xanadu, a city that embodies the splendor and wealth of Kublai Khan's Mongol Empire. As the summer capital from 1274 to 1364, Xanadu captivated all who saw its palaces, lush gardens, and winding waterways. Xanadu was a revelation, a testament to the Khan's vision and the fusion of nomadic and imperial cultures. Designed by the Khan's advisor, Liu Bingzhang, the square layout of the city, adorned with earthen ramparts and towers, reflected a harmony between nature and architecture. I admired the Khan's palace within the Inner City, which shone with marble, gold, and exquisite craftsmanship. Beyond the city walls, life pulsated in the Outer City, a melting pot of diverse inhabitants attracted by Xanadu's allure. However, it was only beyond the city walls that Xanadu came to life. There was a vast hunting ground full of half-tamed animals and untouched landscapes, a sanctuary where the Khan indulged in the ancient art of falconry and hunting. The significance of Xanadu went beyond its physical boundaries. It was a crucible of political intrigue, cultural exchange, and religious discourse. Here, the authority of the Great Khan was upheld, and debates about Buddhism and Taoism shaped the intellectual landscape of the region. For Marco Polo, Xanadu was more than just a city; it was a beacon of wonder and opportunity. Through Marco Polo's words, he immortalized the city's beauty and symbolized mystery and luxury in all who listened to his tales. Although Xanadu is sadly in ruins today, the legacy remains a testament to the enduring spirit of exploration and discovery that Marco Polo embodied. In historical records, Xanadu remains a testament to the enduring allure of distant lands and untold adventures.

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2. Yarkant (Yarcan/Yarcand)

The second significant site was in the vastness of western China. According to Cordier (1926) cited in Adams (1947), Yarkant is an oasis city steeped in history in the Uyghur, the Autonomous Region of Xinjiang. Yarkant lies at the intersection of the ancient Silk Roads and is a vibrant center at the crossroads of the roads leading to Aksu and Hotan. Once known as the Kingdom of Shache, Yarkant's importance dates to the 2nd century BC when it ruled the route across the high Pamir. Over the centuries, it experienced conflict and conquest until it finally came under Chinese control in the mid-18th century. The fertile oasis, which stretches over 1,240 square miles, is rich in grain, cotton, hemp, and fruit and supports a diverse population of Han Chinese, Uyghurs, Iranians, and South Asians. Skilled artisans produce fine textiles, carpets, and leather goods, enriching Yarkant's cultural offerings. On Marco Polo's travels, he marveled at the prosperity and diversity of Yarkant. The people who follow the law of Mahomet live alongside the Nestorian and Jacobite Christians under the rule of the Great Khan's nephew. They were blessed with wealth, especially cotton, and were skilled artisans but were plagued by diseases from their drinking water. On Marco Polo's journey, Yarkant is a testament to resilience and prosperity, a province that could be reached in five days and encompasses a rich spectrum of cultures and traditions. Although its history is only a tiny part of Marco Polo's journey, the legacy of Yarkant remains a guiding principle for enduring the spirit of the Silk Road.

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What is it like to live in the desert? Watch this video!

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3. Hotan (Cotan/Khotan)

Based on Britannica (2010), Hotan is an oasis city in the southwestern Uyghur Autonomous Region in Xinjiang, far west of China. Hotan forms a county-level city and is the administrative center of Hotan, which administers several counties based on the oasis along the southern edge of the Takla Makan Desert. The largest of them, Hotan Oasis, includes Karakax (Moyu) in the northwest and Luopu (Lop) in the east. Those many rivers like the Karakax irrigate the oasis; these rivers flow from the high Mountains in the south, joining the oasis's north to form the Hotan (Khotan) River. The rivers have their most excellent flow in summer and are almost dry for most of the year. Hotan, during the Han Dynasty, was encountered by China. The explores Zhang Qian served as a representative to the western region, and later, Hotan was conquered during the Dong Han expeditions on the first century. In this initial period, the area was inhabited by Aryan people who spoke an Indo-European language, and the cultures of northern India and Afghanistan strongly influenced them. In 1219, the Mongols conquer Hotan. By the 8th century, it was renowned in China for its textiles and refinement. Marco Polo visited in 1274, highlighting its role as a trade hub and its prosperous cotton industry. Their kingdom was an important post on the Silk Road from China to the West (via the Pamirs) and India. According to Rong Xinjiang (2015), It was an important trading center and one of the most important places when Buddhism reached northern China. The Chinese retook Hotan when the expansionist policies of the Tang Dynasty (618–907) led Chinese armies into the Tarim Basin in the 630s.

Ruins of the Melikawat monastery, near Hotan, Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang, China.

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4. Che’erchen/Qiemo (Ciarcian/Ciartiam)

According to Rodriguez (2017), Qiemo emerges as a vibrant city and county nestled within the vast Xinjiang region of Northwestern China, serving as both a cultural crossroads and a strategic hub for trade and power. Surrounded by the Kunlun Mountains to the north and the Altun Mountain range to the East, Qiemo enchants travelers with its oasis in the sprawling Taklimakan Desert. The Qarqan River, originating from the glacier banks of Tian Shan, breathes life into the arid landscape, nurturing a flourishing town adjacent to its waters. Echoes of history resound through Qiemo's streets, echoing tales of its past prominence as a center of commerce and influence, evident in the abundance of excavated sites. Based on Haw (2019) for Marco Polo, traversing through Qiemo would have been akin to stepping into a realm where East met West, where trade and cultural exchange rhythms pulsated through the desert air.

Moreover, Marco Polo's journey may have led him to the Charchan River, also known as Ciarcian or Qiemo, where the river's path meanders beyond the city limits. Despite the river's surface often drying up, remnants of subsurface water guide travelers along its course, offering a lifeline through the desert until it melds seamlessly into the sands.

Qiemo desert.

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5. Lop Nur (Lake Nur)

Based on Britannica (2023). In the desolate expanse of northwestern China lies the Lop Nur, once a flourishing Salt Lake that is now nothing more than a vast salt-encrusted bed. Nestled in the Tarim Basin in the eastern Takla Makan Desert, it is one of China's most barren and unforgiving landscapes. In the 1950s, the Lop Nur covered an area of about 2,000 square kilometers and disappeared around 1970 when the irrigation projects and reservoirs along the Tarim River, one of its former tributaries, were completed. Despite the harsh and dry climate, carbon-14 dating indicates that a lake of varying sizes characterized the area for about 20,000 years before its disappearance. Since then, the region has suffered from increasing wind erosion and salt encrustation, so today, the salt crust covers 8,000 square miles (21,000 square kilometers), and yardang formations dominate nearly 1,200 square miles (3,100 square kilometers). Since the early 1920s, when Uighur groups fled due to a devastating plague, Lop Nur has remained uninhabited except for a few wild Bactrian (two-humped) camels. Between 1964 and 1996, the site was used temporarily as a testing ground for Chinese nuclear experiments, a stark testament to humanity's intrusion into this desolate landscape. According to Huntington (1907), Marco Polo ventured into the desert of Lop Nur and encountered the treacherous sands and eerie illusions spun by malevolent spirits. After a grueling thirty-day journey to the northeast, he and his companions reached the city of Lop on the shores of the lake, which lies on the edge of the terrifying Gobi Desert. After careful preparations, we set off on the perilous journey across the vast expanse, relying on the desert's sparse watercourses to sustain us on our arduous journey.